RESEARCH ARTICLE

 

Impact of urban renewal changes on urban landscape identity: case study of Kisumu City, Kenya

 

 

Edwin K'oyoo

PhD student in Landscape Architecture, Department of Architecture, University of Pretoria, South Africa. Email: <edwinkoyoo@gmail.com> ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7049-1034

 

 

---

ABSTRACT

Urban renewal undertaken to respond to physical deterioration and decay within cities results in various changes. The changes can impact on physical, socio-economic, and meaning aspects attached to various features, thus affecting the urban landscape identity of the city. Urban renewal in Africa is undertaken in the existing built forms in post-colonial times with the works impacting on city identities. Cities are striving to be unique and distinct, in order to attract and promote world trade and tourism, making city identity an issue of great concern. This study postulates that a city's uniqueness and distinctiveness lie in its landscape identity that should be highly considered when upgrading urban environments in renewals. This study aims to investigate the impact of changes in urban form elements, due to urban renewal, on landscape identity. This is a case study analysis of Kisumu City, Kenya, which has recently undergone the upgrading of urban forms. A sample of 384 participants were involved in the field survey, 12 participants for the photo elicitation interview (PEI), and four key informants. Quantitative and qualitative approaches were used. The survey results supported by PEI responses revealed that renewal changes of urban physical forms had a positive impact on the city's landscape identity, thus making it a visually appealing place. The vast majority of the respondents were satisfied with both the various components implemented and the overall outcome. They opined that the city had become a different but better place. The article highlights concern for the preservation of urban landscape identity within urban renewal projects in the post-colonial era.

Keywords: Urban landscape identity, urban form elements, urban renewal, impact of changes, post-colonial, Kisumu City, Kenya

---

ABSTRAK

Stedelike vernuwing wat onderneem word om te reageer op fisiese agteruitgang en verval binne stede lei tot verskeie veranderinge. Die veranderinge kan 'n impak hê op fisiese, sosio-ekonomiese en betekenisaspekte wat aan verskeie kenmerke geheg word, dus word die stedelike landskapsidentiteit van die stad beïnvloed. Stedelike vernuwing in Afrika word onderneem in die bestaande geboude vorms van die post-koloniale tye met die werke wat 'n impak het op stadsidentiteite. Stede streef daarna om uniek en afsonderlik te wees om wêreldhandel en toerisme te lok en te bevorder. Dit maak stadsidentiteit 'n kwessie van groot kommer. Hierdie studie postuleer dat 'n stad se uniekheid en eiesoortigheid in sy landskapsidentiteit lê wat hoog in ag geneem moet word wanneer stedelike omgewings deur hernuwings opgegradeer word. Hierdie studie het ten doel om die impak van veranderinge in stedelike vormelemente as gevolg van stedelike vernuwing op landskapsidentiteit te ondersoek. Dit is 'n gevallestudie-analise van Kisumu Stad, Kenia, wat onlangs opgradering van stedelike vorms ondergaan het. 'n Steekproef van 384 deelnemers is by die veldopname betrek, 12 deelnemers vir die foto-onttrekkingsonderhoud (PEI) en vier sleutelinformante. Kwantitatiewe en kwalitatiewe benaderings is gebruik. Die opnameresultate wat deur PEI-antwoorde ondersteun is, het aan die lig gebring dat vernuwingsveranderinge op stedelike fisiese vorms 'n positiewe impak op die stad se landskapsidentiteit gehad het en dit sodoende 'n visueel aantreklike plek gemaak het. Meeste van die respondente was tevrede met die verskillende komponente wat geïmplementeer is en met die algehele uitkoms. Hulle het gevoel dat die stad 'n ander maar beter plek geword het. Die artikel beklemtoon kommer oor die behoud van stedelike landskapsidentiteit binne stedelike hernuwingsprojekte in die post-koloniale era.

---

 

 

1. INTRODUCTION

Physical deterioration and decay within cities necessitate urban transformation through renewal, in order to improve the quality of urban life (Bosselmann, 2008). Urban renewal aimed at revitalising cities should also aim to reinvigorate the urban landscape identity and the collective memory, as a city's uniqueness and distinctiveness lie here and should not be neglected in the wake of creating new urban environments occasioned by urban revitalisation. Xuesong and Hui (2008: 1) posit that globalisation has affected local urban landscape identity, resulting in homogenisation of cities, and thus affecting their form and aesthetics. Studies confirm that urban form elements such as streets, squares, buildings, public spaces, urban furniture, and monuments all play a vital role in expressing the notion of urban landscape identity and memory. Urban renewal usually involves changes to urban form elements and it should pay attention to their roles in shaping urban landscape identity and memory (Enache & Craciun, 2013: 311; Oktay & Bala, 2015: 20; Ziyaee, 2018: 21; Yaldiz, Aydin & Siramkaya, 2014: 224-231). According to Beyhan and Gurkan (2015: 159), as well as Okesli and Gurcinar (2012: 39), urban identity is not static, as it undergoes changes from time to time. Urban identity is not only about pedestrian streets, city squares, buildings in the city, and other urban spaces, but also about participation of individuals who are the residents. This is in terms of the identification of those aspects that contribute to city identity and the possible impacts of the changes to be experienced on them, due to the renewal.

Hardly any studies from the Global South and Africa address landscape identity issues within changes due to urban development or renewal projects. This study. therefore, fills a gap in information in that regard. The few existing studies on Africa include Dimuna and Omatsone (2010); Njoku and Okoro (2014); Amado and Rodrigues (2019); Layson and Nankai (2015), as well as Leon et al. (2020). These studies covered issues of urban renewal without focus and emphasis on landscape identity, especially regarding the changes brought about by the renewal projects on both natural and man-made elements of the urban landscape. The studies were conducted in only three African countries, namely Nigeria, Angola, and Tanzania. There is no existing literature on local studies of cities such as Nairobi and other cities in Kenya, where dynamic changes have taken place in the context of urban renewal and how the public perceives these changes. A study on the impact of changes in urban form elements, due to urban renewal in Kenya, will add to the landscape identity body of knowledge of African countries as in Kisumu City that recently underwent upgrading and improvements on various urban form elements.

 

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

To understand the impact of urban renewal changes on urban landscape identity in Kisumu City, it is important to introduce the concepts 'landscape identity and change', 'urban renewal and change', and 'landscape identity maintenance' used in this study within the Global South context. This is covered first in terms of landscape identity and change and, secondly, the implication of urban renewal on change and the need to maintain landscape identity.

2.1 Landscape identity and change

Stobbelaar and Hendriks (2006: 2) posited that the recognition of certain units within the landscape is through the typical characteristics that people label with a certain identity. Landscape identity is, therefore, the combined result of the physical environment, due to its characteristics and the people's perceptions. However, both the people and the physical environment undergo changes over time (Stobbelaar & Hendriks, 2006:

2). Seidl et al. (2021: 15) postulated that landscape identity is not fixed or permanent, as it undergoes changes over time despite originating from the characteristics of the spaces. Its change and re-establishment are a result of the actions and interactions between people and their environment. This shows that it should be analysed from time to time to establish the changes caused. According to Dominiczak, Zawadzka & Keira (2011: 3), managing change in a city that has established identity should not depend on the views of political decision makers that are more subjective and usually unpredictable. Objective rules that are well understood by all stakeholders should be included before considering and designing the change. Once established and documented in the city inventory, the information can be used to guide the city's urban identity and act as a community resource available to all stakeholders who have an interest in the city's urban landscape. This should be carried out in a sustainable manner to ensure preservation of the identified existing urban identity within the city.

According to Shao et al. (2020: 2), the rapid urban development in China, driven mostly by the priorities of creating cityscapes of building skyscrapers of outstanding appearances, failed to focus on the identity of the cities. The need to conserve the uniqueness of the city was not prioritised in most of the urban renewal projects. This would entail responding to the existing heritage within the landscape or rearranging the existing identity of the cities. Homogenisation of the urban form, due to rapid changes in cities as a result of new developments and renewals, has caused cities to become identical, thus resulting in the loss of the unique distinctiveness of the landscapes affected. There is an urgent need to pay attention to landscape identity in an urban renewal project, in order to avoid loss of uniqueness and distinctiveness that is recognisable as a result of creating new, upgraded infrastructure. This occurs when the views and interests of the residents are not taken seriously through public participation.

Redzinska and Szulczewska (2019: 259) revealed the main factors of perceived identity of the new landscape, the elements that constitute its identity, and whether national heritage values are present in residents' awareness after landscape transformation. The case study of Wilanow West showed that several factors act to influence people's perception of identity within the landscape. These factors include the characteristics of the physical space or place, the urban design aesthetics, and the scale of the buildings within the built areas. In their study, aspects of landscape identity included place identity and the landscape meanings that are interpreted in the form of urban structure. Place identification was according to the natural and cultural elements that were distinct from those of other neighbourhoods occurring within or in the vicinity of Wilanow Town. The meaning associated with different places was coded in the urban form in terms of buildings, street grids, street names, water elements, and the character of greenery (Redzinska & Szulczewska, 2019: 259). The most important factor that constituted the perceived landscape identity was the quality of the physical settings that were influenced by the planning and urban design qualities. This study concurs with Shao et al. (2020) in giving prominence to the contribution of the physical settings caused by the character of the urban form in shaping the landscape identity as perceived by city residents.

In a study on landscape change, Antrop (2005: 21) stated that the landscape cannot be static, as it represents the dynamic interactions between cultural and natural processes. However, historical landscape change was local, gradual, and embedded within the existing landscape structures. Transformations of the landscape within a given city are driven by several interrelated factors, including globalisation in terms of trends and patterns; population growth in terms of rate and pattern; urbanisation patterns and speed; level of accessibility of the city; calamitous events that may occur; economic factors that drive the growth of the city; technological developments employed within various sectors of the city, and the cultural values of the people concerned that keep changing from time to time. The landscape change impacts on how individuals perceive and attach value to their surroundings. This influences their ability to maintain connections with their everyday surroundings within which they interact. Transformations within the landscape influence how individuals engage with their environment. This influences interactions that enrich the social connectivity of the residents within the landscape (Antrop, 2005: 21). Gedik and Yildiz (2016: 195) posited that there is a need for sustainable revitalisation to avert the negative effects of urbanisation and globalisation and the need to preserve and maintain the landscape identity. Changes due to urban renewal impact on how city residents perceive and value their surroundings and, therefore, impact on landscape identity and associated memories.

Gur and Heidari (2019: 134-142) showed how rapid urban changes influence the urban identity within the city. The authors investigated how attachment, satisfaction with a place, and the quality of life of local communities were affected by transformations that cause changes to urban spaces. Their study concluded that there is a direct interaction between changes in the urban identity and the transformation processes causing changes within the cities. The changes also encompassed landscape identity as a component within the transformations. Leon, Babere and Swai (2020: 6) pointed out that available literature about urban renewal in sub-Saharan Africa was very limited at the time of their study. The available literature reviewed on urban renewal in Africa mainly focused on the social and physical aspects of decayed residential neighbourhoods and the renewal of CBD in the case of Leon et al. (2020) as well as Amado and Rodrigues (2019). They are mainly concerned with upgrading urban slums and squatter settlements to be viable communities with basic services and amenities, whereas the preservation of landscape identity is not a major concern in most instances. This presents a potential research gap that can be filled by this study. Few studies have focused on urban landscape identity and how changes due to urban renewal impact on it.

Leon et al. (2020: 6) postulated that there is a need to understand how changes are taking place in historical urban areas in Africa, especially in the sub-Saharan context, and the role played by heritage in the rapidly growing cities. This is in addition to how plans are made to renew the inner cities. Case studies of African post-colonial cities are needed to understand how these changes in historical areas within cities have occurred and are managed and how these fit into the global discussion. According to Leon et al. (2020: 3), transformations of the urban landscape in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, prioritised economic interests over cultural values. The authors revealed that colonial art-deco and modern typologies, as part of the architectural character of the area, were being replaced. The neglect of cultural heritage from the new constructions affected the integrity of the area and had other negative impacts on development (Leon et al., 2020: 3).

2.2 Implication of urban renewal on change and the need to maintain landscape identity

According to Oktay and Bala (2015: 211), cities undergo changes over time. Cities never remain static, as they evolve with continuous developments from time to time. Cities change, due to social factors, economic drivers, and political forces that affect the residents. The process of evolving can cause the destruction and replacement of some parts of the city. Urban identity must thus be considered from a perspective based on the prevailing factors at the time of its consideration. According to Oktay (2006: 1), cities undergoing changes and new urban forms have their urban identity created by the interaction of several complex factors, including the natural environment, social aspects, and elements of the man-made environment within the city. Boussaa (2017: 4-6) asserted that urban regeneration and identity show a strong relationship. Improving the cities' man-made environment through infrastructure upgrade contributes towards increasing their adoption by the residents as places of interaction. He concluded, by stating that the regeneration of city centres increases the residents' sense of belonging and connection with the past.

Ujang (2012: 157) asserted that new developments within the settings of the city change the built spaces and the residents' associated meanings and attachment within the different places. This is connected with the social and cultural settings within the city. Ujang (2012: 157, citing Hull [1994]) posited that attempts to sustain the meanings and identity of the urban elements are important because they contribute to the residents' self-identity, collective sense of community nature, and sense of place within the city. In his study, Kaymaz (2013: 751) pointed out that the major problem in maintaining the identity of the urban realm in Turkey was the lack of adequate awareness and the lack of sensitivity of the authorities at both national and local level. In Turkish cities, the authorities are responsible for the deterioration of urban identity through urban renewal projects. Urban renewal causes the changes without attention being adequately paid to the preservation and strengthening of the urban identity at the time (Kaymaz, 2013).

Radstrom (2011: 90-91) opined that urban areas worldwide face an important phase in their histories as the global population continues to migrate to large urban areas. The trends include how the urban areas expand under the present globalisation that produces increasingly uniform cities. In many cities, the sense of place at local level is at risk of being lost, if not checked in good time. This can be ensured through sustainable developments. The adoption of global trends within increased globalisation has led to homogenisation of urban identity across many cities globally. Antrop (2005) stated that globalisation as a driving force in landscape changes refers to all general processes and initiatives that affect the decisions and actions at the local level. New global and regional hierarchies of cities have emerged and vast areas have become increasingly peripheral. This process often breaks the relationship between a local society and its landscapes. Radstrom (2011) asserted that this is particularly common in urban areas that are small in size and often lack attention. These cities often find themselves attracted to foreign 'solutions' that finally influence their local settings. These cities lack value for their local identity and usually result in being similar to other cities from which they have borrowed. Radstrom (2011) suggested that there is a need for holistic, place-based solutions to provide remedies to the problems of sustaining local identities in various cities worldwide.

According to Okesli and Gurcinar (2012), the physical characteristics of urban environments change continuously, according to the prevailing values at a given time. This is unavoidable, as urban identity keeps changing. However, the scale, conditions, and effects of the change should be checked and controlled, in order to achieve preservation and ensure that urban identity is sustained. They further posited that even the smallest changes in the factors and aspects that constitute identity of the city may result in different patterns and resultant identities within the cities. It is, therefore, important to define urban identity and its components, in order to decide which qualities are to be retained and sustained through preservation. The changes that occur in the urban realm from time to time must then be analysed to ensure that urban identity is sustained through preservation (Okesli & Gurcinar, 2012).

Lee and Chan (2008) advocated for the recognition of identity that is considered positive in every city undergoing change, due to urban renewal projects. According to them, every city undergoing urban renewal has its own identity and unique recognisable image. Architectural forms of the built environment, the materials used over time, and the colour schemes selected determine, among others, the visual qualities within the cities undergoing urban renewal changes. The patterns of development and the residents' activities contribute to the establishment of the image and orientation of the renewed areas within the cities. To retain the original identity of an area under renewal, existing land uses, properties, and features that contribute to the image of the area and reflect the past achievements of the residents must be earmarked for preservation. This must be done provided that conservation and restoration require reasonable efforts and affordable expenses. Lee and Chan (2008) concluded that, because new development during urban renewal cannot be avoided, it must reinforce or complement such positive urban identity during its implementation within the city.

According to Antrop (2005), the coherence of properties defines identity, and changing the characteristics and coherence leads to loss of identity or its change into a new one. He questioned what changes and how many changes are needed to transform a landscape, so that it becomes unrecognisable to the residents involved. What magnitude of change could cause a landscape to lose identity and become unrecognisable and what processes can irreversibly break down its coherence and continuity in the face of new developments? Antrop (2005: 21) posited that current landscape changes are characterised by the loss of diversity, coherence, and identity of the existing landscapes, as they may be affected by the various developments and urban renewal projects. The author elucidates the various factors that are the driving forces for the changes in the landscape. The driving forces are accessibility within the cities, urbanisation during city development, and globalisation which brings about trends and patterns across the globe. He adds an additional and unpredictable factor, namely calamity. Areas that are not easily accessible by people are often characterised as stable landscapes. When disclosed by a new transportation infrastructure, these areas start changing rapidly. Hence, their local urban identity changes and thus affects the residents' perceptions (Antrop, 2005).

Kaymaz (2013: 749) mentioned that the heritage of the built environment is one of the most important aspects of the identity of an urban environment. Cities are formed and keep developing throughout their existence without remaining static. Cities constantly change, develop, and transform as various development projects and urban renewal are carried out. The heritage of the built environment within cities is the most apparent reflection of change within the urban areas through the various physical aspects that are usually affected. This includes the symbolic meanings for the citizens and visitors because of historical events that are considered significant and associated with it. The buildings and structures of a city have meanings and cultural values attached to the stories of its past that they tell. This occurs over the time the city has existed. The author concluded that heritage is considered an important indicator of urban identity and thus the conservation of heritage within the built spaces is one of the major concerns in the sustainability of urban identity through preservation efforts (Kaymaz, 2013).

 

3. STUDY AREA

The study was conducted in Kisumu City, the third largest urban area in Kenya. Kisumu City is the main administrative centre and headquarters of Kisumu County and is located 265km north-west of Nairobi. It lies on the eastern shores of Lake Victoria, Africa's largest freshwater lake and is 1 146 m above sea level, 0°6' south of the Equator and 34°45' east (CGK, 2019: 2). In 2022, the city covered an area of 417 km² (157 km² of water and 260 km² of land), with a population estimated at over 500 000 people (Wamukaya & Mbathi, 2019:81). According to KNBS (2019: 20) on Kenya's population and housing census 2019, the study area (Kisumu town area and its outskirts) falls within Kisumu Central sub-County that has a total population of 174 145 people, consisting of 84 155 males (48.3%), 89 985 females (51.7%), and 52 331 households. The Kisumu town area has a total population of 56 498 people and 17 258 households within a land area of 25.4 km². Sub-locations within the Kisumu town area include Kaloleni, Bandari, Southern, Northern, and Kanyakwar. The outskirts of the Kisumu town area consist of Kondele Location, with a total of 35 073 house sub-locations of Manyatta A, Migosi, Nyawita, and Nyalenda B.

Kisumu City has several ongoing and completed urban renewal projects in different sectors that have resulted in great improvement. The projects include non-motorised transport (NMT) within the CBD that comprises the improvement of pedestrian walkways, parking spaces, construction of new markets, bus parks, rehabilitation of public parks, beautification of roundabouts, road islands, and proposed new high-rise affordable housing. The lakefront has also been earmarked for improvements in addition to the port which has been revamped and has its previously stalled activities on again.

 

 

 

 

 

 

4. METHODOLOGY

4.1 Research design

The study investigated the impact of urban renewal on the landscape identity of Kisumu City, Kenya, by following a mixed research approach, where quantitative and qualitative data are collected in parallel, analysed separately, and then merged (Creswell, 2014: 45). In this study, a questionnaire survey (quantitative) was done to compare data on the changes in urban form elements, due to urban renewal from the different neighbourhoods surveyed. The interviews (qualitative) explored the impact of urban renewal forms from photographic documentation and visual mapping shown to interviewees. The reason for collecting both quantitative and qualitative data is to elaborate on specific findings from the breakdown of the photographic documents, such as similar impacts that urban renewal forms had on Kisumu City image suggested by respondents' groups (Creswell & Plano-Clark, 2011).

4.2 Population, sampling method, and size

The Kisumu town area and its immediate surrounding neighbourhoods underwent urban renewal and the households located within these two areas form the population for this study. Kenya's housing census of 2019 shows 17 258 households located in the Kisumu central town area and 35 073 households in the Kondele location on the outskirts of the Kisumu town area (see Table 1). Using simple random sampling, 384 household heads were selected to participate in the questionnaire survey because they were permanent residents within these neighbourhoods, users of the renewed spaces, and aged 18 years and older. This ensured a heterogeneous socio-economic characteristic of the respondents. Similar studies that have used simple random sampling in the collection of data through field surveys include Layson & Nankai (2015: 70-71); Oktay & Bala (2015: 208); Baris, Uckac and Uslu (2009: 725).

 

 

Using purposive sampling, another 16 interviewees were selected, including 4 key informants (CGK 1 to CGK 4) from Kisumu County government and 12 (KSM 1 to KSM 12) Kisumu City residents, based on their willingness, expertise, and professional roles in urban renewal. This resulted in a total sample of 400. The sample size is valid and within the recommended sample size of 381 for a population equal to or over 50 000 (Krejcie & Morgan, 1970: 608). Out of the 384 questionnaires issued, 293 were valid responses, showing a 76.3% response rate.

4.3 Data collection

From July to August 2021, through personal house visits, 384 questionnaires were distributed among the prospective respondents who lived in the Kisumu town area and its immediate surrounding neighbourhoods. A structured questionnaire is considered an effective data-collection method for measuring respondents' beliefs, attitudes, and opinions (Alabi & Jelili, 2023: 1337). The survey questionnaire was designed as a close-ended type. According to Harlacher (2016: 9-10), a close-ended questionnaire is easy to handle, simple to answer, and relatively quick to analyse because it reduces the respondents' bias.

The first section obtained the respondents' demographic information such as age, gender, educational background, and duration of residence in Kisumu City. Section 2 had three Likert-scale statements on the impact of changes on urban physical form, due to renewal of urban identity. Section 3 set 8 Likert-scale statements on the impact of urban renewal projects on various aspects of Kisumu City's image. Section 4 contained two tick-box questions on the perceived changes in Kisumu City after undertaking urban renewal projects, where respondents were instructed to select, from the options, the one with which they most agreed. Section 5 set 9 Likert-scale statements on the satisfaction level with the renewal of Kisumu City. For the Likert-scale questions, the respondents were asked to indicate their level of agreement/satisfaction or disagreement/dissatisfaction with the statements from the measurements scale options.

From July 2022 to August 2022, semi-structured interviews with the four officials of the County Government of Kisumu (CGK) included four questions on the aim, factors, and criteria for selecting the renewal projects, and the plans of the city management for the evicted businesses whose structures were demolished within the areas undergoing urban renewal. No personal information was requested, thus ensuring the anonymity of experts.

In September 2022, the photo elicitation interviews (PEIs) included 28 photos, of which some were taken by the researcher on site for the ongoing and completed urban renewal projects consisting of streets, parks, and landmarks such as the city's Clock Tower. Other photos used were selected based on Kisumu City's Urban Project: COK KUP (2019: 342) report on Kisumu City sites of interest. Aerial Google maps were used to locate the various renewal projects in the streets and other spaces within the CBD. The interviewees were requested to select the photos they felt had the features that best represent the eight categories in urban renewal that is, physical, social, cultural, economic aspect, aesthetically appealing, historical development, collective memory, individual memory, as well as symbolic buildings, structures, and facilities. Each interview session lasted one hour.

4.4 Data analysis and interpretation of the findings

The study had two units of analysis. The first unit of analysis was the city residents who are users of the spaces within the study area and who have an opinion on aspects of urban landscape identity and public participation in the urban renewal project that was carried out. The Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 26 was used to generate frequencies and percentages of responses to analyse and report the respondents' profile (Pallant, 2020). Descriptive statistics such as percentages, mean scores, and standard deviation were generated to analyse the Likert scale data, and report on the impact of, and the satisfaction level on the perceived changes in Kisumu City after undertaking urban renewal projects. Likert-type or frequency scales use fixed choice response formats and are effective where numbers can be used to quantify the results of measuring behaviours, attitudes, preferences, and even perceptions (Wegner, 2012: 11). The following scale measurement was used regarding mean scores, where 1 = Strongly disagree/Very dissatisfied (>1.00 and <1.80); 2 = Disagree/Dissatisfied (>1.81 and <2.60); 3 = Neutral (>2.61 and <3.40); 4 = Agree/Satisfied (>3.41 and <4.20), and 5 = Strongly agree/Very satisfied (>4.21 and < 5.00).

The second unit of analysis was the physical settings of the study area in terms of the urban form within the city's CBD that includes streets, city square, buildings, public parks, markets, and roads that underwent urban renewal through several projects. Both the interview and the PEI responses were written down separately for each respondent as the researcher listened. An audio recorder using a phone was also used to record the responses that were reported verbatim. Using the Excel software program, the responses on the aim, factors, and criteria for selecting the renewal projects, as well as the responses from the PEI were subjected to content analysis. Content analysis is a technique that relies on coding and categorising the data (Bengtsson, 2016: 9). Once the responses from the interview results were analysed, the impact of urban renewal projects were coded and categorised under the eight categories in urban renewal based on frequency of occurrence. The eight categories were reduced to four, including physical form, image aspects, perceived change, and satisfaction with change.

 

5. RESULTS

5.1 Respondents' demographics

Results on the demographic characteristics in Table 2 indicate that the majority of the respondents were male (55.3%), aged between 25 and 39 years (54.3%), and had a tertiary education (78.5%). The age distribution is skewed to older age groups, implying that most of the participants were mature persons. Of the respondents, 98% were educated beyond primary school, as supported by the Situational Analysis Report (COK, KUP, 2019: 64), indicating that over 70% of the residents in Kisumu City had at least high school education. They were thus expected to respond adequately to the study questions about the effect of urban renewal projects on the elements that form the city's image in Kisumu City at the time of the study. Over half (56.4%) of the respondents had resided 11 years or more in Kisumu City, indicating that they had lived long enough in Kisumu City to respond on the image/character of the city and the possible changes to the city, due to urban renewal and its effects.

 

 

The four key informants (interviewees) from the County Government of Kisumu are officials involved in the planning, environment, and Kisumu Urban Project (KUP) departments. These departments were directly charged with overseeing the planning and implementation of the various urban renewal projects. The 12 participants in the PEI were residents of Kisumu City and were diverse in terms of age, gender, and professional backgrounds. Participant availability and the willingness to take the long period that was required to discuss all the photos during each session were the factors that were considered in choosing the participants.

5.2 Impact of changes on urban physical form

With an average mean score rating of 3.92, the results in Table 3 show that respondents agreed that, due to renewal, all three changes had an impact on urban physical form. Most of the respondents (88%) strongly agreed (31.3%), while 56.7% (mean=4.06; SD=0.877) agreed that Kisumu City, after renewal, was a beautiful place, considering its physical elements. Of the participants, 76.7% strongly agreed (17.9%) and 58.8% agreed (mean=3.79; SD=0.922) that, after renewal, Kisumu City had physical elements that had artistic value. The vast majority (80.1%) of the respondents strongly agreed (23.4%) and 56.7% agreed (mean=3.93; SD= 0.858) that, after renewal, Kisumu City had physical elements that were visually appealing. This finding implies that there was a positive impact of changes on urban physical form, due to public renewal on Kisumu City's identity as perceived by the respondents.

 

 

Field observation revealed changes within the CBD streets, where the NMT was implemented on Ang'awa Avenue, Oginga Odinga Street, and Jomo Kenyatta Highway. The streets were more orderly, clean, and provided with amenities such as waste receptacles , traffic; lights, pedestrian streets, and cabro-paved sidewalks that were safely guarded with bollards from vehicular transport. The findings also revealed that beautification of various roundabouts within the city included various elements of artistic sculptures and water features that added beauty to the city's landscapes. The field observation and analysis confirm findings that Kisumu City has physical elements in terms of urban forms and architecture that were beautiful, artistic and visually appealing after the ongoing/completed renewal project. Figures 4 and 5 show some aspects of the NMT that was implemented within the Kisumu Triangle.

 

 

According to a Kisumu county official (CGK 2) interviewed the main aim of undertaking the various aspects of the renewal project was to ensure a friendly environment for the residents of the city in terms of new better markets, affordable housing, better urban open spaces, safer and cleaner streets, and orderly streets through NMT According to CGK 1, the aim of the County Government of Kisumu (CGK) is to protect, preserve, and conserve the open spaces through projects undertaken in terms of the roundabouts parks,open spaces, greening of streets, and NMT. Both CGK 1 and CGK 2 concurred that: Kisumu City was cleaner, safer, with ease of mobility in the streets after the implementation of NMT and decongestion of the streets within its various spaces within the CBD and in other areas where the renewal works were undertaken. This was supported by a resident participant in the PEI: "The new look of the CBD streets is smart, the streets are clean and the new look/image is better than the image before" (PEI Interviewee - KSM 2).

5.3 Impact of urban renewal project on various aspects of Kisumu City's image

With an average mean score rating of 3.90, the results in Table 4 show that respondents agreed that, due to renewal, all eight natural environment and man-made changes had an impact on Kisumu City's image. The vast majority of the respondents (80.4%) strongly agreed (38.3%) and 42.1% agreed (mean=4.10; SD=0.925) that the urban renewal project had a positive impact on Lake Victoria and its scenery. Of the respondents, 65.7% agreed (mean=3.72; SD=1.07) that urban renewal projects had a positive impact on vegetation. These urban renewal changes in the natural environment positively affected Kisumu City's image.

 

 

With mean score ratings above 3.50, respondents agreed that all built/man-made urban renewal forms had a positive impact on Kisumu City's image. Of the respondents, 75% agreed (mean=4.18; SD=0.908) that urban renewal projects had a positive impact mostly on street furniture (seats, lights, paving, litter bins) and public parks (mean=3.95; SD=0.870). Of the respondents, 80.4% agreed (mean=3.99; SD=1.014) that urban renewals had a positive impact on pedestrian walkways and on the public central square (69.5% agreed) (mean=3.92; SD=0.894). Of the respondents, 67.5% agreed that landmarks such as the Cloak Tower (mean=3.80; SD=0.942) and monuments/sculptures (57.8% agreed) (mean=3.58; SD=0.993) were positively impacted, due to urban renewal. These findings imply that renewal of the natural environment and built/man-made forms positively affected Kisumu City's landscape identity, in general.

Field investigation within the CBD revealed the changes that were undertaken on the Clock Tower (see Figure 7). An archive photo from the City of Kisumu (CoK) Department of Planning revealed the original form appearance of the tower before the changes at the time of the study (see Figure 6).

 

 

In the opinion of respondents KSM 4, KSM 5,KSM 6, KSM 9, and KSM 11, the Clock Tower needed preservation, and their comments included:

"The Clock Tower is an important symbolic structure and there was a need to preserve it in its oddinal form and colour because of the history it holds behind its development. Although the current image of the Tower after the upgrade is modern and good, its original structure cannot be told to whoever had not seen it before or knew about its existence" (PEI interviewee, KSM 4).

"The Clock Tower is a symbolic structure in (Kisumu City and had a lot of Asian influence from its initial construction and was important to them. The upgrade was not meant to have taten p|ace and could have been preserved in its original appearance" (PEI interviewee, KSM 9).

5.4 Perceived changes in Kisumu City after undertaking the urban renewal project

Whenever urban renewal projects are undertaken in a city, there is a likelihood of favourable or unfavourable changes that may affect or replace the image of a city. The respondents were asked to select among several changes what they felt changed Kisumu's identity, due to the urban renewal project.

The results in Table 5 indicate that nearly three-quarters of the respondents (71.9%) perceived a positive change of Kisumu City and that 57.9% of the respondents were of the view that the city had become a different but better place after the urban renewal project was undertaken. The implication is that most of the respondents perceived that there were favourable changes to Kisumu City that had made it either a more unique place or a different but better place in terms of its image.

 

 

Regarding the new image of Kisumu City, based on the new structures and developments, a PEI interviewee (KSM-9), an ICT lecturer aged above 35 years who has lived in Kisumu City for over 30 years, mentioned:

Kisumu has changed for the better, not comparable to any other town in Kenya. Street walking has been made easier due to the relocation of street vendors. The CBD has changed due to better structures and improvements done within the streets and roundabouts. The streets are more appealing due to more vegetation, the elimination of roadside structures that existed within them before, and Kisumu is better economically. Street lighting has improved the general security within the CBD as people feel much safer.

From field observation, the researcher noted that the streets, where the NMT had been implemented, were free from roadside vendors and that previously existing temporary commercial structures had been demolished and had to relocate to other places. A PEI Interviewee (KSM 3), a male accountant aged above 50 years who has lived in Kisumu all his life, had this to say:

Upgrading has given Kisumu a new good look. Mobility is now controlled with the implementation of NMT, especially within Oginga Odinga Street, Ang'awa Street, and Jomo Kenyatta Street. There is a good organization by eliminating the street vendors that have achieved decongestion on streets. The streets are now safer, clean with a good look that can appeal to investors.

Field observation revealed that various landscape elements were provided within the streets, due to the upgrade in terms of pedestrian street seats, streetlights, planters to add to urban greenery, and cabro-paved walkways. A PEI interviewee (KSM 4), a male building technologist aged between 25 and 30 years who has lived in Kisumu for about 10 years, remarked the following in confirmation:

The appearance of Kisumu City due to the upgrade is better and more conducive. Seats have been provided within some streets and there is the separation between pedestrians and motorists and has improved economic development of Kisumu City in terms of job creation during the upgrading works undertaken.

5.5 Respondents' perception of satisfaction level with the renewal of Kisumu City

A field survey question on respondents' satisfaction level with the renewal project of Kisumu City aimed to assess different aspects of renewal projects within Kisumu City over time. Table 6 presents the results.

 

 

The results in Table 6 indicate that the composite mean and composite standard deviation are 3.79 and 1.124, respectively. This shows that the respondents are satisfied with all nine aspects of the renewal project. The majority (87.3%) of the respondents are satisfied with the implementation of public transport, including pedestrian walkways, street lights, and seats. The results further revealed that 82.1% of the respondents are satisfied with the implementation of new marketplaces, for example, Kibuye market; 82.5% of the respondents are satisfied with the upgrading of public parks; 73.9 of the respondents are satisfied with the upgrading of the Central Square; 70.9% of the respondents were satisfied with a discussion about changes on the Clock Tower; 87% of the respondents are satisfied with the beautification of the roundabouts; 64.7% of the respondents are satisfied with the proposed new housing development at Anderson and Makasembo estates; 60.5% of the respondents are satisfied with the demolition and relocation of roadside business structures, and 62.9% of the respondents are satisfied with the demolition and relocation of structures along Lake Victoria. These findings of the study imply that most of the respondents are satisfied with the various projects undertaken under the renewal project so far in Kisumu City. The satisfaction with all the various mentioned aspects of urban renewal was in sharp contrast with the lack of public participation, as indicated by most of the respondents. Perception of the overall outcome revealed that 77.5% of the respondents are satisfied with the general outcome of renewal projects in Kisumu City.

Based on the 12 PEI interviews conducted, all the respondents are satisfied with the current image of the city in terms of its look and character based on the current renewal project outcome. Comments regarding various aspects of the renewal within the CBD include the following. A PEI interviewee (KSM 1), who is a business lady aged roughly 40 years and who has lived in Kisumu City for over 15 years, mentioned the following:

The streets are well upgraded and have a spectacular new look, Kisumu has a new look and image.

This was supported by KSM 11 and KSM 12 who felt that the wide and well-paved roads and streets provide a good new look to Kisumu City. A PEI interviewee (KSM 9), an ICT lecturer aged above 35 years, who has lived in Kisumu City for over 30 years, supports the demolition and relocation of the roadside structures that were not planned and has reasons to justify his opinion as captured below:

The face of Kisumu City has changed to be more attractive. The CBD has changed by accommodating better structures, illegal roadside and street structures that were demolished and relocated used to portray a bad image of the city.

According to county officials CGK 1, CGK 2 and CGK 3, adequate measures to relocate the evicted roadside traders was put in place to pave the way for the implementation of the NMT, for example, within the Kisumu Triangle, where the renewal works began. Being a donor-funded project, an appropriate Relocation Action Plan was mandatory and led to the building of Chichwa 1 and Chichwa 2 markets to house the evicted roadside traders.

 

6. DISCUSSION

The aim of the study was to investigate the impact of changes in urban form elements, due to urban renewal of landscape identity. Results showed that most of the respondents agreed that Kisumu City is presently a beautiful place, considering its physical elements that have artistic value and are visually appealing.

Hu and Chen (2018: 13-14) investigated aspects relating to the physical elements of a given place, the architecture within the place, and urban form elements present in terms of whether they had beauty attached to them, had value that was considered artistic, and had an architecture that was visually appealing. Although most of the respondents in the three neighbourhoods were of the opinion that the places are beautiful, have artistic value, and are visually appealing, statistics of attitudinal questions regarding identity within two places had the majority indicating that the identity in question has very little about them. This could have meant that the residents who responded noted hardly any identity to be present. According to Sedigh and Goodarzparvari (2018: 90), urban form elements can efficiently succeed and perform urban identity definition and formation. This can be made possible if they are designed to be multi-functional. This includes their visual appeal among other effects. Accurate planning and design are vital to ensure that the various urban elements within the city's urban landscape serve effectively. The findings in this study support those by Sedigh and Goordarzparvari (2018: 87-93) in that the impact of the renewal changes on urban physical form resulted in a physically beautiful place that had artistic value and was aesthetically appealing. This implies that they agree with the planning and design of the various urban form elements that were implemented and thus resulted in the beauty of the city's image at the time of the study.

Regarding the impact of the urban renewal project on Kisumu City's image on various urban form elements, most of the respondents agreed that urban renewal projects have a positive impact on the following: vegetation, Lake Victoria and its scenery, landmarks such as the Clock Tower, monuments/ sculptures, public parks, pedestrian walkways, the central square, and street furniture. These positively affected Kisumu City's image and the landscape identity. These findings were also strongly supported by responses during the PEIs. According to Erdogan and Ayatac (2015: 116), the city square, as the venue of public events when designed in a manner that the users understand the characteristics of the urban elements and the historical background associated with it, makes the people feel the urban image and identity within the spaces. To define urban image and identity, the important elements in a city square are the attractions, those considered destinations within it, convenience, safety provided, and a flexible design (Erdogan & Ayatac, 2015: 116). After renewal, the then state of Kisumu City's Central Square showed a strong image with artwork sculpture from branding by a private entity that was part of its upgrade, street seats for users, waste receptacles, and street lighting that made people comfortable during both day and night use. The square accommodated different uses from socialisation and relaxation to commercial use by small street businesses; the uses changed from time to time.

Responses regarding perceived changes in Kisumu City, after undertaking the urban renewal project, revealed that the majority were of the view that Kisumu City has become a different but better place. The implication of the finding of the study was that the favourable changes to Kisumu City make it either a more unique place or a different but better place in terms of its image, due to the urban renewal project undertaken. The researcher's interpretation of the response by the majority of the respondents that the city has become a different but better place implies that a new identity has been established. The findings, therefore, revealed that most of the respondents are of the opinion that a new identity has been established for Kisumu City because of the renewal project. A minority of the respondents were of the opinion that Kisumu City is no longer unique. Contrary findings by Oktay and Bala (2015: 212) revealed that the majority of the respondents are of the opinion that the urban identity changed negatively due to the survey respondents' perceived changes in the city. The authors argued that urban identity must be analysed in a time-based manner, because a city keeps changing and is never static. It changes in response to prevailing social and economic factors as well as political forces. It is in a process of evolving as changes occur within cities. This finding on a new identity created in Kisumu City after the urban renewal supports a viewpoint proposed by Seidl et al. (2021: 2); Oktay and Bala, (2015:211), as well as Stobbelaar and Hendriks (2006: 1) that a city is not static, it changes, and that landscape identity changes when people change and their environment changes. The authors posited that a city changes and then re-establishes itself because of the action and interactions between people and their environment.

Responses regarding the perceived level of changes after the urban renewal project revealed that the majority of the respondents are of the view that Kisumu City has changed positively. All the PEI responses strongly support this positive change in the city. A study by Baris et al. (2009: 727-729) showed that most of the respondents opine that the city has greatly changed and that it is completely positive, despite the changes made to the environment in terms of landscaping and increasing green areas that affect the city's image. The study revealed that the respondents consider the change in the identity of Kisumu as positive and believe that it has symbolic assets that are original in nature. It can be said that, if the respondents' perceptions of urban landscape identity are positive, this indicates acceptance. The various elements of this identity are then considered to be symbolic elements of the places with which they interact in the city. The authors argued that identity as a concept is attributed to positive characteristics that are exhibited in the urban form elements within the city. The good characteristics of the elements thus result in the residents' feeling of a sense of belonging to the city (Baris et al., 2009: 733).

The author believes that heritage preservation, in the wake of new developments and urban renewal, may often clash with the government's need to use the existing spaces and effect urban forms for the sake of creating new improved environments. Pressing needs for new housing, alternative and improved transportation routes, among other forms of developments, may necessitate the need to overlook the heritage value that the residents in a given city attach to these spaces and existing urban form elements within them. This creates an ambivalent situation that presents a precarious balance of what needs to be undertaken.

 

7. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The study concluded that the changes in the various urban form elements have a positive impact on urban landscape identity, as revealed by the majority of survey respondents and supported by PEI participants. A new identity was created for Kisumu City, due to the changes from the various renewal projects undertaken that have changed the face and appearance of the public spaces and other natural and man-made features. This resulted in new appearance, order, and safety, as indicated by the majority of the respondents. The urban renewal changes impacted on various natural and man-made components and made a significant contribution to the formation of Kisumu City's urban landscape identity.

The greatest positive impact was on the elements of the natural environment, including vegetation, Lake Victoria and its scenery, and various public parks that, although they are considered man-made, are green spaces within the urban realm. Various elements of urban landscaping, including beautification of roundabouts, road islands, and new planting of vegetation along the CBD streets were greatly praised as positive impacts by the urban renewal changes, thereby implying the great value that the residents placed on them. Lake Victoria, as a natural feature within Kisumu City, should implement its proposed improvements, including landscaped clean promenades and other open spaces along it. The residents both welcomed and criticised the demolition of the temporary structures along its lakefront; this should be followed by the proposed redevelopments. It should be used as an asset for both local and international tourism to improve trade and socio-economic well-being for the residents.

This study provides a positive contribution to the current concerns of globalisation that has seen many cities homogenised and appear to be similar, due to new developments and urban renewals. This study reiterates the importance of maintaining the perceived uniqueness associated with various cities in terms of landscape identity within the urban realms. The researcher believes that the study findings can contribute to resolving the current loss of landscape identity of cities within various parts of the world so as to create urban living environments to which the residents are better attached and which they appreciate as unique. The study emphasised the concern for the preservation of urban landscape identity within urban renewal projects in the post-colonial era in the Global South.

This research focused on Kisumu City as the pioneer of this ideology. The study recommends that similar studies be done in other cities in Kenya and even in other countries that are experiencing urban renewal in the post-colonial era, by following the same criteria. This could bring more impact and enlighten the decision makers within the cities.

 

REFERENCES

Alabi, A. & Jelili, M. 2023. Clarifying likert scale misconceptions for improved application in urban studies. Quality & Quantity, 57, pp. 1337-1350. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-022-01415-8        [ Links ]

Amado, M. & Rodrigues, E. 2019. A heritage-based method to urban regeneration in developing countries: The case study of Luanda. Sustainability 11, article number 4105. doi:10.3390/su11154105        [ Links ]

Antrop, M. 2005. Why landscapes of the past are important for the future. Landscape and Urban Planning, 70, pp. 21-34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2003.10.002        [ Links ]

Baris, M.E., Uckac, L. & Uslu, A. 2009. Exploring public perception of urban identity: The case of Ankara, Turkey. African Journal of Agricultural Research, 4(8), pp. 724-735.         [ Links ]

Bengtsson, M. 2016. How to plan and perform a qualitative study using content analysis. NursingPlus Open, 2, pp. 8-14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.npls.2016.01.001        [ Links ]

Beyhan, S.G. & Gurkan, U.C. 2015. Analyzing the relationship between urban identity and urban transformation implementations in historical process: The case of Isparta. International Journal of Architectural Research, 9(1), pp.158-180. https://doi.org/10.26687/archnet-ijar.v9i1.521        [ Links ]

Bosselmann, P. 2008. Urban transformation: Understanding city form and design. Washington, DC: Island Press.         [ Links ]

Boussaa, D. 2017. Urban regeneration and the search for identity in historic cities. Journal of Sustainability 2018, 10(1), p. 48. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su10010048        [ Links ]

CGK (County Government of Kisumu). 2019. County Urban Institutional Development Strategy (CUIDS). Kisumu City. [Online]. Available at: <https://www.kisumu.go.ke/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/Kisumu-County-Urban-Institutional-Development-Strategy-CUIDS-2018-2019-final.pdf> [Accessed: 21 September 2022].         [ Links ]

CoK, KUP (City of Kisumu, Kisumu Urban Project). 2019. Situational analysis report. Preparation of local physical development plans for Kisumu City, October 2019.         [ Links ]

Creswell, J.W. 2014. Educational research. Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.         [ Links ]

Creswell, J.W. & Plano-Clark, V.L. 2011. Designing and conducting mixed methods research. 2^nd edition. London, UK: Sage Publications.         [ Links ]

Dominiczak, J., Zawadzka, M. & Keira, A. 2011. The local identity and design code as a tool of urban conservation. A core component of sustainable urban development. The case of Fremantle, Western Australia. City & Time, 5(1), pp. 1-17.         [ Links ]

Enache, C. & Craciun, C. 2013. The role of landscape in the identity generation process. Journal of Social and Behavioral Sciences, 92, pp. 309-313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.08.677        [ Links ]

Erdogan, B.D. & Ayataç, H. 2015. Assessment of urban identity characteristics in public place. A case study of Ortakoy Square. ITU A/Z, 12(1), pp. 115-125.         [ Links ]

Gedik, G.S. & Yildiz, D. 2016. Assessing the role of users in sustainable revitalization of historic urban quarters: The case of Bursa-Khans District. ITU A/Z, 13(1), pp. 195-208. DOI: 10.5505/itujfa.2016.21931        [ Links ]

KNBS (Kenya National Bureau of Statistics) 2019: Kenya Population and Housing Census, Volume II: Distribution of population by administrative units, December 2019. Nairobi: Government of Kenya.         [ Links ]

Gur, E.A. & Heidari, N. 2019. Challenge of identity in the urban transformation process: The case of Celiktepe, Istanbul, Turkey. ITU A/Z, 16(1), pp. 127-144. DOI: 10.5505Atujfa.2019.47123        [ Links ]

Harlacher, J. 2016. An educator's guide to questionnaire development (REL 2016-108). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education. [Online]. Available at: <http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/edlabs> [Accessed: 21 October 2021].         [ Links ]

Hu, M. & Chen, R. 2018. A framework for understanding sense of place in urban design context. Urban Science Journal, 2(34), pp. 1-19. DOI:10.3390/urbansci2020034        [ Links ]

Kaymaz, I. 2013. Urban landscapes and identity. In: Özyavuz, M. (Ed.). Advances in landscape architecture. Rijeka, Croatia; InTechOpen, pp. 739-760. http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55754        [ Links ]

Krejcie, R.V. & Morgan, D.W. 1970. Determining sample size for research activities. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 30, pp. 607-610. https://doi.org/10.1177/001316447003000308        [ Links ]

Layson, J.P. & Nankai, X. 2015. Public participation and satisfaction in urban regeneration projects in Tanzania. The case of Kariakoo, Dar es Salaam. Urban, Planning and Transport Research, 3(1), pp. 68-87. DOI: 10.1080/21650020.2015.1045623        [ Links ]

Lee, G.K.L. & Chan, E.H.W. 2008. The analytic hierarchy process (AHP) approach for assessment of urban renewal proposals. Social Indicators Research, 89(1), pp. 155-168. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-007-9228-x        [ Links ]

Leon, R.M., Babere, J. & Swai, O. 2020. Implications of cultural heritage in urban regeneration: The CBD of Dar-es Salaam. Papers of Political Economy, 63, article 9171, pp. 1-18. DOI: 10.4000/interventionseconomiques.9171        [ Links ]

Okesli, D.S. & Gurcinar, Y. 2012. An investigation of urban image and identity. Findings from Adana, 21(1), pp. 37-52.         [ Links ]

Oktay, D. 2006. How can urban context maintain urban identity and sustainability? Evaluations of Taormina (Sicily) and Kyrenia (North Cyprus). Web Journal on Cultural Patrimony, 1(2), pp. 1-19.         [ Links ]

Oktay, D. & Bala, H.A. 2015. A holistic research to measuring urban identity findings from Girne (Kyrenia) area study. International Journal of Architectural Research, 9(2), pp. 201-215. https://doi.org/10.26687/archnet-ijar.v9i2.687        [ Links ]

Pallant, J. 2020. SPSS survival manual: A step-by-step guide to data analysis using IBM SPSS. 7^th edition. London, UK: Open University Press. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003117452        [ Links ]

Radstrom, S. 2011. A place-sustaining framework for local urban identity: An introduction and history of Cittaslow. Italian Journal of Planning Practice, 1(1), pp. 90-113.         [ Links ]

Redzinska, K. & Szulczewska, B. 2019. Landscape in change as perceived by its residents: A case study of Wilano West in Warsaw. Journal of Land Use Policy, 85, pp. 259-270. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2019.04.001        [ Links ]

Sedigh, M.A. & Goodarzparvari, P. 2018. An analysis of the role of urban elements in urban identity: Case study of Rasht City, Iran. Journal of Innovative Research in Engineering Sciences, 4(3), pp. 87-93.         [ Links ]

Seidl, N.P., Hribar, M.S., Hudoklin, J., Pipan, T. & Golobic, M. 2021. Defining landscapes and their importance for national identity: A case study from Slovenia. Sustainability, 13, article 6475. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13116475        [ Links ]

Shao, Y., Lange, E., Thwaites, K., Xue, Z. & Xu, X. 2020. Understanding landscape identity in the context of rapid urban change in China. Land, 9, article number 298, pp. 1-18. https://doi.org/10.3390/land9090298        [ Links ]

Stobbelaar, D.J. & Hendriks, K. 2006. Reading the identity of place. In: Van Der Knaap, W. (Ed.). Multiple landscape: Merging past and present. Wageningen, The Netherlands: ISOMUL, pp. 199-211.         [ Links ]

Ujang, N. 2012. Place attachment and continuity of urban place identity. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 49, pp. 156-167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.07.014        [ Links ]

Wamukaya, E. & Mbathi, M. 2019. Customary system as 'constraint' or 'enabler' to peri-urban land development: Case of Kisumu City, Kenya. Town and Regional Planning, 75, pp. 77-90. https://doi.org/10.18820/2415-0495/trp75i1.9        [ Links ]

Wegner, T. 2012. Applied business statistics methods and excel-based applications solutions manual. 4^th edition. Cape Town, South Africa: Juta.         [ Links ]

Xuesong, X. & Hui, H. 2008. Ecological infrastructure and urban landscape identity conservation. In: Proceedings of the 44^th ISOCARP Congress, 19-23 September, Dalian, China, pp.1-11.         [ Links ]

Yaldiz, E., Aydin, D. & Siramkaya, S.B. 2014. Loss of city identities in the process of change: The city of Konya-Turkey. Social and Behavioral Sciences, 140, pp. 221-233. DOI: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.04.413        [ Links ]

Ziyaee, M. 2018. Assessment of urban identity through a matrix of cultural landscape. Cities, 74, pp. 21-31. https://doi.org/10.1016/jcities.2017.10.021        [ Links ]

 

 

Received: January 2023
Peer reviewed and revised: April 2023
Published: June 2023

 

 

DECLARATION: The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.