LEXICOFOCUS

 

Lexicography and Neology: Building Bridges through a Multilingual Approach with ENEOLI

 

Die leksikografie en neologie: Die smee van bande deur 'n veeltalige benadering met ENEOLI

 

 

Giovanni Tallarico^I; Rute Costa^II; Ana Salgado^III; Judit Freixa^IV; Kris Heylen^V; John Humbley^VI; Ilan Kernerman^VII; Annette Klosa-Kückelhaus^VIII; Ana Ostroški Anić^IX; Federica Vezzani^X; Vincent Balnat^XI; Petar Božović^XII; Špela Arhar Holdt^XIII; Weronika Woźniak-Żak^XIV

^IDipartimento di Lingue e Letterature Straniere, Università di Verona, Verona, Italy (giovanni.tallarico@univr.it) (https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0585-4473)
^IICentro de Linguística da Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal (rute.costa@fcsh.unl.pt) (https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3452-7228)
^IIICentro de Linguística da Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal (anasalgado@fcsh.unl.pt) (https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6670-3564)
^IVDepartament de Traducció i Ciències del Llenguatge, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, Spain (judit.freixa@upf.edu) (https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1440-5514)
^VInstituut voor de Nederlandse Taal, Leiden, the Netherlands, and KU Leuven, Belgium (kris.heylen@ivdnt.org) (https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8361-0669)
^VIALTAE, Université Paris Cité, Paris, France (humbley.john@orange.fr) (https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1759-1156)
^VIILexicala by K Dictionaries, Israel (ilan@lexicala.com) (https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9052-8217)
^VIIILeibniz-Institut für Deutsche Sprache, Mannheim, Germany (klosa@ids-mannheim.de) (https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4529-9432)
^IXInstitute for the Croatian Language, Zagreb, Croatia (aostrosk@ihjj.hr) (https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9999-0750)
^XDipartimento di Studi Linguistici e Letterari, Università degli Studi di Padova, Padua, Italy (federica.vezzani@unipd.it) (https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2240-6127)
^XIDépartement d'études allemandes/ LiLPa (UR 1339), Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France (balnat@unistra.fr) (https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1023-0574)
^XIIDepartment of English Language and Literature, Faculty of Philology, University of Montenegro, Nikšić, Montenegro (petarb@ucg.ac.me ) (https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2921-3881)
^XIIIFaculty of Arts and Faculty of Computer and Information Science, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia (spela.arharholdt@ff.uni-lj.si) (https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0565-0531)
^XIVDoctoral School of Humanities, Faculty of Philology, University of Lodz, Poland (weronika.wozniak.zak@edu.uni.lodz.pl) (https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0169-2734)

 

 

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ABSTRACT

Neology, the study of new word formations and new word meanings, remains an under-represented yet critical dimension of linguistic research. This paper explores the efforts of the European Network on Lexical Innovation (ENEOLI) COST Action, launched in October 2023, in addressing key gaps in the study of lexical innovation in connection with lexicography. With 343 participants from 51 countries as of March 2025, ENEOLI seeks to build a comprehensive, multilingual approach to neology research. This initiative focuses on developing digital resources, comparative studies, and professional training to elevate the understanding of neology within the linguistic community, including the development of a multilingual glossary of the meta-terminology of neology. By integrating lexicographic and computational methodologies, ENEOLI sets a benchmark for multilingual research. This initiative not only contributes to a deeper understanding of neology but also provides resources that support its application across diverse academic and professional contexts, including translation, education, and digital humanities. Through its collaborative framework, ENEOLI highlights the significance of lexical innovation in understanding language evolution and its cultural and social dimensions.

Keywords: eneoli, neology, lexicography, lexical innovation, language change, multilingual glossary, terminology

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OPSOMMING

Néologie, die studie van nuwe woordvormings en nuwe woordbetekenisse, bly 'n onderverteenwoordigde dog kritieke aspek van taalkundige navorsing. Hierdie artikel ondersoek die pogings van die Europese Netwerk vir Leksikale Innovasie (ENEOLI) COST-aksieplan, wat in Oktober 2023 van stapel gestuur is, om sleutelkwessies in die bestudering van leksikale innovasie rakende die leksikografie aan te pak. ENEOLI streef met 343 deelnemers uit 51 lande (teen Maart 2025) daarna om 'n omvattende, veeltalige benadering tot neologienavorsing te volg. Hierdie inisiatief fokus op die ontwikkeling van digitale hulpbronne, vergelykende studies en professioneie opieiding om die begrip van neoiogie binne die taaikundige gemeenskap te bevorder, insluitend die ontwikkeling van 'n veeltalige glossarium van die metaterminologie van neologie. Deur leksikografiese en rekenaargebaseerde metodologieë te integreer, stel ENEOLI 'n maatstaf vir veeltalige navorsing. Dié inisiatief dra nie net by tot 'n dieper begrip van neologie nie, maar voor-sien ook hulpbronne wat die toepassing daarvan oor diverse akademiese en professionele kontekste, insluitend vertaling, opvoedkunde, en digitale geesteswetenskappe, ondersteun. Met sy samewer-kingstruktuur beklemtoon ENEOLI die belangrikheid van leksikale innovasie in die verstaan van taaiontwikkeiing en die kuitureie en sosiaie dimensies daarvan.

Sleutelwoorde: eneoli, neologie, leksikografie, leksikale innovasie, taalverandering, veeltalige glossarium, terminologie

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1. Introduction

Neology is a young discipline with a strong interdisciplinary character.¹ While having its own objectives and theoretical aims, most of its lines of research are at the intersection with other, more established, disciplines. For instance, many studies iook at neoiogisms from a morphoiogicai perspective and anaiyse how lexical innovations modify the rules of word formation according to a given language's grammar, or which describe the new trends in a language according to different formation mechanisms, or which compare these trends among different languages. Some examples of other disciplines involved include sociolinguistics (diaiectai or functionai variabies of neoiogisms in ianguage contact and borrowing), terminology (lexical items with a specialised meaning), or pragmatics (the function a neologism fulfils in an utterance, e.g., denominative, ludic, or ironic).

The study of neoiogisms is cruciai for understanding not oniy the evolution of ianguage but aiso the cultural and social forces shaping lexical innovation. Neology has until recently been the poor relation of linguistic research for several reasons.² From a theoretical standpoint, it could have been argued that lexicology itself, which englobes neology, was a peripheral concern, on the assumption that morphology, syntax and semantics could on their own account for lexical innovation. On the national level, scholarly traditions in neology were developed, which indeed structured research in individual countries and regions, for example France and Québec for French. However, such different cultures of research made exchanges at the international level difficult to achieve, in spite of flourishing research in individual settings and, partly, in international networks such as the Réseau panlatin de terminologie (REALITER), Red Iberoamericana de Terminología (RITerm), and Réseau Lexicologie, Terminologie, Traduction (LTT). There thus remains a pressing need for cohesive and expansive research networks to unify these efforts and further advance the field.

The ENEOLI COST Action 22126 (European Network on Lexical Innovation)³aims to bridge gaps in the study of neology by promoting collaboration among researchers, developing innovative resources, and conducting comprehensive multilingual studies. To achieve these objectives, ENEOLI focuses on four key areas: (1) the creation of a multilingual glossary of the meta-terminology of neology; (2) the development of methods, digital resources, and tools for neological research; (3) diachronic and synchronic comparative studies of lexical innovation; and (4) training initiatives in neology. These four pillars are unified by the shared need for a common meta-terminology that captures the processes and concepts central to lexical innovation.

In this paper, the focus is on the description and methodology developed within the Action for creating a glossary that compiles and defines the meta-terminology of neology. To achieve this, neology studies are interrelated with lexicographic, metalexicographic and terminology studies, along with corpus linguistics theories and methods.

The paper is structured as follows: Section 2 introduces the four Working Groups of ENEOLI and the work carried out in each. In Section 3, the current state of neology research at the intersection with lexicography is reflected upon, while in Section 4, the lexicographic dimension of ENEOLI and the creation of the Multilingual Glossary of Neology are delved into. In Section 5, it is concluded that the glossary will serve not only as a practical resource but will also contribute to advancing the theoretical understanding of how neology is addressed in lexicography.

 

2. ENEOLI COST Action

2.1 Objectives and structure

ENEOLI's primary goal is to establish a network of neology researchers across Europe and beyond, enabling the sharing of best practices, methodologies, and resources. This section details the objectives of ENEOLI, which are organised into four Working Groups (WGs):

WG1 is dedicated to the creation of an open-access glossary that defines key terms in lexical innovation across multiple languages. To achieve this, the group is organised in seven distinct tasks, each targeting a specific component of glossary development:

- Task 1.1 "Exploration of the Lambert-Lucas Corpus" focuses on preliminary term extraction from a French-language starter corpus to establish a foundation for the glossary;

- Task 1.2 "NeoCorpus & NeoVoc" involves the development of NeoVoc, a multilingual neology thesaurus, and NeoCorpus, a comprehensive corpus designed to support multilingual studies and term validation;

- Task 1.3 "Domain & Knowledge Organization" addresses the classification and organisation of terminology by domains and fields of knowledge to ensure conceptual clarity;

- Task 1.4 "Macro & Microstructure Planning" focuses on defining the overall structure of the glossary, including the selection and arrangement of entries and the detailed design of individual entry components;

- Task 1.5 "Data Representation & Presentation" deals with the representation of glossary data, ensuring usability and accessibility in digital formats;

- Task 1.6 "Glossary Editing" oversees the refinement and standardisation of glossary content, including the validation of terms and their linguistic equivalents; and

- Task 1.7 "Documentation & Guidelines" provides comprehensive documentation of methodologies, workflows, and usage guidelines to support the glossary's creation and future updates.

WG2 gathers researchers working or who are interested in developing and refining digital tools, resources and methods for identifying, tracking, and analysing neologisms. This group is organised into six tasks:

- Task 2.1 "Survey on Lexical Innovation Methods and Practices, Available Resources, and Tools" involves the collection of data on the existing lexical innovation methods and practices, as well as available tools and resources, by conducting a wide survey among ENEOLI members and other researchers working in fields such as lexicography, terminology, linguistics, and translation;

- Task 2.2 "Digital Resources and Tools for Neology" focuses on identifying digital resources and tools for work on lexical innovation with a view to compiling an ENEOLI repository;

- Task 2.3 "Guidelines and Best Practices on the Methodology of Neology Extraction, Description, Analysis and Follow-up" involves identifying and synthesising best practices by analysing relevant research literature and gathering experience;

- Task 2.4 "Methods for the Identification and Monitoring of Neologisms" aims to obtain an overview of computational methodologies, tools and resources for the (semi-)automatic identification and monitoring of neologisms;

- Task 2.5 "Neology from a Lexicographic Perspective" conducts a comparison of how different lexicographic institutes and projects select, describe, and follow up lexical innovations in their databases and dictionaries; and

- Task 2.6 "Filter Words, Algospeak, and Neologisms" explores strategies to circumvent internet bans on offensive or taboo content through filter words, aiming to create a typology of lexical innovations related to this avoidance and enhance detection methods within large corpora.

The WG2 tasks connect with the results of the survey conducted in T2.1, which underlines the need for fine coordination and inter-task collaboration.

WG3 focuses on comparative aspects of neology in European languages, conducting diachronic and synchronic studies with special attention to technology-driven and contact-induced language changes. The group is divided into six tasks, topics and activities which are carried out largely independently from each other:

- Task 3.1 "Blends" aims to compile monolingual corpora, annotated with blend types in different languages and is divided into two subtasks: T3.1.1 concerns the decoding of blends by speakers, and T3.1.2 relates to their translatability;

- Task 3.2 "Neology and Discourse" undertakes investigations of neologisms through the lens of critical discourse analysis with the initial aim of compiling a bibliography of relevant studies;

- Task 3.3 "Neology and Proper Nouns" deals with neologisms coined from proper nouns and aims at analysing this particular way of creating common nouns, adjectives or verbs, as well as other proper nouns, taking into account the textual dimension of this type of lexical innovation;

- Task 3.4 "Inclusion of Neologisms in the Mental Lexicon" focuses on cognitive aspects of neologisms and studies the phonological, orthographic, grammatical and semantic inclusion of neologisms in the mental lexicon. This task has two subtasks: T3.4.1 looks at how neologisms are mapped into languages that have grammatical gender (and why), while T3.4.2 is dedicated to creating standardised tests for gauging how people and AI systems create and understand neologisms;

- Task 3.5 "Verb Neology" studies the emergence of new verbs, or borrowed verbs mainly in French and Czech, and their usage across different domains such as technology, ecology, and politics. Key areas of research include morphology, semantics, and usage frequency, which help in assessing how new verbs integrate into the existing lexicon and their perception and use by speakers; and

- Task 3.6 "Neology and Gender Equality in the Languages of Europe" is a recently added task, and the scope, aims and methodological approach are currently being discussed.

The overall goal of WG4 is to develop an innovative methodology and didactic materials for teaching neology in various professional domains, including translation, interpreting, language teaching, and related fields. To achieve this, it will identify and address the linguistic, intercultural, technological, and other competencies required for neology across diverse fields, integrating these into academic curricula to enhance understanding and foster autonomy in managing neologisms. Additionally, WG4 aims to create innovative modules for continuous professional development (CPD) to support translation, language education, and related disciplines. The work is organised into four interconnected tasks, each further divided into subtasks:

- Task 4.1 "Innovating Neology Teaching Methods" focuses on designing innovative modules for teaching neology in higher education settings and within CPD programmes;

- Task 4.2 "Developing Neology Teaching Materials" involves designing didactic materials for teaching neology across various disciplines;

- Task 4.3 "Conducting a CPD Training School" aims to pilot the developed modules and materials; and

- Task 4.4 "Fine-Tuning Teaching Methods and Materials" involves refining the teaching approaches and materials from T4.1 and T4.2 by incorporating the feedback from the training school conducted in T4.3.

2.2 Methodological approach

This section outlines the methodological framework adopted across the ENEOLI WGs to ensure a systematic and collaborative approach to the study of neology and lexicography. Each WG employs tailored methodologies aligned with its specific objectives, combining traditional lexicographic practices with computational tools and emerging technologies. By integrating corpus-based research, multilingual and comparative analysis and advanced digital resources, the initiative seeks to establish a dynamic model that can be adapted and applied across diverse contexts. The methodologies described herein highlight the synergy between theoretical and practical approaches, ensuring that the project outputs are comprehensive and relevant to a wide range of disciplines and professional contexts.

The methodological framework adopted in WG1 ensures a systematic approach to the development of a multilingual glossary of the meta-terminology of neology. This methodology combines corpus analysis, computational tools, and expert validation to ensure accuracy, consistency and applicability.

The initial phase involved the compilation and analysis of a starter corpus, consisting of six French monographs from Lambert-Lucas Editions. These monographs were selected for their coherent and systematic approach to neology. The corpus was processed using semi-automatic term extraction tools, including AntConc⁴ and Sketch Engine⁵, to identify high-frequency candidate terms.

To ensure the accuracy and relevance of the extracted terms, a panel of experts in French neology, alongside WG1 members, conducted a rigorous validation process. This resulted in a provisional list of monolexical terms, documented in ENEOLI Deliverable 1.1 (Silva et al. 2024). The validated terms were then catalogued and integrated into NeoVoc⁶, a multilingual neology thesaurus hosted on ENEOLI Wikibase, which facilitates the structured linking of concepts and their multilingual equivalents.

The enriched metadata from NeoVoc is stored in NeoCorpus, supplemented by references collected in a Zotero library.⁷ This integration supports complex cross-linguistic analyses and the tracking of term usage over time, enhancing the glossary's relevance to multilingual and comparative research.

This methodological approach represents an intersection of lexicographic principles and computational advancements. By synthesising lexicographic methods with digital tools, WG1 ensures that the glossary serves as both a theoretical and practical resource for dictionary-making. Moreover, the methodology is designed to be adaptable to other languages and domains, providing a template for future lexicographic initiatives.

Given the nature of the general aims of WG2, digital resources and computational methods are at the centre of attention of individual tasks. However, T2.1, T2.3 and T2.5 also rely on qualitative analyses of existing documentation on guidelines and practices in describing neology. T2.3 and T2.5 have been particularly devoted to learning about successful existing practices through webinars and workshops given by their members with relevant experience. T2.5 is using the input for developing an ENEOLI typology of selection criteria for including and excluding lexical innovations from lexicographic databases (see Section 4.2). Being entirely organised around investigating and exploiting best methods in lexical innovation research, T2.4 is equally interested in traditional approaches and methodologies that leverage the potential of machine learning and Large Language Models and the use of appropriate metrics (for extraction and evaluation). Applying Linguistic Linked Open Data (LLOD) principles in the representation of neologisms is also of relevance to this Task.

In WG3, each task has specific aims and methodological approaches. T3.1 works mainly with word association tests. T3.2 and T3.5 use corpora to discern formal and semantic patterns, and thematic or communicative focal points, while T3.2 also concentrates on semantic (synchronic and diachronic) analysis, the exploration of corpus methods, and the application of these insights to lexicography. For T3.3 and T3.6, the methodology is still to be worked out. In T3.4, a questionnaire will be created in which neologisms (blends, compounds, and derivations) are presented to participants of various languages; the participants (human and AI systems) will have to choose the most probable meaning in single-choice questions.

As far as WG4 is concerned, T4.1 focuses on developing innovative approaches to teaching neology through a structured, multi-step process. It begins with a status quo analysis that involves conducting surveys and interviews with key stakeholders, such as translators, interpreters, and language educators. This analysis aims to identify the linguistic, intercultural, technological, and other challenges that professionals face when dealing with neologisms. Simultaneously, a literature review is conducted to examine existing teaching methods in relevant fields. Based on these insights, the task defines the core competencies required to perceive and manage neologisms, ensuring they meet professional needs. The final step involves designing innovative, competence-based training methodologies for academic courses and CPD. Building on T4.1, T4.2 will develop practical teaching materials for use in these curricula and programmes, including glossaries, manuals, corpora, videos, online courses, and more, ensuring diverse and accessible resources. T4.3 will apply these methodologies and materials by organising a training school as part of CPD, providing a platform to pilot the innovations developed in earlier tasks. The feedback of the participants will be essential to the iterative process of refining teaching methods and materials. Finally, T4.4 will refine the methodologies and materials based on this feedback, ensuring they are effective, adaptable, and aligned with the needs of various professional fields. This iterative, stakeholder-driven approach aims to ensure that WG4's outputs are the most useful, practical, and applicable across diverse domains.

2.3 Preliminary findings and ongoing work

This section outlines the advancements made during the first year of ENEOLI's activity, highlighting key advancements and laying the foundation for future phases of the project. The efforts of each WG are outlined below:

2.3.1 Working Group 1

WG1 has made remarkable progress in creating resources for multilingual and cross-linguistic neology research. An initial ice-breaking survey (Humbley and Salgado 2024) has engaged ENEOLI members, resulting in a collection of 129 references, including articles, books, and specialised dictionaries, spanning a broad temporal range (1965-2023) across multiple languages. Of these, 70 references are machine-readable, forming a solid foundation for ENEOLI's lexicographic work.

A major milestone is the development of NeoVoc, a multilingual neology thesaurus hosted on the ENEOLI Wikibase, and the assembly of NeoCorpus, a comprehensive corpus designed to support the project's multilingual dimension.

These resources, along with a meticulously curated Zotero library, represent a significant step toward a standardised and systematic approach to cataloging and analysing new lexical items across languages.

The Wikibase workflow enables the creation and management of concept entries and their multilingual equivalents. Initially, French terms - resulting from T1.1 - were uploaded, and corresponding concept entities were created in other languages. Glosses consisting of short definitions of word meanings were also reviewed and, where relevant, added.

The initial phase of the review process focused on assessing the multilingual equivalents that had been automatically imported from Wikidata for French. To facilitate this, a specialised query system was used to identify and highlight entries that required verification. Reviewers accessed these flagged entries via their unique identifiers and followed a structured validation procedure:

- If the imported equivalent listed in the "statements" section was accurate, the warning tag was removed to confirm its validity.

- If the equivalent was incorrect or needed revision, it was modified accordingly, and the Wikidata warning was deleted before saving the changes.

- If a gloss was present in the "description" section, it was examined and either approved, edited, or replaced as needed.

Additionally, a new validation protocol mandates that each confirmed equivalent must be explicitly annotated with the "validated by" qualifier. This qualifier records the name of the person responsible for validation, ensuring accountability and enabling the system to generate real-time reports on validated terms. If a validator does not yet have a Wikibase entity, a new entry is created following a predefined procedure.

Once validated, these equivalents are integrated into lexicographic entries (also referred to as lexeme entities, identified by IDs beginning with 'L'). These entries are systematically linked to their corresponding concepts and include structured linguistic data describing word senses and forms. Future phases will expand these efforts by validating polylexical terms, integrating additional languages, enriching NeoCorpus, and completing key deliverables such as data representation, glossary editing, and comprehensive documentation. These ongoing activities highlight WG1's dedication to bridging the gap between neology and lexicography, creating tools that not only document lexical innovation but also directly support its application in dictionaries. While the details of other WG1 tasks are beyond this article's scope, their collective goal is to broaden ENEOLI's impact and reinforce its relevance in lexicographic research.

2.3.2 Working Group 2

The greatest achievement of WG2 during the course of the Action's first year has been the survey "Studying and Documenting Neologisms: Survey on Methods, Practices, Tools, and Resources (ENEOLI COST Action CA22126)", which was designed to collect information about the methods, practices, tools, and resources used by ENEOLI members as well as other research groups, individual researchers, and language specialists involved in the field of lexical innovation. The survey was organised around specific projects or research topics, such as resource creation in lexicography and terminology, software development for neology tracking, and academic research in lexicology, linguistics, and translation studies. Additionally, a section was dedicated to teaching and training practices related to neology. By targeting these various projects and research topics, the survey provides an invaluable source of data and information for tasks within the entire Action. Preparing the survey was a collaborative effort of members from other tasks and WGs. The results will help shape the future direction of WG2. In addition, research has been carried out within T2.5 to compare the treatment of lexical innovation by lexicographic institutes and projects (see Section 4.2).

2.3.3 Working Group 3

As for WG3, the task on blends has developed a work plan and a set of guidelines that will allow the members to compile monolingual corpora of blends that follow a shared design. The task on neology and discourse started compiling a bibliography entitled "European Discourse Studies and Neologisms". A series of studies have been undertaken, focusing on notable neologisms emerging from European discourses of empowerment, the migration crisis, Covid-19, and the climate crisis, in different languages, including Breton, English, French, German, Icelandic, Polish, and Portuguese. Initial findings have been shared during regular meetings, elucidating the corpora, methods, and discoveries, while also addressing challenges. In the task on verb neology, recent discussions have propelled the project forward: initial themes include the morphological adaptation of new verbs in French and Czech, the syntactic and lexical incorporation of neological verbs in Galician, and the reflection of political and social dynamics through neological verbs in French and Polish contexts. A collective volume in French is already in preparation.

2.3.4 Working Group 4

During the first year of WG4's activities, initial progress has been made across several key tasks. The needs analysis subtask has involved developing the survey with WG2, focusing on the challenges and needs in teaching neology in various professional domains. The survey, designed to gather insights from key stakeholders, has been launched, and the results are pending. Additionally, the literature review has led to the compilation of a list of 49 relevant references, categorised into five key areas: (a) neology in language teaching (L1 or L2), (b) neology in teacher training, (c) neology in teaching specialised languages/ terminology/translation, (d) titles of interest, and (e) general works on vocabulary teaching related to neology. This review has highlighted the fragmented nature of current research on teaching neology, while also contributing to identifying potential avenues for further research to fill this gap. The subtask on defining neology competences has made initial progress by outlining the competences needed in fields such as translation, interpreting, and language teaching. Meanwhile, the task focused on designing innovative training methods for university courses and CPD is in its conceptual phase, with draft modules being reviewed and plans for professional interviews under way to gather practical insights for future training materials. This preliminary work has set the stage for further development, pending the survey results.

2.4 Grant awarding and communication/dissemination activities

Raising awareness of the constant evolution of language, highlighting the importance of neology research, and fostering a high-level, comprehensive, multilingual study of lexical innovation are core aspects supported by the grant awarding. Within the ENEOLI COST Action, this constitutes an integral part of the implementation of its objectives and principles. This networking initiative, which promotes collaboration among researchers, encompasses two primary types of activities: participation in conferences organised by third parties, and mobility of our members.

Firstly, the need to enhance the understanding of neology within the linguistic community is addressed by promoting research in this field at high-level conferences. The active participation in sessions and discussions at such events (in 2024, held in locations such as Croatia, Poland, South Africa, Spain, the UK, and USA) fosters knowledge exchange around neology in European languages and helps to raise awareness about the importance of lexical innovation. Presentations support the dissemination of the work performed as part of research conducted within the WGs, as well as of the results of an individual member's research within the scope of the Action. This, in turn, effectively increases visibility, attracts new members, and provides valuable insights and feedback from the scientific community, institutions, and language professionals on the research undertaken within the Action.

Secondly, considering the scope of the Action reflected in the number of participants with different scientific backgrounds, the mobility of researchers constitutes a prerequisite for the main objective achievement, which is to establish a network of researchers and innovators and to share best practices and methods around the study of lexical innovation. Short-term scientific missions play a crucial role in connecting researchers and ensuring a circulation of ideas and knowledge across countries with different research traditions. Hitherto, the onsite meetings between professionals affiliated with language institutions from Estonia, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Netherlands, Portugal, Romania, Serbia, and Spain have contributed to sharing effective frameworks and approaches for investigating lexical innovation regarding, for example, blend acquisition, neological terminological collocations, or tools for neologism extraction. The face-to-face visits supported by grants significantiy faciiitated the successfui completion of tasks determined and designed within WGs, such as: preparing the ENEOLI survey launch, establishing software infrastructure and workflows for corpus development, advancing neology research, refining digital methodologies for analysing lexical innovation, and preparing standardised tests to study how people - and AI - create and interpret neologisms. The mobility will also support the deiivery of joint publications or conference presentations high-iighting the Action's outcomes.

Moreover, both networking activities provide young researchers and innovators with opportunities to acquire methodological and theoretical knowledge, boost their careers, and increase their visibility in the scientific community. Grant support also plays an important role in involving members from ITC countries,⁸ who may have different research and networking traditions and opportunities.

The primary objective of ENEOLI's communication and dissemination strategy is to showcase the Action's activities and results, and more generally, to highiight the importance of understanding iinguistic innovation across cuitures and contexts. In this light, the aim is to engage both academic and non-academic audiences, promoting the relevance of neologisms and neology. In its first year, key infrastructures were established to achieve this objective, including a cohesive visual identity for consistent branding, and an interactive website as a central information hub. Social media profiles - on Facebook, LinkedIn, X, and Instagram - were created to broaden engagement, combining strategic content with participatory features. A key ongoing initiative is the "Neologism of the Week", which features one neologism per week from diverse languages. These neologisms are selected based on linguistic research, trends, and suggestions submitted by the public through the ENEOLI website, ensuring a collaborative and inclusive approach. Each entry is presented with a concise explanation and shared as an illustrated post on social media. At the time of writing this paper, nearly 30 neologisms have been highlighted, for example adulting (English), the act of managing adult responsibilities; tongpunter (Dutch), a word on the tip of one's tongue; tracances (French), the practice of working remotely while on vacation; and Buchendschmerz (German), the bittersweet feeling of finishing a compelling book. These weekly features are designed to capture interest and entertain as well as facilitate an intuitive understanding of neologisms and neology among the wider public.

 

3. The state of neology research at the intersection with lexicography

Neology, as a theoretical discipline concerned with the creation and use of new words, has a well-established tradition, particularly in countries such as France. Its origins can be traced to the work of Darmesteter (1887), whose pioneering research on compounding laid the foundation for the systematic study of neologisms. In the mid-20th century, Matoré (1952) broadened the scope of the field by incorporating historical and sociological perspectives, emphasising the influence of social and cultural dynamics on lexical innovation.

The discipline gained further prominence in the 1970s, when scholars built upon Matoré's lexicological approach while also investigating neology from a lexicographic perspective. A key contribution was made by Rey (1976), who provided critical insights into the lexicographic treatment of neologisms. Concurrently, Guilbert (1975) established a framework for a comprehensive and interdisciplinary study of neology, integrating synchronic and diachronic perspectives, along with sociolinguistic and grammatical considerations. Quemada (1967, 1971) also made important contributions in the neology field, focusing on the evolution of lexical innovation and the methodological challenges of integrating new words into lexicographic practice, though without being able to establish such a comprehensive approach as did Guilbert or Rey.

Beyond France, the study of neology also advanced significantly, particularly in the United States. Bolinger, a professor of Romance languages at Harvard University, played a crucial role in promoting neological research. As the first editor of the neology supplement Among the New Words, published in the journal American Speech (Bolinger 1941) from 1941 onward, he systematically documented emerging words in English. This initiative was later continued by John Algeo (Algeo and Algeo 1991), further reinforcing the importance of tracking lexical innovation in real-world usage.

By incorporating multiple perspectives - lexicological, lexicographic, sociolinguistic, and historical - neology has evolved into a robust and interdisciplinary field, reflecting the dynamic nature of language and its continuous adaptation to cultural and technological changes.

However, it was not until the first decade of this millennium that neology showed clear signs of establishing itself as a discipline: 2007 saw the birth of Neologica⁹ (Humbley and Sablayrolles 2007), the first journal specialised in neology, and 2008 that of CINEO,¹⁰ the first International Congress of Neology in Romance Languages, organised by Teresa Cabré and the IULATERM team¹¹ at Universitat Pompeu Fabra in Barcelona. Neologica is published annually in France, containing articles on neology from a wide range of perspectives and occasionally including works with a lexicographic connection. For example, Humbley (2008) analyses the functions of the borrowing dictionary, and Pruvost (2009) analyses the neologism mark in the general dictionary, and Issue 8 (Humbley and Sablayrolles 2014) devoted the thematic part to 'Neology and Dictionary'. As for CINEO, none of its iterations so far (including the sixth due in Coimbra in 2025)¹² have featured explicitly the intersection with lexicography (as done with many other disciplines, such as translation, terminology, literature, or digital communication), though the topic did occur randomly (cf. Vincent 2024). The focus on French neological studies is explained by theoretical as well as practical considerations. From a theoretical point of view, French language research in neology has a long history and rests on a relatively consensual methodological framework, based on structuralism at its origins with application to major language planning projects, particularly in Québec. From the practical point of view, the French publishing house Lambert-Lucas agreed to grant ENEOLI access to six recent monographs on neology in French. This starter corpus has been used to provide a small but relatively homogenous sample of basic contemporary neology terminology.

Researching the connection between neology and lexicography is of a recent nature, and this intersection is experiencing a growth that is observable in both disciplines. David K. Barnhart (1985) reflected on the difficulty for dictionary editors to know which new words will remain in use and should be recorded, an issue that has generated one of the most fruitful lines of research in the space shared by neology and lexicography, as will be seen below. Neology, on the other hand, has approached lexicography with theoretical questions such as whether the neological character of a word ends once it appears in a general dictionary of a language, or regarding the need to create dictionaries of new words.

The first international event entirely focused on this topic has recently emerged in the form of Globalex Workshop on Lexicography and Neology (GWLN), co-organised by Annette Klosa-Kückelhaus and Ilan Kernerman. It was first held in 2019 as a once-off workshop in conjunction with the 22nd Biennial Meeting of the Dictionary Society of North America, in Bloomington, Indiana (Klosa-Kückelhaus and Kernerman 2020),¹³ and sponsored by the Global Alliance for Lexicography (Globalex).¹⁴ Its success, however, turned it into a series of workshops co-located annually with a regular conference of one of the continental associations for lexicography. In its six iterations so far, GWLN has been held on five continents (and one held online due to the COVID-19 pandemic), bringing together specialists combining this dual field of knowledge from all over the world and for different languages and lexicographic traditions. In addition, each iteration has been complemented by a corresponding publication (such as the current paper, which was the highlight of GWLN-6, held in conjunction with the 28th International Conference of the African Association for Lexicography, in Pretoria, South Africa)¹⁵ in an international lexicography journal or conference proceedings.

The contrast and similarity of experiences of African languages such as Lusoga or Swahili, with those of Asian ones such as Chinese or Japanese, or with various European languages present in the different iterations of GWLN, have promoted an important advance in the global study and knowledge of the current phenomena of lexical innovation and its lexicographic investigation and representation. Most of this work is grouped around major lines of research, which are briefly presented below (without aiming to be exhaustive, as it is a field that opens diverse possibilities), considering features such as the size of the language, the time of permanence in the use of neologisms, the passage from a specialised unit to a general language unit, and many more.

(a) Firstly, there are works (such as Sheidlower 1995) that analyse the presence or treatment of neologisms in a particular dictionary, usually a general reference dictionary of the language. In some studies, the analysis focuses on a specific type of neologisms (such as semantic verbal neologisms, in Berri and Boschiroli 2024, for Spanish), compares the treatment of neologisms in different lexicographic works of the same language (such as Rødningen and Karlsen 2020, for Norwegian), or refers specifically to online dictionaries (such as Porath 2019, for Hebrew). Within this line, works that analyse the presence or treatment of loanwords in dictionaries (such as Humbley 2011) deserve a separate mention. In this case, these are usually English borrowings, and various aspects are analysed or compared (such as pseudo-anglicisms in Modern Greek dictionaries, in Vacalopoulou 2024) or from different perspectives (such as, from a lexicographic diachronic perspective for Korean, in Jun and Jung 2022).

(b) Another connection between lexicography and neology explores the development of dictionaries of neologisms, since they present important specificities in comparison with general lexicography, due to their obsolescent character; neologisms in a dictionary of neologisms are doomed to disappear either by their incorporation into the general dictionary (and the consequent loss of their neology status) or by disappearance from use. Olostiak and ReSovská (2021) for Slovak, and Krvina (2020) for Slovenian, are examples of work along this line.

(c) The criteria for the inclusion or exclusion of neologisms in dictionaries is another one of the lines with the most contributions, and we devote Section 4 to it.

As mentioned above, the greatest challenge for lexicographers facing the updating of general dictionaries is to determine which of the new words, senses, and polylexical expressions that appear in social usage will eventually become part of the language and, therefore, should be included in the general dictionary. Of course, this depends largely on the function of the dictionary and that language's lexicographic tradition; the lexicography of some languages is more open to the introduction of new words, while the approach in other languages could be more conservative, but at some point, the lexicographic team is faced with the decision of which lexical innovations to include and which to leave out. Logic dictates that neologisms that will become established in usage should be included, whereas those that will prove to be temporary should be excluded, so in the end, the lexicographer must predict to some extent the future of new words.

This quantification of the possibility of survival of a neologism would be useful for the decision-making of lexicographers to determine the inclusion and exclusion of words in the dictionary, but it is also per se a line of research for neology in the attempt to predict the life of words. This approach originated with Renouf (2007), with the attempt to identify the different stages of development of a neologism, and it is gaining importance with more computational proposals through work on lexical emergence (cf. Grieve et al. 2016).

What is certain is that reflection on the criteria for the inclusion and exclusion of neologisms for lexicographic updating has evolved and expanded considerably since the pioneering work of Barnhart (1985), Algeo (1993), and Sheidlower (1995), among others, in which it can be seen that it is an interest shared by lexicographers and linguists. With the arrival of the new millennium, it was Ishikawa (2006) and O'Donovan and O'Neill (2008) who gave a boost to the debate (in addition to the aforementioned work by Metcalf 2002), always from the English language perspective, but a few years later it is also true for other languages, such as Korean (Nam et al. 2016) or Spanish (Adelstein and Freixa 2013), among others. Since the last decade, this line of research has blossomed with works such as those of Klosa-Kückelhaus and Wolfer (2020), the Neómetro team for Spanish (Bernal et al. 2020), and the proposal to automate the criteria for Catalan (Freixa 2022b).

Neology and lexicography are two disciplines whose convergence has proved in recent years to be a mutually fruitful area of knowledge, in both applied and theoretical fields. As will be seen in Section 4, this area of knowledge is one of the strengths of the ENEOLI network.

 

4. The lexicographic dimension in ENEOLI

4.1 Developing a multilingual glossary of the meta-terminology of neology

One of ENEOLI's most impactful contributions lies in its integration of neology research into lexicographic practices. By addressing the challenges of documenting lexical innovation across languages, ENEOLI bridges a critical gap between neology and lexicography, offering tools, methodologies, and theoretical insights that advance both fields. At the core of this effort is the development of the Multilingual Glossary of Neology, a pioneering resource tailored to meet the diverse needs of academic researchers, translators, lexicographers, and other language professionals.

Developed within WG1, the glossary will be a multilingual online resource built upon corpora meticulously curated for the project, such as NeoCorpus. These corpora are primarily constructed from systematically collected sources, including books, journal articles, conference proceedings, dissertations, and linguistic specialised dictionaries. They encompass a wide range of themes, such as theoretical principles of neology, lexical innovation across languages, neology in specialised domains, and language-related phenomena (e.g., purism, borrowing, and terminology management). Additionally, the corpora incorporate research on the lexicographic treatment of neologisms and methodologies for detecting lexical innovations, combining automated and manual approaches. This comprehensive foundation ensures that the glossary captures the evolving nature of neology while maintaining its relevance for practical applications.

WG1 adopted a methodological approach grounded in the systematic compilation and analysis of a starter corpus. This corpus was built from six French monographs, selected for their consistent and homogeneous approach to neology, provided by Lambert-Lucas Editions. The corpus formed the basis for semiautomatic term extraction using AntConc and Sketch Engine, tools that facilitated the identification of high-frequency candidate terms. These terms were subsequently validated by a panel of experts in French neology and WG1 members, ensuring their relevance and accuracy. This collaborative validation process culminated in a provisional list of monolexical terms, documented in ENEOLI Deliverable 1.1 (Silva et al. 2024).

The extracted and validated terms were catalogued and integrated into NeoVoc. This controlled vocabulary provides a structured framework for linking concepts and their multilingual equivalents, thereby supporting the project's multilingual and comparative objectives. The enriched metadata from NeoVoc is stored in NeoCorpus, which is further augmented with references collected in a Zotero library, enabling complex cross-linguistic analyses and the tracking of term usage over time. Each term was assigned a unique concept identifier within the Wikibase system. At first, these concept entities contained only French equivalents, serving as the foundation for further multilingual expansion.

To support this expansion, an automated import process was carried out, retrieving existing multilingual equivalents from Wikidata and other external databases. These imported equivalents were then subjected to a manual verification process to ensure their accuracy and consistency: (i) if correct, the equivalent was retained and validated by a designated expert; (ii) if incorrect or inconsistent, the equivalent was edited or replaced, ensuring alignment with the validated concept; and (iii) if missing, new equivalents were manually added by linguistic specialists. The verified and enriched data from NeoVoc that is stored in NeoCorpus is continuously updated with validated terms and multilingual equivalents. This structured integration enables real-time updates, improving the accuracy of linguistic representation and ensuring the glossary remains dynamic and up to date.

To enhance user accessibility and experience, a dedicated task focuses on the development and implementation of the data representation and presentation framework for the Multilingual Glossary of Neology. The goal is to create a platform that enables users to access, explore, and understand terminology used in the field of neology across different languages efficiently. This requires a robust user interface that supports seamless navigation, multiple languages, and efficient information retrieval. Collaboration with the team responsible for the editorial style guide (T1.4) ensures alignment between data structure, terminology presentation, and formatting rules, maintaining consistency between editorial guidelines and visual design. Moreover, close coordination with the editing team (T1.6) guarantees that updated and edited content is accurately and promptly integrated into the platform.

Future phases of the project will focus on expanding multilingual equivalents, validating polylexical terms, and enriching NeoCorpus. Through continued methodological refinement and collaborative input, ENEOLI WG1 is establishing a benchmark for the creation of dynamic, comprehensive, and multilingual lexicographic resources.

The platform's implementation will leverage an existing solution, such as FAIRterm 2.0,¹⁶ a flexible, open terminology management system tailored for collecting and managing concept-oriented entries. Designed for describing concepts in specialised domains and their linguistic designations from a multilingual perspective, FAIRterm 2.0 adheres to the latest ISO TC 37¹⁷ standards for terminology management. This tool aligns with the FAIR principles, which means that the data is findable, accessible, interoperable, and reusable (Vezzani 2022). Its features will support the compilation, organisation, and dynamic updating of the glossary, creating a comprehensive and user-friendly resource. This tool offers several features that enhance the compilation, organisation, and updating of the glossary. These include an intuitive web-based interface for collaborative editing, structured data fields for multilingual concept entry management, semi-automated validation processes to ensure terminological consistency, and API integration for interoperability with other lexicographic and linguistic resources. Additionally, it supports version control, user permission management, and export functionalities in standard formats, making it a comprehensive and user-friendly resource for terminology management.

Teams of researchers, lexicographers, and domain experts contribute to glossary development through standardised workflows and shared digital tools. The use of advanced computational methods, including machine learning and LLOD, supports efficient term extraction, validation, and integration. Together, these efforts ensure that the ENEOLI glossary not only serves as a valuable resource for documenting lexical innovation but will also set a benchmark for creating multilingual, dynamic lexicographic platforms.

Organising the editorial work involves task-specific teams, standardised workflows, and shared tools such as ENEOLI Wikibase. Formats and technologies used include metadata standards for interoperability, and web-based editing platforms.

4.2 Neology from a lexicographic perspective

Within WG2, T2.5 compares how different lexicographic institutes and projects (a) select, (b) describe, and (c) follow up lexical innovations in their databases and dictionaries. The focus is on the editorial decisions that dictionary editorial boards and lexicographers make when dealing with neology phenomena and how that decision-making is informed by the data, tools, and other resources at their disposal.

The main objective of T2.5 is the compilation of a publicly available database with a systematic overview of editorial practices in the lexicographic treatment of neology. Additionally, the results will be disseminated through presentations at conferences and publications.

Over the course of the Action, the activities are thematically organised around three phases that can be distinguished in the lexicographic treatment of neology:

1. selection of lexical innovations for inclusion in the lexicographic resource, based on inclusion and exclusion criteria;

2. description of the lexical innovations using neology-specific microstructure components;

3. follow-up of lexical innovations after they have been included in the resource, with possible updates.

The workflow of T2.5 dedicates one year of work to each of these three phases, starting in the first year with the selection phase. During its first year, the task has been charting the inclusion and exclusion criteria used by different lexicographic resources and in different languages. The concrete aim is to compile an ENEOLI typology of selection criteria for neologisms, which can serve as an overview and point of reference for lexicographers and the developers of lexicographic tools. Work started off with a look at the most elaborate typology found in the literature, developed by Freixa (2022a, 2022b) as state-of-the-art for Catalan. Then other perspectives were added, stemming from different traditions and languages, including Danish (Den Danske Ordbog), German (Storjohann 2024), Korean (Nam and Jung 2020), Spanish (Sánchez Ibáñez and Maroto 2021), French (Le Petit Robert), and Portuguese (Dicionário da Lingua Portuguesa). After this fact-finding stage, the task will concentrate on integrating the criteria into a single typology that will be made publicly available in the second half of 2025.

 

5. Conclusion

The ENEOLI network represents a major advancement in the study of lexical innovation, offering a comprehensive, multilingual, and collaborative approach to understanding language change. By addressing key challenges in the field, it is not only contributing to the development of valuable resources but also fostering a deeper and more nuanced understanding of how language evolves in a globalised world. Through its multifaceted perspective, which encompasses specialised lexicography, digital resources, comparative studies, and didactics, the network is paving the way for innovative research and practical applications that will shape the future of neology and lexicography. This holistic approach ensures that both theoretical insights and practical tools are available to researchers, practitioners, and educators, reinforcing the importance of a collaborative and interdisciplinary effort in advancing the field.

The main outcome aimed for is a specialised glossary centred on terms related to neology and lexical innovation. This glossary contains a meta-terminology derived from corpus data, as well as expert input and validation processes. The methodology used is one typically associated with terminological and specialised lexicography research. By combining different approaches, the glossary will serve as a practical resource while also advancing the understanding of how neology is approached within lexicography, both in practice and in theory.

Consistent with the principles of all COST Actions,¹⁸ ENEOLI is open to researchers, practitioners, and other stakeholders from participating countries, fostering interdisciplinary collaboration and knowledge exchange across Europe and beyond. Designed to be inclusive, these Actions enable participants at various career stages and from diverse backgrounds to engage in networking, training, and joint research activities. The ENEOLI website provides a contact form, contact information of network leaders, and direct links to further guidance on how to join, ensuring accessibility for those interested in contributing to the network's activities.

 

Acknowledgements

The authors sincerely thank the anonymous referees for their valuable comments that improved the quality of this manuscript. We also extend our gratitude to the dedicated task leaders, whose expertise and commitment have been instrumental to the success of this COST Action.¹⁹

The research of Rute Costa and Ana Salgado is supported by the FCT - Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology, I.P. as part of the project UID/03213 - Linguistics Research Centre of NOVA University Lisbon (CLUNL). The research of Federica Vezzani is also part of the initiatives carried out by the Centre for Studies in Computational Terminology (CENTRICO) of the University of Padua. The research of Spela Arhar Holdt is supported by the ARIS research programme Language Resources and Technologies for Slovene (P6-0411).

 

Endnotes

1. This paper is based on work from COST Action ENEOLI, CA22126, supported by the European Cooperation in Science and Technology (COST), https://www.cost.eu/actions/CA22126/.
2. Recent initiatives aim to bridge gaps in research and practice through workshops, conferences, and publications, such as the Globalex Workshop on Lexicography and Neology (GWLN) that has been held annually since 2019 in conjunction with the international conference of one of the continental lexicography associations. The sixth iteration of GWLN, held at the University of Pretoria in conjunction with the Afrilex 28th International Conference in July 2024, highlighted ENEOLI. https://globalex.link/gwln-6_2024/.
3. https://eneoli.eu [28 February 2025].
4. https://www.laurenceanthony.net/software/antconc/ [1 December 2024].
5. https://www.sketchengine.eu [1 December 2024].
6. https://eneoli.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Main_Page [27 March 2025].
7. https://www.zotero.org/groups/5449136/neocorpus/library [28 February 2025].
8. https://www. cost. eu/about/strategy/excellence-and-inclusiveness/ [1 December 2024].
9. https://classiques-garnier.com/neologica.html [1 December 2024].
10. https://iula.upf.edu/agenda/cineo_08/cineo01fr.htm [1 December 2024].
11. https://www.upf.edu/web/iulaterm [1 December 2024].
12. https://ucpages.uc.pt/events/cineo2025/ [1 December 2024].
13. https://dictionarysociety.com/conference/dsna-22-in-bloomington-indiana/ [1 December 2024].
14. https://globalex.link/ [1 December 2024].
15. https://globalex.link/gwln-6_2024/ [1 December 2024].
16. https://shiny.dei.unipd.it/fairterm/compilation20.html [1 December 2024].
17. https://www.iso.org/committee/48104.html [1 December 2024].
18. https://www.cost.eu/cost-actions/what-are-cost-actions/ [28 February 2025].
19. We would like to mention all their names, following the order of the four WGs: Raquel Silva, David Lindemann, Margarida Ramos, Onorina Botezat, Anna Vacalopoulou, Jelena Kallas, Kristina Koppel, Hiwa Asadpour, Anca Gâta, Neslihan Önder-Özdemir, Voula Giouli, Elisa Squadrito, Fahad Khan, Alina Villalva, Sara Pita, Petra Storjohann, Besim Kabashi, Jean-Louis Vaxelaire, Esther Breuer, Radka Mudrochová, Andrzej Napieralski, Sabela Fernández Silva, Sorina Ciobanu, Miguel Sánchez Ibáñez, Daniela Hasa, and Etleva Kondi.

 

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* A version of this paper was presented at the 6th Globalex Workshop on Lexicography and Neology (GWLN-6), held on 3 July 2024 at the University of Pretoria, Hatfield Campus, Pretoria, South Africa.