ARTICLES

 

Promoting quality learning experiences in teacher education: What mentor teachers expect from pre-service teachers during teaching practice

 

 

Moeniera Moosa

University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa

 

 

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ABSTRACT

The main goal of initial teacher educator (ITE) programmes is to prepare pre-service teachers to teach effectively in diverse classrooms. During teaching practice (TP), both in-service teachers and university tutors have expectations of pre-service teachers; the two groups however may differ in their expectations. This paper reports on findings from a case study of what teachers expect of students during TP. Data were collected from 77 teachers using a qualitative research method. Teachers were requested to complete an open-ended questionnaire. Findings from a deductive thematic content analysis indicated that teachers confused what students should know with what they should do during TP. The data indicate that teachers found it beneficial to have students at their schools for TP but expected students to have comprehensive content, curriculum and general pedagogical knowledge. Teachers also expected students to have knowledge about more generic aspects of teaching, such as knowledge of specific school context, what it means to be professional, willingness to learn, participation in school activities, being punctual and adhering to the school's code of conduct. Teachers' expectations of students are still technicist and unrealistic as they view skills acquisition as involving practice over time. There is thus a dichotomy with regard to the expectation of procedural and principled knowledge for students on TP. This misalignment of expectations will impact negatively on pre-service teachers.

Keywords: Initial teacher education, schools, teaching practice, in-service teachers, pre-service teachers

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INTRODUCTION

There is a growing interest in research on how to prepare pre-service teachers effectively to teach in South Africa. Government documents, like the Minimum Requirements for Qualification in Teacher Education (henceforth, MRTEQ) (Department of Higher Education and Training, 2015), indicate competencies of newly qualified teachers to which initial teacher educator (ITE) programmes are expected to adhere. Added to this teaching practicum is a core and compulsory component of student teachers' professional training and learning (Gebhard, 2009; Tang, 2004; Department of Higher Education and Training, 2015) in ITE programmes. MRTEQ (Department of Higher Education and Training, 2015) adopts a more knowledge-based approach to teaching and rejects a technicist approach that was commonly found pre-1994. At the same time, the needs of learners and the teaching profession at large should be considered in the process of teacher preparation. However, there is limited knowledge about what in-service teachers expect from pre-service teachers during their teaching practicum. By understanding in-service teachers' expectations of students more comprehensively, universities will gain insight into how to better prepare students before they are placed in schools for TP. To address this gap, the paper reports on what 77 inservice teachers expect of students when they are on TP.

I firstly situate the study within the wider body of research into teacher education. I then refer to the work of various authors to understand what is required from pre-service teachers during teaching practice. Next, I describe the theoretical framework, research design and outline the findings. I begin by reviewing selected literature on teacher education.

 

LITERATURE REVIEW

Increased pressure has been placed on universities across the globe to find ways of 'proving their worth not only in the preparation of students, but also how they are linked to business and industry' (Hénard & Roseveare, 2012: 8). Initial teacher preparation programmes are not exempt from these pressures. There have been numerous changes to the education system in South Africa over the past 20-years. These changes include, but are not limited to, curriculum changes, large class sizes and accommodating learners' academic and social needs. In the light of this, teaching has become more multifaceted and requires teachers to have an understanding of the 'complexity of the profession and can think on multiple levels' (Hoban, 2005: 1) in order to be operationally sound in the classroom. Hence a more dynamic teacher is required in schools. Yet, newly qualified teachers feel unprepared to assume their roles in the classroom (Goodwin, Smith, Souto-Manning, Cheruvu, Tan, Reed & Taveras, 2014). If we leave new teachers to sink or swim they will become overwhelmed and end up leaving the profession or develop a personal survival agenda that will not serve the needs of these learners (Feiman-Nemser, 2003: 27). This has implications for how pre-service teachers are trained as their capabilities for meeting these needs have to be developed in ITE programmes. There is also a need for a far stronger alignment between what schools need and university outcomes (Feiman-Nemser, 2001).

Preparing students for practice

Teachers' expectations of students during teaching practice should be regarded as an important source of information for initial teacher training institutes. In the absence of this information, it could be claimed that what is taught in ITE programmes is not what is expected in the profession. Furthermore, in the absence of this alignment, schools might regard initial teacher education programmes as removed from the realities of the practice. This is what some researchers frame as the divide between theory and practice (Korthagen, 2010). This divide will perpetuate the common misconception of students that theory is only 'good' when it is 'relevant' to assist them in practice without the realisation that the 'relevance' is in the theories' potential to act as a tool for pedagogical intervention (Deng, 2004). Teachers might feel the need to 'protect students from the impractical ideas promoted by lecturers who are out of touch with the realities of the classroom' (Feiman-Nemser, 2001: 1020). This view, according to Grossman, Compton, Igra, Ronfeldt, Shahan and Williamson (2009: 2060), would perpetuate the 'all too familiar divide between theory and practice'. Bridging the gap between theory and practice is critical as it would assist in preventing pre-service teachers from feeling lost during teaching practice (Hong, 2010: 1540). Hence, attempting to promote depth and rigour in the execution of an ITE programme will remain an unserviceable experience until school and university expectations become more aligned.

The absence of this alignment in terms of a common goal and understanding of teaching will result in a non-productive relationship between schools and teacher training institutes and a lack of sharing of expertise (Feiman-Nemser, 2001). Thus, in-service teachers and ITE programmes should have a common understanding of what is important and relevant for teachers to know. Tom (1997 cited in Hoban, 2005)

states that one of the problems associated with teacher education is the discontinuity between university courses and school practices. If there was more of a match between the two, the schools would be equipped to build on and extend what pre-service teachers have been taught during teaching practice (Hoban, 2005). A further concern is that initial teacher education programmes could view what pre-service teachers observe in schools as 'bad practice' (Goodlad, 1993 cited in Hoban, 2005: 3). With experience, in-service teachers could develop strategies to cope with the various challenges of teaching that are not necessarily aligned to any theoretical stances or specific pedagogical or methodological practices. These skills can be viewed as technical skills which are seen as equivalent to 'survival skills' (McDonough, 2012: 7).

Teachers might, nonetheless, feel that through their trial and error method these practices are effective. These practices might become a set of how to techniques (Gamble, 2009) or simply 'good ideas for the classroom' (Ensor, 2004: 229) that are not in conjunction with what pre-service teachers are taught during their ITE programmes. It would thus be significant to gain an understanding of what ITE programmes regard as vital for teachers to know and what schools deem as relevant. Initial teacher training institutes are faced with a challenge of deciding what should be included in the curriculum for pre-service teachers and what they would best learn by being exposed to schools during teaching experience (Grossman et al., 2009). The reality is that although ITE programmes cannot fully prepare pre-service teachers for all the challenges of being in a school, they play a vital role in creating an authentic setting in which the demands of teaching are highlighted for pre-service students (Gravett, Henning & Eiselen, 2011).

In the absence of an understanding of the various stakeholder expectations, there might be a misalignment of expectations. This could result in the pre-service teaching students feeling uncertain and ill prepared. They might very well find themselves in a position where they only learn about what teaching entails when they qualify and begin teaching. The aim of this research is to gain a deeper understanding of what teachers expect students to know about teaching during their teaching practicum. In finding out what these expectations are, I hope to gain a better understanding of how the curriculum can be improved to meet the needs of schools, the university, as well as pre-service teachers.

Initial teacher education programmes

The emphasis of ITE programmes should be to prepare pre-service teachers to be equipped with knowledge, skills and processes needed for teaching. This is not a painless task as teaching is a 'complex practice' (Grossman, et al., 2009: 2059), which is 'influenced by many interconnected factors' (Hoban, 2005: 2). In order to achieve this, ITE institutes promote what Shay (2012: 13) refers to as 'professional knowledge and theoretical knowledge'. ITE programmes are professional and theoretical in nature because teaching practices are derived from theory and the logic of a specific discipline is explored with pre-service teachers. Added to this, teaching should be viewed as a profession, with the focus of teacher education programmes being on pre-service teachers to develop a skill set of strategies that will allow them to be in a position to make personal judgements in various classroom contexts (Hoban, 2005; Berliner, 1994).

There are various views on what a teacher educator programme should include and not compromise on. These include programmes not only being limited to students' mastery of specific instructional techniques (Goodman, 1988) but should also be 'organized around a core set of practices' (Grossman, Hammerness & McDonald, 2009: 274). To achieve this, teacher educators must focus upon helping pre-service teachers develop and refine a set of core practices for teaching (Grossman et al., 2009). These core skills are guided by the MRTEQ (Department of Higher Education and Training, 2015 document which highlights the basic competences of a beginner teacher). They include sound content knowledge, subject methodology, understanding individual learners' needs, the ability to communicate effectively, knowledge about the school curriculum, and understanding diversity in the South African context.

It must be noted that what universities prioritise in their curricula is influenced by the amount of time students have to qualify. Thus it is not possible for a teacher educator programme to cover all aspects of teaching. It therefore becomes important for students to be placed in schools for teaching practice so that they are exposed to aspects of teaching from experts who have experience of being in the classroom (Berliner, 1994).

The role of teaching practice (TP)

TP is a time when students are exposed to the professional challenges that service teachers experience on a daily basis. Being at a school for TP exposes pre-service teachers to the complexities of being in a classroom, this experience, for some, can be a reality shock (Rots, Aelterman, Devos & Vlerick, 2010). TP thus gives students the opportunity to implement what they have been taught and at the same time allows them to develop a practical skill set which they obtain from observing teachers on TP. Schools should be spaces where generic knowledge and practical knowledge (Shay, 2012) are developed and applied as well as spaces that create opportunities for pre-service teachers to employ problem-solving techniques; thus providing students with 'more powerful learning opportunities' (Feiman-Nemser, 2001: 1014). Furthermore, students also view this time as an opportunity to secure future employment (Caires, Almeida & Martins, 2010).Yet, the reality is that it is not always easy or possible for students to transfer or apply the theoretical knowledge to actual classroom practice (Reeves & Robinson, 2014). TP can be regarded by most students as the most stressful experience during their teacher preparation qualification (Chaplain, 2008). Hence the time spent at school for TP can be viewed as a 'psychologically demanding period of professional preparation' (Klassen & Durksen, 2014: 158) for students. Students' ability to understand and meet the demands of teachers can assist in minimising the stress they experience during TP.

In-service teachers have the responsibility to induct students into the profession and expose them to aspects of 'school life'. Experienced teachers have developed a set of skills that they have found effective when teaching and which they often refer to when faced with decisions. Teachers might regard these skills as full-proof mechanisms when solving problems or coping within a classroom context because it is what has allowed them to be successful or survive within the classroom. Teachers are often also very eager to impart these kinds of 'teaching tips' to students during TP which may sometimes contradict the professional and theoretical knowledge that they have acquired. According to Hoban (2005: 7) when teaching gets diminished to a 'set of goals' and 'skills' it moves from being a profession to a craft. This is because it is assumed that teachers can understand what to do in the classroom through mere trial and error. In the next section I will discuss the theoretical framework which sets the scene for the study.

 

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

In order to understand what teacher knowledge should comprise, the work of Ryle (1971) and Shulman (1987, 2004) will be used as a theoretical framework. Ryle (1971) suggests a more generic way of understanding teacher knowledge by incorporating the concept of knowing 'how' and knowing 'what'. These ideas are further expanded by Gamble (2009) who describes knowing how as procedural knowledge and knowing what as principled knowledge. Procedural knowledge can be regarded as practical knowledge which is learnt informally as it is difficult to make this form of knowledge explicit in a textual form. Thus practical knowledge must be informed by understanding and should draw from both academic and technical knowledge (Morrow, 2007); thus it is acquired by means of social interaction and can be 'context-specific knowledge' (Wilson & Demetriou, 2007). This kind of knowledge would be regarded as knowledge acquired in practice (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999). Principled knowledge on the other hand can be regarded as codified knowledge that is taught formally (Wilson & Demetriou, 2007). This can be viewed as knowledge of practice (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999) that is taught at university.

Shulman's (1987) model of teacher knowledge is the second theoretical framework used as he grappled with the question of what teachers should know. This paper specifically makes reference to his explanations of content knowledge, general pedagogical knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge, knowledge of educational contexts and curriculum knowledge.

Content knowledge is the knowledge teachers have of the subject they are teaching (Shulman, 1987). This does not include knowledge of the curriculum. For teachers to be effective they need to have deep knowledge and a strong understanding of the subjects they teach. General pedagogical knowledge for Shulman (1987: 227) refers to 'broad principles and strategies of classroom management and organization that appears to transcend subject matter'. This further includes teaching strategies, planning techniques (including efficient use of time) and assessment techniques. Students would acquire this kind of knowledge not only at university but in schools as a form of practical knowledge as it not always easy to make this kind of knowledge explicit in the form of text. Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) refers to knowledge a teacher has that 'goes beyond knowledge of subject matter per se to the dimension of subject matter knowledge for teaching' (Shulman, 2004: 203). It is the ways in which a teacher re-contextualises the content knowledge that allows it to be understood by the learners (Bertram, 2011). PCK further includes an understanding of what makes learning easy or difficult from learners' perspectives (Shulman, 2004). Teachers develop PCK through 'reflection-in-action and reflection-on-action' (Park & Oliver, 2008: 261) within instructional contexts. Knowledge of educational contexts includes knowing about the background of the learners at the school as well as the organisational culture of the school (Bertram, 2011). Curriculum knowledge refers to teachers who need to have a comprehensive understanding of the 'materials and programs that serve as "tools of the trade"' (Shulman, 1987: 227). Currently this would include an understanding of the Curriculum Assessment Policy Statements (CAPS) documents.

 

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

A qualitative research design methodology was used in this study to understand and interpret in-service teachers' expectations of students on TP. This design is suitable because this research study requires one to 'make sense of data in terms of the participants' views (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2007). Furthermore, a qualitative research paradigm will allow in-service teachers to articulate their experiences and perceptions (Schurink, 1998) of what students are expected to know on TP. The research design aims to see the world from the participant's perspective (Scott & Morrison, 2006). This will be done by exploring the 'common experiences' (Creswell, 2012: 20) of in-service teachers of what students need to know when on TP.

Data were collected by means of an open-ended questionnaire that was emailed to schools. Participants were requested to answer the following questions:

1. What is your schools' criteria for accepting students for TP?

2. What are the benefits to your school of having student teachers?

3. What do you expect from students during TP?

By drawing on the responses completed on the questionnaires, I was able to gain a better understanding of the tensions between teachers' expectations of students as compared to what the university deems relevant for teachers to know.

Students at our institute complete their TP at various selected schools in-and-around Johannesburg. This includes public schools in townships, public schools in the suburbs, and independent schools that are linked to a specific religion as well as a-religious Independent Schools. A total of 250 schools who accept students for TP were requested to participate in this research. Twenty schools declined the invitation.

Seventy-seven schools in total agreed to participate; 10 were public school in a township, 49 public schools in a suburb, 14 independent schools that are linked to a specific religion and four a-religious independent schools. Thirty of these schools were high schools, 41 primary schools and six combined schools. The rest of the schools did not respond to the invitation despite a follow-up email. The validity of the data is ensured because of the multiple views expressed by a heterogeneous group of participants from various school contexts. Thus, the information presented is not from a one-sided view point. Furthermore, the theoretical frameworks used to derive themes are widely acceptable in the ITE domain. To ensure reliability, only information that was repeated by participants has been discussed and in that way, consistency will be achieved. Information and viewpoints which are regarded as anomalies have not been discussed in detail.

From the 77 participants who volunteered to complete the questionnaires, 17 were males and 60 were female. The participants comprised 21 principals, 28 deputy principals, 16 liaison teachers and 13 teachers from various school contexts who regularly had students in their classes during TP. In order to ensure confidentiality, no names of schools have been used in this paper. Furthermore, participants' identity has been kept anonymous by referring to them as teachers irrespective of their specific designations. No names or pseudonyms have been used in the write up of the data.

Data were analysed by means of an 'open coding method' as indicated by Tesch (Creswell 1994: 155). The open coding method allowed for the classification of phenomenon. This was done by reading through the raw data several times to identify key concepts and ideas which were then divided into themes (Henning, 2010). These ideas were then grouped into different themes. The themes were further derived by means of a deductive approach using Shulman's (1987) model of teacher knowledge as well as Gamble's (2009) concepts of 'procedural knowledge' and knowing what as 'principled knowledge'. A deductive approach assisted in limiting false conclusions during the analysis process as the findings will be explained using established frameworks. This will also allow for the findings to be generalised. The disadvantage of using this approach is that it does not encourage divergent thinking.

 

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

This section will be focusing on the overall findings as indicated in the questionnaires completed by participants. Firstly, I will be discussing the criteria used by schools to accept students for TP, followed by the benefits schools gain from having students at their school. Lastly I will present an analytical discussion of what teachers expect students to know when on TP.

Criteria for accepting students to complete TP at school

From the analysis of teachers' responses it was evident that the majority of teachers, 39%, had no specific criteria for accepting students to complete their TP at their schools. These schools indicated that they 'rely on the university to send a list of students and then ...allocate them accordingly'. Furthermore, the teachers at these schools stated that because they were 'students once and in order to develop good teachers in the future', they felt that it was important to give students 'the opportunity to observe good teaching practice and experience teaching classes themselves'. The next criterion used by 13% was that students needed to be registered at an accredited institute. This was followed by 13% of teachers indicating limited school space to accommodate many students as the school was a 'relatively small school with only two units of each grade'.

Ten percent of teachers indicated a preference for accommodating third and fourth year students. Nine percent of teachers indicated that they 'prefer not to accept any students in Term 3', hence the timing of TP is important. Furthermore, they also mentioned that student subject choices were often another factor that impeded students being accommodated at their schools. Fewer significant criteria were that 6% suggested that the availability of mentor teachers was an important factor. This was followed by 2% of the teachers indicating that the character of students is important and lastly that schools accommodated students on a 'first come first serve basis'. In general, teachers are willing and pleased to accept students at their schools for TP, the only restriction being limited space for accommodating students. I will now focus on what teachers indicate as the main benefits for having students at their school.

Benefits of accepting students to complete their teaching practice

Overall, teachers felt that there were benefits in having students at their schools for TP, with 5% of teachers indicating that there was no benefit for them because they felt that 'students are onlookers' who 'seldom seem as if they know how to be professional in their approach to their choice of profession'. The majority of teachers (65%) indicated that the greatest benefit for them in having students on TP was that students were familiar with the 'latest trends in education, and these can be carried over to staff members of a school'. For them, students were regarded as 'new blood' with 'new energy and innovative ideas to lessons' which led to an overall 'positive input' for teachers and learners.

Thirty one percent of teachers stated that accepting students assists them find 'possible candidates for possible future employment'. This resonates with Caires et al.'s (2010) view that students see TP as an opportunity to secure employment. Thus, having students at their school was envisaged as a head hunting opportunity as well as an opportunity for schools to promote their schools. Similarly, teachers regarded students as a source of 'great help in all aspects of teaching and learning and teachers appreciated being relieved of some duties from time to time'. Thus, students were used as assistant teachers as stated by 21% of teachers as there was 'an immediate relief on the teaching staff having two teachers instead of one in the classroom'. In addition, students were also used to 'assist with supervision and administrative tasks'. Fourteen percent of teachers also indicated that having students at their school was viewed as an opportunity to develop future teachers and it was 'a way of also giving back to the profession'. Teachers suggested that students are viewed as role models, by 12% of teachers for learners, because they 'are almost in their age-groups thus reaching learners becomes easy'. Lastly, 12% of teachers found personal benefit in having students in their schools as this gave them an opportunity 'to practise their mentorship skills'. In sum, teachers found it more beneficial to have students at their school than not to have them. I will now focus on what teachers expect from students on TP.

What teachers expect from students

From the data collected, teachers expected students to have knowledge of teaching which can be linked to content knowledge, general pedagogical knowledge, context knowledge and curriculum knowledge. Moreover, they also expected students to conduct themselves in a professional manner, participate in school activities and be willing to learn. I will start by discussing what teachers expected students to know about teaching followed by what they expected students to do when on TP.

What teachers expect students to know about teaching on TP

Overall, teachers expected students to have a strong general pedagogical knowledge, content knowledge, knowledge of the specific school context and knowledge of the current curriculum. Each one of these will be discussed below.

As previously stated, Shulman's (1987) model of teacher knowledge was one of the models used to analyse the data and will be used to discuss the findings. For 69% of teachers it was imperative that students had a sound general pedagogical knowledge including a clear understanding of teaching strategies, planning and assessment techniques.

According to teachers this involved students being able to engage effectively with aspects of 'teaching and learning' including 'how to teach a specific lesson according to a lesson plan with specific aims and objectives'. Furthermore, students were expected to be able to adapt 'lesson plans according to teaching differentiation, i.e. taking into consideration the different ability groups'. Knowledge of teaching and learning resonates with the notion that teachers need to play a leading role in this process as planning coherent learning opportunities is 'not something that most people know how to do intuitively or that they learn from unguided classroom experience' (Darling-Hammond, Banks, Zumwalt, Gomez, Sherin, Griesdorn & Finn, 2005: 176). Similarly, this links to the notion of how teachers are able to develop PCK (Park & Oliver, 2008; Shulman, 1987). According to teachers, students need to 'know the different learning areas, the time allocation of teaching each specific learning area'. The data reflect that teachers want students to 'research and prepare content for lessons, [as] they seem to rely very heavily on the supervising teacher or a textbook'. Furthermore, students should also be familiar with 'various forms of assessment' which includes 'baseline, formative and summative' assessment. Interestingly, teachers did not express the need to students to have strong classroom management skills, specifically classroom discipline techniques. The expectations regarding general pedagogical knowledge as argued by Cochran-Smith and Lytle (1999) and Shulman (1987) in terms of the mismatch between theory and practice are evident in the data. Thus, teachers are conflating what can be learnt in practice with what can be learnt of practice.

With regard to content knowledge, 40% of teachers expected students to have knowledge of the specific 'subject matter' that they were teaching as well as a deep understanding of the subject (Shulman, 1987; Hagger & Mclntyre, 2006; Ball, Thames & Phelps, 2008). Teachers felt that often students were 'unfamiliar with the subject content'. Teachers expected students to have strong content knowledge of the subjects they are majoring in as well as their sub majors.

In relation to knowledge of the schooling context, 34% of teachers expected students to 'have a reasonable sense of the school demographics, socio-economic circumstance' before coming to the school for TP. This included having 'some idea of the school ethos' and 'overall culture' of the school. Thus, teachers must have an understanding of the context in which they are teaching, specifically in relation to the background of the learners in order to meet their educational needs (Thrupp & Lupton, 2006; Shulman, 1987). Some teachers expected the university to 'offer some background information of specific school' to students before they selected schools for TP. What teachers expect from students with regard to context knowledge is only something students can truly understand and apply once they are in a specific context. An understanding of individual school ethos and culture is not easily explained to someone, but instead has to be experienced in practice.

Regarding implementation of the curriculum, 14% of teachers stated that students must be familiar with the 'CAPS document for their subject or phase'. In addition students should also know 'how to use the appropriate CAPS document to prepare lessons and assessment'. Thus, teachers expected students to have knowledge of the current curriculum. This is aligned to Shulman's (1987) view that the curriculum is regarded as a 'tool of the trade' that teachers cannot function without. This is what Biggs (2003) would refer to as constructive alignment. It is also linked to one of the competencies of newly qualified teachers as indicated in MRTEQ (Department of Higher Education and Training, 2015). Students are being exposed to specific curriculum knowledge but what is evident from teacher's comments is that students are not able to transfer what they have been taught into practice (Reeves & Robinson, 2014).

What teachers expected students to do when on TP

The data showed that teachers expected students to act professionally, be willing to learn, be punctual, to adhere to the school's code of conduct, participate in extra murals, be involved in school activities and lastly, students needed to be familiar with general educational policies.

With regard to professional conduct, 64% of teachers expected students to 'dress appropriately' and have 'acceptable social skills'. However, there was no elaboration as to why these aspects were considered important. Fifty two percent of teachers wanted students to be 'willing to participate in all activities offered by the school' as this was a part of 'every day school life'. In addition, teachers wanted students to 'mingle with [them] in order to better understand how the school works'. For 48% of teachers, this was perceived as students showing a willingness to learn. Furthermore, it was important for students to have 'a love for teaching and not regard teaching as just another job opportunity'. For 47% of teachers, it was imperative that students 'be on time', thus punctuality was a non-negotiable factor. Furthermore, issues of punctuality were deemed essential as teachers expressed that universities need to take the responsibility for ensuring that students understand the importance of punctuality. Twenty five percent of teachers wanted students to be aware of the 'vision of the school' as well as the 'culture of the school and its community' akin to the view that students need to have knowledge of the context of the school as described above. Next, 19% of teachers expected students to be 'actively involved in all extramural activities'. Another 10% of teachers wanted students to be aware of general school policies, specifically the 'SACE code of conduct'. The expectation is indicated in this section to relate to Gamble's (2009) concept of students being aware of procedural knowledge about what to do at school. The challenge is whether universities can prepare students for these expectations, if at all. It is evident that teachers expect students to have a certain mindset and willingness regarding teaching as a profession. This mindset can be said to be very specific to certain contexts and school cultures and hence is not possible to 'teach' at university. Possessing a mindset of school cultures is akin to procedural knowledge as described by Berliner (1994) who states that this knowledge can only be learnt from experts in practice.

 

CONCLUSION

Much of what schools expected from students is based on aspects pertaining to generic aspects of teaching that can and should be learnt in practice. Dress codes vary from school to school and thus it is not easy or possible for universities to 'teach' students how to dress for TP. It can also be argued that different and unique school settings encapsulate different norms and values regarding how teachers view students on TP and what their expectations are. This is something students will need to learn in practice. Interestingly, teachers have not made reference to the need for pre-service teachers to have knowledge about the use of ICT or mention the importance of effective communication. It is apparent that teachers are much more concerned with students' craft knowledge as well as issues like punctuality and professionalism, aspects that can be enforced by individual schools if they have systems in place. Currently, ITE programmes are focused on preparing teachers to develop content knowledge and enable various exposure to strategies for teaching and learning. This, teachers viewed as beneficial to them at a personal level because they were able to access information about the latest trends in education via students. Thus, universities should be viewed as spaces where propositional knowledge is acquired and TP is an opportunity for students to apply the theoretical knowledge they have acquired into practice (Wideen, Mayer-Smith & Moon, 1998).

In sum, what teachers expect students to know and do in certain circumstances remains technicist and unrealistic as consideration needs to be taken for the skills one learns when in practice. With this misalignment of expectations, students often find themselves wearing two different caps on TP; one for when they are being observed during lesson observations by their university tutors and another in the presence of their supervising teachers. In conclusion, in order for pre-service teachers not to feel totally overwhelmed by what they are taught at university as compared to what in-service teachers regard as fundamental for their survival, there needs to be a stronger synergy between what teachers deem as crucial and the university's intended learning outcomes for teachers. Schools should be exposed and trained on the curriculum and vision of ITE programmes for a more coherent alignment to occur. In this way, schools and universities can be viewed as sites where knowledge is generated in mutual support. In order to achieve this, students need to be able to make the connection between the 'theoretical ideas generated in university classes and comparing these to practice in school settings' (Hoban, 2005: 114). For this to happen, there needs to be a stronger collaboration between in-service teachers and ITE programmes.

In the absence of this, newly qualified teachers will continue to feel overwhelmed and so increase the likelihood of them exiting the teaching profession. ITE programmes would need to take cognisance of the schools' needs for more craft knowledge and the strengthening of professional conduct of students. Hence, it might be worthwhile to include this in a module for fourth year students so that students are not placed in a position of feeling ill-prepared to meet teacher expectations when they start teaching.

This paper has highlighted the need for further research pertaining to the preparation of students for TP with regard to content knowledge, general pedagogic knowledge, context knowledge and curriculum knowledge as well as how they view their role as teachers in practice.

 

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Date of submission 10 May 2017
Date of review outcome 6 September 2017
Date of final acceptance 12 November 2017