RESEARCH ARTICLES

 

Does organisational culture and talent management have an impact on gender employment equity?

 

 

Elizabeth Kedibone Ngobeni^I; Ilze Swarts^II, *; Karel Frederick Lessing^III

^IPeople Management and Development, Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. Email: ngkedibone@gmail.com. ORClD: https://orcid.org/0009-0007-8280-596X
^IIPeople Management and Development, Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. Email: swartsd@tut.ac.za. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9913-9728
^IIIPeople Management and Development, Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. Email: lessinqkfd@tut.ac.za. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7117-4778

 

 

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ABSTRACT

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY: This study aimed to explore the impact of organisational culture and talent management on gender employment equity.
DESIGN/METHODOLOGY/APPROACH: The study investigated gender inequalities within the engineering industry by using a cross-sectional survey design and quantitative methods. Data were collected through a structured questionnaire and analysed using descriptive statistics, parametric t-tests, EFA, and CFA. Moreover, structural equation modelling was also employed to examine the impact of organisational culture and talent management on gender employment equity.
FINDINGS: The survey indicated a positive relationship between organisational culture and gender employment equity; however, there was an insignificant negative relationship between talent management and perceived gender employment equity. This study further underscores the importance of transforming organisational culture and employing strategic talent management to enhance gender employment equity. The notable negative impact of existing cultures on gender equity indicates a critical need for inclusivity-centred changes. Furthermore, positive links between organisational culture and talent management stress the integration of gender diversity into corporate values. By utilising frameworks such as the competing value framework (CVF) and attraction-selection-attrition (ASA) theory, organisations can cultivate inclusive and diverse workplaces, aligning cultural values with fairness and pragmatic talent management objectives.
RECOMMENDATIONS/VALUE: Human resource management (HRM) should reconsider organisational culture policies and talent management practices within the engineering sector. The aforementioned tends to encourage a culture of inclusivity within the engineering sector.
MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS: The implementation of cultural and talent management initiatives, such as the promotion of clan culture, the provision of growth opportunities, the establishment of succession planning, the division of roles, and the addressing of compensation inequities, has the potential to enhance inclusivity and increase women's participation in the industry.
JEL CLASSIFICATION: J21, J71, M14

Keywords: Culture; engineering organisational culture; equity; gender employment equity; talent management

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1. INTRODUCTION

Various industries, especially those that are predominantly male-dominated, persistently encounter disparities that impede efforts to mitigate gender inequalities (Begeny et al., 2020; Fine et al., 2020). In light of global demographics, it is evident that women, who constitute around 40% of the global population, are significantly underrepresented within the engineering profession, comprising a mere 10% of the workforce (Bennaceur et al., 2018). The gender gap has been identified as a significant factor influencing both women's rights and global competitiveness (Alfred et al., 2019; Chang & Milkman, 2020). Moreover, women's representation in male-dominated industries in South Africa continues to introduce challenges, notwithstanding the constitutional emphasis on democracy (Musetsho et al., 2021). Consequently, to address the issue of gender imbalance, legislation pertaining to employment fairness was implemented (Espi et al., 2019). The aforementioned legislation prioritises the eradication of bias with the aim of attaining equity and impartiality across all spheres.

Accordingly, scholars have offered measures to enhance the participation of women in the engineering field to overcome the difficulties mentioned above. These protocols aim to encourage young female scholars to pursue careers in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) (Singh & Peers, 2019; Moè et al., 2021). However, the industry lacks effective retention strategies that encourage the long-term participation of women. Moraba and Babatunde (2019) utilised the "leaky bucket" analogy to depict the issue of female attrition within engineering professions, which are predominantly male-oriented.

Addressing gender disparities in male-dominated fields such as engineering requires focusing on organisational culture and talent management. Organisational culture, as described by Andrianu (2020) and Holgersson and Romani (2020), includes the symbols, values, and behaviours shared among organisational members. Thus, according to Ali et al. (2019), talent management involves strategic human resource planning to achieve organisational objectives. These concepts are interdependent, with culture influencing talent management and vice versa, leading to a more engaged and productive workforce. Moreover, Cameron and Quinn (2011) suggested the competing values framework (CVF) for cultural assessment and transformation, while Neville and Schneider (2021) highlighted the attraction-selection-attrition (ASA) theory for shaping culture. Hence, inclusive practices and strategic talent management are essential for promoting gender equality and enhancing competitiveness.

1.1 Problem statement

There is insufficient research regarding the connection between organisational culture, talent management, and gender employment equality, specifically within the engineering sector. For example, Tiliutã and Diaconu (2020) argued that organisational culture significantly influences the advancement of women within the engineering profession. However, O'Connor and Crowley-Henry (2019), on the other hand, highlight the importance of talent management for addressing gender inequalities within the engineering profession. Therefore, this study aims to fill the existing research gap by utilising a research methodology that incorporates talent management and organisational culture as potential strategies to diminish the gender employment equity gap in the engineering sector.

In accordance with the aforementioned, the following hypotheses will be investigated using the positivist paradigm:

H₁: Organisational culture has a direct positive relationship with gender employment equity.

H₂: Organisational culture has a direct positive relationship with talent management.

H₃: Talent management has a direct positive relationship with gender employment equity.

1.2 Purpose of the study

The study aims to investigate the impact of organisational culture and talent management on gender employment equity within the engineering sector.

 

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

The study adopted the competing values framework, a versatile model for understanding and managing organisational culture (Cameron & Quinn, 2011). Additionally, the attraction-selection-attrition (ASA) theory by Schneider (1987) posits that individuals join and stay in organisations based on cultural fit, which applies to addressing gender imbalances in the workplace. These theories guided the research in examining the interplay between culture and gender equity.

2.1 Organisational culture theory - competing values framework (CVF)

The study aims to investigate the application of the competing values framework (CVF) within the context of the engineering sector, with a focus on organisational culture. CVF, introduced by Cameron and Quinn (2011), represents a valuable tool for evaluating individual and corporate cultures due to its capacity to assess diverse organisational objectives. Gochhayat et al. (2017) proffered that a consensus and direction-oriented culture fosters shared beliefs and expectations. The study identifies four culture types based on CVF:

• Clan culture - encourages collaboration, employee engagement, and unity (Alharbi & Abedelrahim, 2018).

• Hierarchy culture - aims to combat gender biases in male-dominated sectors (Atuahene & Baiden, 2018).

• Adhocracy culture - is known for its flexibility and emphasises effective communication (Atuahene & Baiden, 2018; Tiliutã & Diaconu, 2020).

• Market culture - prioritises productivity, efficiency, and customer relationships (Rizki et al., 2019; Alsaqqa & Akyürek, 2021).

The adoption of a clan culture within the engineering sector is expected to alleviate gender-related tensions in this predominantly male-dominated environment, thereby aligning with CVF principles.

2.2 Talent management theory - attraction-selection-attrition theory (ASA)

Neville and Schneider (2021) highlighted the ASA theory, focusing on individuals' decisions to join organisations, preferred candidate selection, and persistence. Hence, this theory connects talent management, organisational culture, and gender equality. Oh et al. (2018) emphasised that the ASA theory underscores the importance of assessing compatibility between individual traits and potential employers, which is relevant for addressing inequality.

Moreover, CVF and ASA integration aligns organisational culture with talent management to increase inclusion. CVF promotes gender diversity, whereas ASA recruits and retains diverse talent, creating an inclusive environment. However, combining these frameworks assists in integrating hiring and retention with cultural values, influencing the development of cultures, and improving organisational productivity by assuring employee-organisation fit (Cameron & Quinn, 2011). Cameron and Quinn argued that integrating is complicated and requires careful cultural and recruitment cooperation. In engineering, competency, cultural fit, and social norms hinder advancement, making it challenging to balance cultural fit with diversity goals (Alfred et al., 2019; McKinnon & O'Connell, 2020). Therefore, to engage and satisfy employees, leaders must establish a "positive" organisational culture with supportive values (Do, 2021).

In various ways, integrating CVF and ASA benefits organisations strategically. For example, strategic HRM can refine recruitment and create retention strategies to match cultural ideals, such as attracting innovative people for adhocracy cultures to increase employee satisfaction and reduce turnover (Cameron & Quinn, 2011). Cultural change management uses frameworks to anticipate possible incompatibilities better and match new personnel with the changing culture for enhanced transitions. Dutch (2022) suggested that, according to ASA theory, employees whose values do not align with those of the organisation are more likely to resign than others. Accordingly, by understanding the principles of ASA, organisations can enhance their hiring practices to better support retention and prevent harmful uniformity. Thus, the relationship between CVF and ASA enables leaders to adapt employees to the organisation's culture more effectively.

2.3 Gender employment equity theory - Adam's equity theory

Adams' equity theory, analysed by Eketu (2018) and Abayomi (2020), investigated perceptions of fairness in resource allocation within organisations. It argues for equitable outcome/input ratios among comparable individuals in employment contracts. Eketu (2018) supports this perspective, highlighting the role of benefits, promotions, workload, recognition, and team dynamics in motivating employees (Alfred et al., 2019; Moraba & Babatunde, 2019). Adams's theory also recommends conducting regular compensation assessments, transparent promotion policies, feedback provision, open communication, and employee satisfaction monitoring to address equity concerns.

The literature review discusses organisational culture, talent management, and gender employment equity as key concepts for the current study.

2.4 Organisational culture

Organisational culture, as per Ertosun and Adiguzel (2018), refers to the social environment influencing employee working conditions. According to Andrianu (2020) and Holgersson and Romani (2020), it encompasses collective values, symbols, and behaviour patterns within an organisation, offering potential benefits in male-dominated fields.

2.4.1 Organisational culture and gender employment equity

Engineering is commonly perceived as a male-dominated field, which has led to the misconception that it is exclusively reserved for men (Longe & Ouahada, 2019). Thus, Cheryan and Markus (2020) argued that altering cultural norms, ideals, and practices related to masculinity is difficult due to their enduring and resilient nature. Along with the aforementioned debate, Di Tullio (2019) asserted that women with strong gender awareness are more likely to exhibit positive behaviour due to their understanding of societal discrimination and the presence of a male-dominated culture. To date, numerous studies have investigated factors influencing efforts to achieve gender employment equality (Sowjanya et al., 2017; Paul et al., 2018; Cislaghi & Heise, 2020; Master & Meltzoff, 2020).

2.4.2 Organisational culture factors

Moreover, several cultural factors have been identified in the engineering sector, which contribute to its perception as a male-dominated domain.

2.4.2.1 Societal and cultural norms

Cislaghi and Heise (2020) highlighted the impact of societal and cultural norms on workplace dynamics in male-dominated enterprises. For example, in China, women's societal value is often closely tied to their family support and parental duties (Zhu, 2021). Power (2020) noted that COVID-19 also intensified these challenges, particularly for women overrepresented in hard-hit industries such as retail, hospitality, and healthcare. This led to job losses and reduced working hours. Furthermore, Espi et al. (2019) argued that women's lower average earnings were exacerbated by the pandemic, resulting in increased economic insecurity due to job losses, furloughs, and reduced work hours.

2.4.2.2 Gender stereotypes

Stereotypes in STEM fields further contribute to the underrepresentation of women, as they often face uncertainty concerning their suitability and potential success. Dutta (2018) concurred, adding that gender biases limit women's opportunities for leadership roles in STEM-oriented professions. According to Babalola and Du Plessis (2021), African women leaders in STEM fields tend to encounter similar challenges in various countries.

2.4.2.3 Gender bias

According to Sowjanya et al. (2017), gender discrimination in the workplace is primarily predicated on men's biased attitudes and unfair treatment towards women. To this effect, Howcroft and Rubery (2019) argued that failing to address gender bias can lead to gender-biased forecasts and outcomes, worsening gender inequality gaps. As a result, Kong et al. (2020) emphasised the ongoing gender disparities in senior leadership roles to combat gender stereotypes and biases in STEM fields.

2.4.2.4 Parental influence

According to Lloyd et al. (2018), girls generally receive less encouragement than boys to pursue STEM fields. Accordingly, this disparity is particularly noticeable in underdeveloped countries where gender norms play a significant role in the socialisation process. To this end, Simunovic and Babarovic (2020) posited that studying the relationship between parental values and children's values in the STEM domain, specifically in engineering, is crucial.

2.4.2.5 Patriarchy

According to research, patriarchy poses challenges for women in the labour market (Paul et al., 2018). The authors also highlighted the impact of patriarchy on women in India. Similarly, Adisa et al. (2019) argued that a patriarchal bias also exists among males in Nigeria. This bias affects women's ability to balance work, personal life, and career choices. The research by Paul et al. (2018) proffered the idea that patriarchy frequently hinders women's progress, particularly in India.

2.4.3 Organisational culture and the engineering context

Vandenberghe (2021) identified a lack of women in STEM fields, highlighting an absence of diversity in engineering institutions. Sassler et al. (2017) and Aboagye-Nimo et al. (2019) expressed apparent concerns about women facing hostility in STEM careers, potentially perpetuating gender inequality. Warren et al. (2019) also stressed the role of organisational culture in creating an inclusive work environment, which is particularly important in male-dominated industries such as engineering. Hammond et al. (2020) further reinforced this by pointing out that hostile cultures hinder female recruitment and retention in the field of engineering. This study aims to explore the impact of organisational culture on gender employment equity within the engineering sector

2.5 Talent management

Sowjanya et al. (2017) defined talent management as a systematic approach that involves identifying, attracting, developing, and retaining individuals with the required skills to achieve organisational objectives. Ali et al. (2019) further stated that talent management has expanded to include rational human resource planning to assess the value of a business and achieve organisational objectives.

2.5.1 Talent management and gender employment equity

Despite ongoing efforts to encourage female enrolment and success in STEM courses, attracting and retaining women in STEM fields, particularly engineering, remains a formidable challenge (Naukkarinen & Bairoh, 2020; Cowgill et al., 2021). That said, one obstacle is the limited availability of professional development opportunities, which hinders women's retention (Moalusi & Jones, 2019; Fouad et al., 2020; Stewart-Williams & Halsey, 2021). Furthermore, women constitute merely 28% of the scientific and technical workforce worldwide, despite making up 50% of the overall workforce (George, 2024). The gap is even more noticeable for women of colour, who account for less than 2% of the STEM workforce (George, 2024). Gender disparities are also evident in Australia and Japan (Fatourou et al., 2019), with German architecture fields surpassing computing and engineering in gender diversity (Schmitt & Wilkesmann, 2020). Specifically, in South African engineering, especially in construction, gender discrimination is linked to the absence of role models, insufficient training, and limited mentorship support (Ndweni & Ozumba, 2021). Thus, Shikweni et al. (2019) emphasised the importance of removing barriers that hinder women's access to talent pools.

2.5.2 Talent management factors

2.5.2.1 Talent attraction and acquisition

Recruitment and retention are essential in talent management, particularly emphasising gender equity. Tyskbo (2021) further highlighted how cultural norms affect talent identification. Oh et al. (2018) also addressed the difficulties in fostering women's involvement and sustainability in STEM fields, particularly engineering, to bridge skill gaps in historically maledominated domains.

2.5.2.2 Talent development

The talent development process encompasses training, developmental appraisal, mentoring, and coaching (Anlesinya et al., 2019). For example, gender disparities persist, with men typically favoured in development plans (Böhmer & Schinnenburg, 2016). Moreover, women's participation in training is often discouraged, resulting in a dearth of advancement programmes (Hodges, 2017), which leads to women in male-dominated fields being viewed as tokens.

2.5.2.3 Talent retention

Scholarly research extensively examines challenges women face in male-dominated fields like engineering, often leading to their departure (Seron et al., 2018; Anlesinya et al., 2019; Fouad et al., 2020). Retaining talented employees is crucial, as recruitment is more expensive than retention. Thus, Anlesinya et al. (2019) offered strategies such as succession planning, rewards management, and a supportive work environment.

2.5.3 Talent management and the engineering context

Scholars have raised concerns regarding discriminatory talent management practices within male-dominated industries (Shikweni et al., 2019; Gallardo-Gallardo et al., 2020). O'Connor and Crowley-Henry (2019) also advocated for fair approaches that encompass marginalised women, yet gender disparities persist, particularly in fields such as engineering (Alfred et al., 2019; Moraba & Babatunde, 2019). These scholars asserted that the presence of a glass ceiling, financial inequalities, and obstacles in career development further contribute to the underrepresentation of women in engineering. Hence, implementing inclusive policies and gender-neutral recruitment practices is vital to address these issues (Kuschel & Salvaj, 2018).

2.6 Gender employment equity

As Bendix et al. (2022) and Naicker (2021) describe, employment equity involves fair, non-discriminatory practices, eliminating biases in employment policies, and fostering equal opportunities. Therefore, it is essential to identify and remove barriers that hinder women from pursuing their goals. Gender equality, as noted by Sukri and Shasrini (2020), is vital for achieving justice and rectifying gender-based discrimination and structural inequalities. Fatourou et al. (2019) further stressed the importance of considering diverse interests and needs to attain gender equity.

2.6.1 Gender employment equity factors

Gender diversity and discrimination within the engineering sector are influenced by factors such as compensation (Yousaf, 2020). Hence, integrating rewards into the company culture can enhance commitment and job satisfaction (Ramdhani et al., 2017). Below are additional factors which researchers have identified:

2.6.1.1 Work-life balance (WLB)

The global construction industry continues to grapple with work-life balance stress (Tijani et al., 2022). For example, in India, cultural norms and societal pressures obstruct women's ability to effectively manage their professional and familial roles (Maji, 2019). Female engineers, in particular, face multifaceted challenges encompassing limited work presence, heightened competition, long working hours, role conflicts, and gender-biased organisational structures (Di Tullio, 2019; Maji, 2019). Moreover, the COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated work-life balance issues for women (Rodríguez-Rivero et al., 2020) as they contend with the demands of their careers and family responsibilities. Also, in alignment with Qian and Fuller (2020), disparities in leave were also observed. Due to school closures and increased caregiving needs, numerous women were compelled to reduce their work hours or exit the workforce entirely to attend to children or elderly relatives. Accordingly, this situation has had adverse implications for their career advancement and financial independence. The setbacks experienced by women during the pandemic could also lead to enduring economic consequences that negatively impact their career growth, income potential, and retirement savings.

2.6.1.2 Division of work structure

Numerous studies have explored women's participation in male-dominated fields such as engineering (Miner et al., 2018; Butcher et al., 2020; Fouad et al., 2020). They often connect it to the "lack of fit" model and role incongruity theory. However, some scholars question these assumptions (Alfred et al., 2019; McKinnon & O'Connell, 2020; Cowgill et al., 2021).

2.6.2 Gender employment equity in the engineering sector

The contemporary emphasis on gender equity is crucial due to the ongoing perception of women as victims (Wong et al., 2021). Overall, attaining gender employment equity is vital for women's access to male-dominated fields (Howcroft & Rubery, 2019; Sukri & Shasrini, 2020). Moreover, Casad et al. (2019) investigated challenges faced by women in STEM fields, determining that racial minority women may experience an even stronger connection between perceived threat and negative outcomes, especially when compared to their white counterparts. Thus, women from racial minority groups exhibit heightened gender stigma awareness and disengagement in math and science fields, highlighting significant disparities, particularly within ethnic categories (Aboagye-Nimo et al., 2019).

 

3. METHODOLOGY

A cross-sectional survey research design within a positivistic research paradigm was used to test the research hypotheses. A quantitative research method was employed, and existing research questionnaires were used to collect data to answer the research questions. A cross-sectional design was used due to financial and time constraints. Wang and Cheng (2020) and Kesmodel (2018) described cross-sectional studies as observational analyses of data at a single point in time.

3.1 Research participants

The sample comprised 200 engineers across various occupational levels within South African engineering sectors. From this sample, 143 participants responded to the questionnaire, resulting in a response rate of 71.5%.

3.2 Biographical information

Table 1 lists the demographic representation of the engineers who participated in the study.

 

 

The study revealed that most engineers participating in the study were aged 26-30, and most of these engineers were male, 56.6%, compared to 43.4% of females. This confirms the traditional male-dominated nature of the engineering profession. The study also found a high number of entry-level engineers, with 64% having been with the sector for 1-5 years. The Engineering Council of South Africa categorises engineers according to professional levels, with 40.6% of the participants at the candidate engineering level, confirming the younger generation and sector entry-level of the sample.

3.3 Measuring instrument

Participants answered closed-ended questions on employment equity, talent management, and organisational culture using validated instruments for the study. The instruments were as follows:

• Employment equity questionnaire adapted from Shields et al. (2011);

• Employment equity legislation questionnaire adapted from Mula (2014);

• Talent management questionnaire adapted from Knott (2016); and

• Organisational culture questionnaire adapted from Cameron and Quinn (2011).

Closed-ended questions were posed to measure participants' perceptions regarding employment equity, talent management, and organisational culture perceptions. An itemised scale was used where 1 = Completely disagree; 2 = Partially disagree; 3 = Neither agree nor disagree; 4 = Partially agree; and 5 = Completely agree. The 5-point scale was used to save participants' time, while Cronbach's alpha was applied to test reliability. To ensure content validity, a pilot study was conducted in which 20 engineers participated; for construct validity, a factor analysis was applied to the study.

3.4 Research procedure

Permission was obtained from CESA to conduct a pilot study. Furthermore, ethical clearance was obtained through the ethics committee of a university of technology that assessed the research proposal and measuring instrument. The questionnaire was disseminated via SurveyMonkey to the 200 sampled engineers.

3.5 Testing the proposed research model

This study used partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) with SmartPLS 4 software to ascertain the correlation between factors contributing to gender employment equity. By using a two-pronged approach, the study evaluated both a measurement and a structural model. According to Henseler et al. (2009), this two-step protocol is initiated by assessing the measurement model and testing the validity and reliability of the items. In the first step, confirmatory factor analysis is conducted to assess the factor loadings of the measurement models.

3.6 Analysis techniques used in the study

The study used Smart-PLS software for data collection and analysis, partial least squares (PLS) and structural equation model (SEM) analysis for hypothesis formulation and exploratory research. Moreover, the SPSS 28 program was used for statistical analysis, detecting missing data, and normality testing. Descriptive statistics and a parametric t-test were used to investigate gender differences within the engineering industry, specifically regarding gender employment equity, talent management, and organisational culture. Hypotheses were assessed using reliability and validity inquiries. The data were analysed using exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), while structural equation modelling was used to examine the impact of talent management and organisational culture on gender employment equity. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) identified key patterns and relationships within data, which aided in theory development and instrument refinement, particularly in the early stages, to eliminate irrelevant items. EFA assesses instrument dimensionality (Knekta et al., 2019). Moreover, Hair et al. (2020) emphasised that EFA involves critical decisions regarding the analysis approach. For example, the study found that all items measured the intended variables except for organisational culture. Thus, Smart-PLS and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) were used to examine this factor further. Auerswald and Moshagen (2019) explored factor retention, with scholars suggesting retention thresholds of 0.70 or 0.50. Consequently, indicators with factor loadings above 0.7 were retained, while those below were removed. Several organisational culture indicators had loadings below 0.7 and were, therefore, deleted.

 

4. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

The findings of the study are discussed next.

4.1 Measurement model assessment

The initial analysis conducted was focused on the measurement model. This required the researcher to first evaluate reliability and validity.

4.1.1 Correlation matrix, KMO, Bartlett's test and rotated factor matrix

4.1.1.1 Correlation matrix

Moreover, to investigate the link between gender employment equity, talent management, and organisational culture, a correlation matrix evaluation was performed. That said, high correlation coefficients necessitate checking if the absolute value approaches 1, which implies that the variables share the same meaning or information (Kang & Ahn, 2021). A Pearson correlation coefficient (r) was also used to examine correlations and identify multicollinearity among the study variables. The results are reflected in Table 2.

 

 

The Pearson correlation analysis revealed significant positive relationships between most constructs, except for talent management and gender employment equity, and organisational culture and gender employment equity, which were negative and not statistically significant. All coefficients were below 0.8, indicating no multicollinearity issues. With correlation values below the cut-off point, the study proceeded with parametric statistical analysis.

4.1.1.2 Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) and Bartlett tests

To identify the underlying factors of perceived gender employment equity, talent management, and organisational culture, the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) and Bartlett's tests were conducted to assess survey adequacy. Field (2005) supports using these tests for sampling adequacy and sphericity. The KMO test measures sample adequacy with values between 0 and 1 (Kaiser, 1974). Shrestha (2021) ascertained that the KMO test evaluates data suitability for factor analysis, with values from 0.8 to 1.0 indicating adequate sampling, 0.70 to 0.79 as average, and 0.60 to 0.69 as marginal. Additionally, Bartlett's test demonstrated statistical significance, confirming the data's suitability for further analysis.

As shown in Table 3, the KMO value is 0.875, which Kaiser (1974) considers acceptable. Bartlett's test was statistically significant (p = 0.000), indicating that the constructs are accurate and adequate for measurement. Table 3 presents the results of the KMO and Bartlett tests.

 

 

To identify the underlying factors related to perceived gender employment equity, talent management, and organisational culture, the study conducted an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) using principal component analysis (PCA). PCA is frequently employed to assess the suitability of items in EFA. In this analysis, only items with eigenvalues greater than 1.0 were retained, while those with loadings below 0.30 were excluded to minimise the number of variables grouped on the same factor (Yong & Pearce, 2013).

4.1.1.4 Rotated factor matrix

Willmer et al. (2019) applied exploratory factor analysis (EFA) using Promax rotation and maximum likelihood extraction to enforce a three-factor solution to evaluate the theoretical structure of the 9-item Utrecht work engagement scale (UWES-9). Similarly, this study also rotated factors to enhance clarity and optimise the structure, aiming to reduce the number of variables loading on the same factor (Yong & Pearce, 2013). Thirteen factors were identified, accounting for 73.44% of the variance. The findings revealed that all item sets effectively measured their intended variables, except for organisational culture, which demonstrated cross-loading onto other factors.

4.1.2 Assessing the reliability and validity of the data

PLS-SEM usually employs Cronbach alpha and composite reliability to assess reliability. For both methods, as a general rule, values of 0.70 or higher indicate levels of reliability (Hair et al., 2021). Table 4 presents the reliability results.

 

 

The values of the Cronbach alpha and those of composite reliability exceeded the threshold of 0.7, suggesting that the measurement model is adequate. The next step was to assess convergent validity.

SEM determines convergence validity by reviewing factor loadings and average variance extracted (AVE). In a scale, convergence validity measures how closely variables measuring the exact dimension correlate (Cooper & Schindler, 2006). Hair et al. (2021) claimed that convergent validity is supported by AVEs exceeding 0.5 since some of the AVE values were lower than the recommended value of 0.5; the study relied heavily on factor loadings. For example, the perceived gender employment equity and the organisational culture were clearly below the recommended values of 0.477 and 0.474, respectively. Other studies have previously observed this low AVE (Kozak et al., 2003). Although the two constructs had low AVEs, other measures of convergent validity were satisfactory, thus confirming their existence. For example, the AVEs for employment legislation and talent management were 0.63 and 0.66, respectively, and were above the recommended threshold.

In light of the challenges in AVE, analysis of factor loadings became imperative, as some of the factors were below the recommended threshold. However, after removing the problematic factors from the CFA, the factor loadings met the required criterion. Therefore, they were used along with the AVEs of employment legislation and talent management to confirm convergent validity. Overall, the combined assessment supported convergent validity.

Discriminant validity is determined by how constructs empirically differ from each other (Hair et al., 2021). This study assessed discriminant validity in terms of Fornell-Larcker's (1981) and the heterotrait-monotrait ratio (HTMT) methods. The Fornell-Larcker (1981) criterion suggests that the average variance extracted (AVE) be compared to correlations and that the square root of the AVE for any construct should be larger than the construct's correlations. The square roots of AVEs are usually located on the diagonal of the matrix. Table 5 presents the results of discriminant validity using Fornell-Lacker's criterion.

 

 

The square root of AVEs in Table 5 (marked in bold and diagonally) were all greater than their corresponding correlations, which confirms discriminant validity. Discriminant validity was further assessed using the HTMT ratio. In the HTMT ratio method, a value less than 0.9 or 0.85 shows discriminant validity (Hair et al., 2021). The results of the HTMT technique are presented in Table 6.

 

 

Table 6 shows that the HTMT values are within an acceptable range since they are less than the threshold of 0.9 or 0.85, confirming discriminant validity. Overall, both techniques used in this study confirmed discriminant validity.

This study used a Smart PLS technique with standard bootstrapping of 5000 (Ringle et al., 2020) samples and 220 cases to assess the significance of the path values (Hair et al., 2021). The R², beta, and t values had to be calculated based on the data, and if the R² value is greater than 0.26, it indicates a good model (Hair et al., 2020). As shown in Figure 1, all R² values are lower than the 0.26 threshold, suggesting an acceptable model fit.

 

 

4.1.3 Assessing the Structural Model

The model relies on several fundamental assumptions. It posits causal relationships among the variables: organisational culture influences both talent management and employment legislation; talent management affects employment legislation; and employment legislation impacts perceived gender employment equity. Each latent variable is measured using scales deemed valid and reliable. The model assumes linear relationships between these variables and no perfect multicollinearity among the independent variables. Additionally, it assumes the data are normally distributed, which is crucial for specific statistical tests within the structural equation modelling (SEM) framework. To ensure the model's reliability and validity, various checks were performed. Composite reliability confirms consistent measurement of each latent variable. Convergent validity verifies strong correlations among indicators of a latent variable. Moreover, discriminant validity ensures that the latent variables are distinct and not overly correlated. These checks were conducted to ensure the model's robustness.

After the model fit was completed, the beta coefficient values and significance values were calculated. Table 7 displays the data on the analysis.

 

 

The path coefficient between organisational culture and perceived gender employment equity (β = -0.178, p = 0.049, p < 0.05) indicates employment legislation's significant and negative effect on perceived gender employment equity. As a result, H1 was accepted. Organisational culture positively impacted talent management (β = 0.805, p =0.0001, p < 0.05), supporting H2. Furthermore, there was a negative, insignificant relationship between talent management and perceived gender employment equity (β =-0.057, p = 0,223, p > 0.05). Additionally, there was a positive, non-significant relationship between talent management and gender employment equity (β =0.219, p = 0.063, p > 0.05). These results showed that H3 should be rejected.

According to the theories employed in the present study (supported by the affirmed Hypothesis 1), it substantiates that the utilisation of the CVF in the context of gender employment equity entails the recognition that cultural transformation is frequently a necessary precondition to fostering fairness and inclusivity within an organisation. This process involves aligning the prevailing organisational culture with the values and practices that endorse gender equity. The influence of organisational culture on talent management, as corroborated by Hypothesis 2, is consistent with the principles of the competing values framework (CVF) and the attraction-selection-attrition (ASA) theories, as previously elucidated. For example, organisations that actively incorporate gender diversity and equity into their branding and cultural fabric may attract a more diverse and gender-representative pool of candidates, including women and other underrepresented genders. The aforementioned will likely benefit the engineering sector as a traditionally male domain.

Despite rejecting Hypothesis 3, the attraction-selection-attrition theory remains a valuable framework for talent management. This theory aids organisations in comprehending the evolution of their culture and how they can attract, select, and retain employees who contribute positively to the organisation's achievements. However, its application should be cautious, balancing the importance of cultural alignment with diversity and inclusion to ensure organisational adaptability and innovation while preserving a robust corporate culture. These considerations underscore the need for further exploration involving the impact of talent management on gender employment equity, particularly within the engineering sector.

 

5. DISCUSSION

5.1 Organisational culture

The study explores cultural representation and female employment equity, highlighting the importance of corporate culture in building a competitive advantage (Vlaicu et al., 2019; Singh, 2020). Respondents favoured market and hierarchy culture, emphasising the significance of formal procedures and efficiency. Surprisingly, clan culture did not attain the expected prominence, indicating potential challenges in traditionally male-dominated fields like engineering, where segregation has been identified as a barrier. These findings align with Vlaicu et al.'s (2019) observations favouring clan culture values. To address these issues, fostering open discussions, constructive criticism, career advancement, and enhancing loyalty and trust within organisations is vital. That said, management mentorship and support culture, particularly in engineering, remain areas of concern (Bondarescu et al., 2018; Vandenberghe, 2021). The study underscores the need for strategies to promote gender equity in traditionally masculine sectors like engineering (Sharma et al., 2019). Thus, effective, long-term organisational change should be rooted in a comprehensive assessment of organisational culture, as advocated by Vlaicu et al. (2019).

5.1.1 Organisational culture and talent management

The literature review highlighted a positive connection between organisational culture and talent management (Hypothesis 3). Organisations with cultures aligned with talent management policies tend to implement them more effectively. Survey participants favoured clan and creative cultures over market and hierarchical ones, which are common in engineering. This finding emphasises the significance of workplace environment and social ties in determining employee satisfaction (Paais & Pattiruhu, 2020). Other studies underscore the importance of individual traits, recruitment, recognition of talent, talent development, leadership style, appreciation, and reward in talent management (Shahi et al., 2020). While reviewing the engineering sector, particularly for women, it became evident that organisational culture and talent management are crucial.

5.1.2 Organisational culture and perceived gender employment equity

The PLS analysis supports Hypothesis H1, indicating a positive link between organisational culture and perceived gender employment equity in the engineering sector. Previous research in STEM fields has emphasised the importance of organisational culture in creating a welcoming environment for women (Kuschel & Salvaj, 2018; Nazir et al., 2019). Gupta (2019) recommended regularly examining internal policies to align with evolving laws and regulations. Additionally, organisational culture has proven beneficial in male-dominated sectors like engineering, where women often face bias and hostility from male colleagues (Aboagye-Nimo et al., 2019; Hardcastle et al., 2019; Marco-Bujosa et al., 2021). While non-discriminatory policies can drive behavioural change, challenges such as a lack of respect, prejudice, and stereotypes persist for women in engineering.

The results support the competing values framework (CVF) by demonstrating that organisational culture significantly influences factors such as gender equity and talent management. The findings align with CVF's claim that distinct cultural categories shape organisational outcomes. For example, adhocracy cultures, which prioritise flexibility and innovation, are more effective in attracting diverse talent and promoting gender equity than rigid, hierarchical cultures (Cameron & Quinn, 2011). Additionally, Clan cultures, which focus on collaboration and teamwork, may help reduce segregation and hostility in male-dominated fields like engineering. However, the study also challenges CVF by highlighting the complexities and resistance involved in implementing cultural changes aligned with gender equity goals.

5.2 Talent management

Despite the global push for gender equity and inclusion, Ruiz-Cantisani et al. (2020) highlighted the ongoing challenges in offering development and advancement opportunities to women in male-dominated fields. Male dominance, especially in the engineering industry, contributes to this problem (Afolabi et al., 2019; Hansen et al., 2020; Hasan et al., 2021). Critical talent management research is vital for addressing gender employment equity in this context. Also, Goestjahjanti et al. (2020) ascertained that talent management enhances job satisfaction among women, underscoring the need for further study. Opoku and Williams (2019) noted concerns within the engineering sector as related to mobility opportunities, peer interaction, and work-life balance, with women facing career disadvantages due to entrenched masculine cultures and patriarchal structures. Anlesinya et al. (2019) noted that the lack of skilled talent professionals poses a challenge for implementing talent strategies across industries, a concern that could particularly impact the engineering sector, where women often face marginalisation.

Furthermore, the findings largely support the attraction-selection-attrition (ASA) theory, demonstrating that recruitment and retention practices can significantly influence organisational diversity. The study aligns with ASA's (Schneider, 1987) claim that organisations tend to hire and retain employees who fit their existing culture, highlighting the role of talent management in promoting gender equity. However, the study also critiques ASA, noting that a strong emphasis on cultural fit can sometimes hinder diversity, especially if the organisational culture does not align with inclusivity goals. This suggests that ASA may need to be adjusted to better integrate cultural fit with diversity by eliminating recruitment biases and ensuring equitable policies and procedures.

5.2.1 Talent management and perceived gender employment equity

Hypothesis 3 anticipated a positive link between talent management and gender employment parity in engineering. Surprisingly, the PLS path modelling detected a negative impact, contradicting prior studies (Howcroft & Rubery, 2019; Mensah, 2019; Paais & Pattiruhu, 2020).

The gender career mobility gap in engineering may relate to succession planning and retention concerns. Smith et al. (2023) confirmed the existence of persistent gender disparities in the engineering profession, emphasising the need for additional research on talent management's role in increasing the participation and advancement of women in engineering.

5.3 Gender employment equity

5.3.1 Reward/salary structure

The gender employment equity survey highlights concerns about gender inequality in the workplace, including salary influence, such as men receiving larger salary raises and unequal promotions. For instance, Haupt and Ndimande (2019) highlighted gender inequality in the workplace, with women receiving lower pay for equal work.

5.3.2 Division of role/work structure

Studies by Miner et al. (2018), Butcher et al. (2020), and Fouad et al. (2020) underscore the challenges women encounter in job allocation within male-dominated industries, like engineering, owing to societal role imbalances (Chung et al., 2020; Padavic et al., 2020). This role division imbalance adversely affects career progression and income disparities, perpetuated by the field's male-dominated nature. Gender inequality in engineering also varies with experience, particularly impacting women's access to leadership positions (Afolabi et al., 2019; Hasan et al., 2021).

5.3.3 Work-life balance

The study highlights women's work-life balance challenges attributed to societal norms and patriarchy, emphasising the importance of engineering sector work-life balance policies for gender equity (Paul et al., 2018; Makarem et al., 2019). Moreover, caregiver women may face career perception biases, reinforcing gender employment disparities and discouraging female participation in engineering (Espi et al., 2019).

The study highlights that achieving gender equity remains challenging, especially in fields like engineering, where cultural fit issues are prevalent, even with the application of the Competing Values Framework (CVF) and attraction-selection-attrition (ASA). This challenges the notion that aligning recruitment practices with organisational culture alone can close the gender gap, emphasising the need for additional strategies or frameworks to address these persistent barriers (Alfred et al., 2019; McKinnon & O'Connell, 2020).

 

6. RECOMMENDATIONS

The study suggests that HRM should implement succession planning processes to identify potential successors for employee promotions, regardless of gender. Diversity training should be considered for both men and line managers so as to promote gender employment equity. The organisational culture should be reviewed, focusing on teamwork, support, and mentoring, especially in the engineering sector, where women are a minority. An inclusive environment should be established to combat traditional perceptions and ensure equal opportunities for all employees.

 

7. LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

According to the study, the relationships between the independent and dependent variables showed both positive and negative support. However, it is vital to interpret the results cautiously due to the limitations of the study design, which only collected data at one point in time and did not allow for causal inferences. The research specifically focused on male and female engineers in the engineering industry; therefore, the findings may not be applicable to other populations.

 

8. THEORETICAL IMPLICATIONS

8.1 Competing values framework (CVF):

The study aligns with Cameron and Quinn's (2011) competing values framework (CVF), which categorises organisational cultures into clan, adhocracy, market, and hierarchy, each promoting distinct behaviours and values. The research confirms that organisational culture significantly impacts talent management and gender equity. Clan cultures, emphasising collaboration and employee well-being, were more supportive of gender diversity, while adhocracy cultures, valuing innovation and flexibility, effectively attracted and retained diverse talent. However, the study also highlights the challenges of applying CVF in practice. Overall, transforming entrenched organisational cultures to support gender equity is complex and resource-intensive, suggesting that CVF may require more detailed guidance for such cultural shifts. Therefore, leaders need to understand these cultural dimensions and focus on building a positive, inclusive workplace culture to increase employee engagement and satisfaction (Do, 2021).

8.2 Attraction-selection-attrition (ASA) theory

Schneider's (1987) attraction-selection-attrition (ASA) theory asserts that organisations attract and retain individuals whose values align with their culture. The study supports ASA, showing that aligning recruitment and retention with cultural values can enhance diversity. For example, engineering firms that prioritise gender diversity attract more women. However, the study also critiques ASA, noting that an overemphasis on cultural fit may limit diversity. That said, existing cultures can hinder diversity in male-dominated fields like engineering, where women's competency and cultural fit are scrutinised more harshly. This suggests that ASA may necessitate diverse adjustments to balance cultural fit with fostering inclusion (Alfred et al., 2019; McKinnon & O'Connell, 2020).

8.3 Broader theories of gender equity and talent management

The study aligns with broader gender equity theories, confirming that barriers like competency, cultural fit, and social norms persist in talent management, particularly in male-dominated fields like engineering. While frameworks like the competing values framework (CVF) and attraction-selection-attrition (ASA) offer valuable insights, they are not sufficient alone to achieve gender equity. For instance, integrating additional strategies, such as targeted training, mentorship, and policies addressing unconscious biases and structural barriers to create a more inclusive and diverse workplace is important. Accordingly, this holistic approach is essential for effective talent management and gender equity.

 

9. PRACTICAL/MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS

9.1 Strategic HR management

Integrating CVF and ASA allows organisations to refine their recruitment and retention strategies to ensure a better cultural fit. For example, companies with a dominant adhocracy culture should focus on attracting more innovative and entrepreneurial individuals. This approach enhances employee satisfaction and reduces turnover, aligning HR practices with the broader organisational strategy.

9.2 Cultural change management

Understanding the dynamic interplay between CVF's cultural values and ASA's employee fit can guide cultural change initiatives. Organisations undergoing transformation can employ these frameworks to identify potential cultural clashes and devise strategies to align new hires with the evolving culture, ensuring smoother transitions.

9.3 Leadership development

Leaders can benefit from understanding how CVF and ASA interact, tailoring their leadership styles to align with the organisation's cultural values and the values of their team members. For example, leaders in a market culture (competitive) should adopt a results-oriented approach, while those in a clan culture (collaborative) should focus on team building and support.

The study's findings support and expand on existing theories while highlighting areas where these theories may fall short. Hence, integrating CVF and ASA can help promote inclusivity; however, organisations must address the complexities and resource demands of cultural transformation.

 

10. IMPLICATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

10.1 Longitudinal studies

Future research should emphasise longitudinal studies to understand the long-term effects of integrating CVF and ASA on organisational culture and talent management. These studies can reveal how these frameworks influence diversity and inclusion over time.

10.2 Sector-specific analysis

Additional research is required to explore the application of CVF and ASA in various sectors, especially male-dominated fields like engineering. Understanding sector-specific challenges and strategies can aid in developing more effective approaches to promoting gender diversity.

10.3 Cultural change mechanisms

Investigating how cultural change occurs can provide valuable insights. Future studies should examine how organisations successfully manage cultural transformation to support diversity and inclusion.

10.4 Diversity metrics

Developing and validating metrics to measure the effectiveness of diversity initiatives is crucial. Future research should focus on creating robust tools to assess the impact of cultural and recruitment strategies on gender equity.

10.5 Integration of additional frameworks

Exploring the integration of CVF and ASA with other theoretical frameworks can enhance understanding. Incorporating theories related to unconscious bias, structural barriers, and targeted training programmes can provide a more comprehensive approach to talent management and diversity.

10.6 Employee perspectives

Gathering employee perspectives on cultural fit and diversity can offer valuable insights. Future research should include qualitative studies to better understand employees' experiences and perceptions of organisational culture and diversity initiatives.

In conclusion, while integrating CVF and ASA is crucial for creating a cohesive and inclusive environment, organisations must address the complexities and resource demands of cultural transformation. They must also adopt supplementary strategies to achieve appropriate gender equity in talent management.

 

11. CONCLUSION

According to the survey, market and hierarchy cultures dominate the engineering business. Maintaining a culture of hierarchy is, therefore, crucial to address animosity in the sector. However, a clan culture that promotes teamwork, employee involvement, and corporate commitment to employees is desirable. This can also help to eliminate gender segregation in the sector. Several challenges must be addressed in order to enhance talent management and create equity in the engineering sector. These include modifying training and advancement plans to guarantee that no discrimination occurs, thereby creating equitable succession planning policies and practices and conducting departure interviews to determine the causes of attrition.

Moreover, in strategic HR management, integrating the competing values framework (CVF) and attraction-selection-attrition (ASA) principles is essential for refining recruitment and retention strategies. For example, organisations with an adhocracy culture should focus on attracting innovative individuals to boost creativity and problem-solving in STEM fields, which can enhance job satisfaction and reduce turnover, thus supporting organisational goals (Schneider, 1987; Cameron & Quinn, 2011).

Gender diversity in recruitment requires inclusive job descriptions, diverse hiring panels, and targeted marketing to mitigate unconscious biases. Managing cultural transformation involves aligning CVF's cultural values with ASA's principles of employee fit, especially in STEM, where shifting from hierarchical or market-driven cultures to more inclusive clan or adhocracy cultures can improve gender diversity. This transition requires careful planning and alignment of new hires with the evolving culture (Yong & Pearce, 2013).

Addressing structural barriers involves implementing policies to counteract biases and providing support systems for underrepresented groups. Additionally, leadership development should reflect organisational values, with leaders in market cultures focusing on results and those in clan cultures prioritising team support. Ultimately, promoting inclusive leadership through transparency and diversity training is essential (Do, 2021).

Finally, policy development should include setting diversity targets, offering flexible work arrangements, and regularly monitoring these initiatives to ensure effectiveness. Building a positive organisational culture that values employee well-being and collaboration, along with industry partnerships and networking with academic institutions, can further support diversity efforts and enhance gender equity in talent management (Alfred et al., 2019; McKinnon & O'Connell, 2020).

Conflict of interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest with respect to the research, authorship and publication of the article.

Data availability: The data used for this article can be found in Ngobeni, E.K. 2024. A framework for gender employment equity within an engineering environment. Doctor Technologiae: Human Resources Management thesis. Tshwane University of Technology.

Ethical clearance and informed consent statement: The researchers obtained ethical clearance prior to data collection and informed consent from all the participants in this study. Ethical clearance number: Ref #: FCRE2019/FR/08/007-MS (2)

Funding: The authors did not receive any financial support for research and authorship. Funding for the publication of the article was paid from Prof. I. Swarts' university research account.

Prior publication: This article represents a substantial reworking (more than 50%) Elizabeth Kedibone Ngobeni, Doctor Technologiae: Human Resources Management thesis, submitted, entitled 'A framework for gender employment equity within an engineering environment', at the Department of People Management and Development, Faculty of Management Sciences, Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria, with Professor I Swarts (supervisor) and Dr KF Lessing (co-supervisor). https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.14519/1733

 

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