In contrast to throwing their weight around, Paul and his co-workers were among the Thessalonians (like) νήπιοι⁷ "babies and/or small children" to express the absolute innocence and sincerity of their actions (Weima 2000:564). It is important to note, however, that this does not imply immaturity nor total dependence - the immediate meaning that could be associated with the metaphor (McNeel 2014:55). In using νήπιοι, "babies," Paul and his co-workers are depicted as babies and/or small children, pointing to their innocence as well as to their sincerity. It distances them from the accusations to confirm their integrity (Sailors 2000:96).⁸ Also, note the phrase: ως έαν τροφος θάλπη τα εαυτής τέκνα, "like a nursing mother caring for her children." Paul compares him and his associates to a τροφός, "nursing mother," caring for someone else's babies/toddlers. He adds the following description to use the concept more appropriately: θάλπη τα εαυτής τέκνα, "taking care of her own children." The latter τα εαυτής τέκνα, "her own children," does not introduce a new metaphor but is used with the τροφός, "nursing mother," to complete the comparison. Considering the verb θάλπω, "take care of," the church is typified as Paul's own children of whom they take care (Fowl 1990:472). It testifies to an intimate relationship between Paul, his co-workers, and the congregation. Therefore, he emphasizes the innocence and sincerity of his/their motives (νήπιοι) like "babies" but also points out the mature and caring nature of their actions (τροφός) like those of a "nursing mother". In doing so, he refutes the accusations brought against them by including a positive self-description (Gaventa 1990:205-207).

On the one hand, it should be noted that the concept of νήπιοι, "babies," in verse 7b could possibly be identified as a weak spot in Paul's overall rhetorical strategy, bearing the following three considerations in mind: (1) how the recipients would initially have interpreted the concept νήπιοι, "babies" during the first hearing, affected its effectiveness. They could have misunderstood the implied meaning if they had associated the metaphor with immaturity and dependence rather than sincerity and innocence. (2) If the recipients of the read letter had heard ήπιοι instead of νήπιοι, it would have had the opposite effect that Paul wanted to communicate. He wanted to distance them from other orators of the time, who presented themselves as ήπιοι by typifying themselves as νήπιοι. (3) If the congregation, in light of the word order, έγενήθημεν (ν) ήπιοι, had not heard the second "ν," it could have weakened its rhetorical strategy. (3) Whether or not they heard the second "ν" in -θημεν νήπιοι, further influences how the relationship of νήπιοι to the other metaphor τροφός (v. 7b) would be understood. Suppose they had not heard it, they would have interpreted ήπιοι only as a description to illuminate the metaphor τροφός, they were "gentle" (v. 7b) and "like a nursing mother" (v. 7b). If they had heard νήπιοι, they would instead have thought that Paul wanted to emphasize his or their innocence and sincerity, as opposed to the accusations, before describing his positive self-description with τροφός.

On the other hand, in light of the dominant argument of experience, the apparent limitations of Paul's overall strategy can be relativized. The prepositional phrase "in your midst" should be considered, given its position next to νήπιοι. This reduces one of the limitations of νήπιοι in Paul's overall strategy. Based on their own experience, they know that Paul and his associates did not act immaturely and dependently like babies and/or minor children in their midst; on the contrary, they acted sincerely and innocently. Thus, considering the dominant experiential argument, the probability increases that they would understand νήπιοι correctly, regardless of how they would hear the reading.

The first supportive argument is an oath. Note v. 5c: θεός μάρτυς, "God is a witness." The claim of their selfless actions is not limited to the testimony of their memories. An oath substantiates his argumentative experience. In using an oath, he can rely on God's testimony about them (Haufe 1999:36). In doing so, he echoes a text from the Old Testament (Gen. 31:50) which also identifies God as a witness (Shogren 2012:97). Since it is more complex to evaluate someone's motives than their spoken words, Paul does not only appeal to their memory but also to God, the One who evaluates their hearts (v. 4) (McNeel 2014:50). If God is the witness that they have indeed acted with dignity, they effectively refute the accusations. Suppose they have acted with the authority that characterizes apostles of God. In that case, they confirm that they have acted innocently, sincerely, and with concern (Shogren 2012:97). This shows how they use their claim to divine authority to refute the implied charges against them in order to confirm their integrity (Weima 2014:41). So, Paul uses this supportive argument to strengthen his dominant argument of ethos.

The second supportive argument is emotional, namely emotion - type 1. It describes Paul and his co-missionaries' desire to see the congregation again. Note v. 8: οΰτως όμειρόμενοι υμών εύδοκοΰμεν μεταδοΰναι ύμΐν ού μόνον το εύαγγέλιον τοΰ θεοΰ άλλα καί τας εαυτών ψυχάς, διότι άγαπητοί ήμΐν έγενήθητε, "Longing for you, we were pleased to share not only the gospel of God with you but also our own souls because you had become dear to us." In v. 8 the implication of v. 7b unfolds. With the participatory phrase: οΰτως όμειρόμενοι ύμών, "longing for you," Paul and his co-missionaries' deep inner attachment to and love for the congregation, when they were initially with them, is expressed (Heidland 1967:176). However, their love is not only limited to the initial visit but also continues. It serves to reaffirm his/their desire to see the congregation again (Marshall 1983:71). The imperfect tense, εύδοκοΰμεν, "be pleased," emphasizes his continuous determination to give himself to the congregation (Malherbe 2000:147). Note v. 8a: ού μόνον το εύαγγέλιον τοΰ θεοΰ άλλα καί τας εαυτών ψυχάς, "Not only the gospel of God but also our own souls." In formulating this statement antithetically, he substantiates his previous claims, namely the denial of the accusations and the positive self-description (vv. 5-7) (Schreiber 2014:141). Thus, he confirms that they obeyed God by sharing his gospel and shared their deepest selves/souls unconditionally. In other words, Paul's preached word is also visible in their lives (Weima 2014:148). In verse 8c: διότι άγαπητοί ήμΐν έγενήθητε, "because you have become very dear to us," it is confirmed that Paul and his co-workers were so profoundly concerned about the congregation that they could rightly describe them as άγαπητοί, "beloved." This statement reaffirms their intense desire to see the beloved Thessalonians again and confirms God's love for them (Knoch 1987:34).

Paul supports his overall rhetorical strategy with various rhetorical techniques. The first technique is his usage of metaphor in vv. 7b-c: νήπιοι, "babies," and τροφός, "nursing mother." Through these metaphors, he portrays the relationships and emotions to strikingly confirm their actions to the congregation (McNeel 2014:11).

The second technique uses the inclusio between vv. 4 and 6: ούχ ώς άνθρώποις άρέσκοντες, "not pleasing men" (v. 4) in relation to οΰτε ζητοΰντες έξ ανθρώπων δόξαν, "not seeking honour from men" (v. 6). In using inclusio, he repeats his claim that they were not seeking the favour of men. In this way, he can distinguish himself and his collaborators from other philosophers and/or orators at the time (Weima 2014:142).

The third technique concerns the contrast between νήπιοι "baby" and τροφός "mother" in v. 7b-c. In using two conflicting metaphors together, he draws attention to the innocence, sincerity, and loving care for the congregation (Baumert & Seewann 2014:21; Fowl 1990:471-473; Gaventa 1990:203-207; Weima 2000:563-564).

The fourth technique applied is antithetical formulation (vv. 5-7). Paul uses antithetical formulation to refute the implied accusation against him by repeatedly introducing the accusations with οΰτε and by introducing the positive self-assessment with άλλά (Malherbe 2000:159; Weima 2014:138).

The fifth technique used is alliteration (vv. 5-6), referring to οΰτε ... οΰτε ... οΰτε. It refers to the repetition of the "ου" sound. This reinforces the denial of the implied accusations against Paul and them.

The sixth technique concerns the usage of anaphora, which means repeating the same word to introduce a sentence or phrase. This repetition also relates to οΰτε . οΰτε . οΰτε in vv. 5-6, together with the alliteration, helps emphasize the denial of the accusations (Sailors 2000:96).

The seventh technique applied is the usage of an oath; God is mentioned as a witness: θεός μάρτυς. This helps Paul place his claim's credibility above suspicion (v. 10) (Tolmie 2005:251).

2.3 1 Thessalonians 2:9-12: Paul's encouragement to live worthily

The first dominant argument that Paul uses here concerns experience. Note v. 9a: μνημονεύετε γάρ, αδελφοί, "For you remember, brothers." An appeal is made to the believers' existing knowledge introduced by the conjunction γάρ, "for,"; a memory they share as siblings based on their recollection of the experience of the initial encounter. This memory is shared as siblings (Holtz 1986:85). The repeated usage of άδελφοί again assumes a typical familial relationship's favourable and hierarchical nature, as "brothers." On the one hand, it confirms their positive relationship with the congregation in being so connected to them that he can identify with them as his brothers. On the other hand, Paul never describes himself and his associates as the congregation's brothers; it presupposes a lofty yet praiseworthy position regarding the apostle and his associates in the congregation's memory (Aasgaard 2004:285-303). Also note v. 10a: in stating: ύμεΐς μάρτυρες, "You (are) witnesses," Paul assumes they still remember their first encounter and presupposes their collective memory as a testimony. Thus, their previous experience of Paul and his co-missionaries' exemplary actions are a testimony in favour of their character (Schreiber 2014:144). In the same vein, v. 11a: καθάπερ οϊδατε, "just as you know" could be noted. Based on the experience of their initial encounter, they know how Paul and his co-missionaries behaved towards them, more specifically, like a πατήρ, "father"⁹ towards his own children. Thus, their memory reaffirms the loving solidarity that characterizes the relationship between Paul and the congregation and, at the same time, the favourable exalted position of a father towards his children (Johnson 2016:69). Thus, Paul uses their previous experience to clarify his/their reliability based on their collective memory.

The second dominant argument uses ethos. Note v. 9b: τον κόπον ημών καί τον μόχθον· νυκτος καί ημέρας έργαζόμενοι προς το μη έπιβαρήσαί τινα ύμών έκηρύξαμεν εις ύμάς το εύαγγέ-λιον τοΰ θεοΰ, "... our labour and toil. While we worked day and night not to burden any of you, we preached the gospel to you". Two almost identical concepts are included to describe the specific memory of their initial visit: τον κόπον, "labour," and τον μόχθον, "toil." Thus, Paul's hard work and effort become a focal point. Their selfless way of working is confirmed by νυκτος καί ημέρας, "day and night" (Walton 2011:222). They did not necessarily continue working during every available hour; instead, they were committed to working continuously for an indefinite period (Boring 2015:88). Taking the participle έργαζόμενοι, "working" into account, this activity is sketched parallel to his/their evangelization - Paul's life task, έκηρύξαμεν εις υμάς το εύαγγέλιον τοΰ θεοΰ, "we proclaimed to you the gospel of God." The simultaneous action of εργαζόμενοι, "working" and the main verb, έκηρύξαμεν, "we proclaimed," indicates a possible situation in a workshop. Such a set-up enabled him to preach the gospel verbally (Hock 2007:27). The motivation for their selfless labour is also broader, namely προς το μή έπιβαρήσαί τινα υμών, "not to burden any of you." The infinitive έπιβαρήσαί can literally be translated as "to be weighty." He re, it refers to being dependent on livelihood (Schreiber 2014:143). Within the Greco-Roman world, the social class who did manual labour was often looked down on, whereas in the Jewish tradition, it was precisely expected of someone to learn a trade to provide for his livelihood (Best 1972:103). Since the congregation mainly consisted of non-Jewish members, Paul kept in mind that they, like other philosophers and orators at the time, could claim support from the congregation. Contrary to the charges of selfishness and greed (vv. 3 and 5), Paul mentions that he has provided for his subsistence (Roose 2016:33). In this way, he further distances himself from philosophers who acted for their financial gain, thereby confirming that he preached the gospel above suspicion (Malherbe 2000:148-149). Also note v. 10b: ώς όσίως καΐ δικαίως καΐ αμέμπτως ύμΐν τοις πιστεύουσιν έγενήθημεν, "How holy, righteous and blameless are we towards you who have acted faithfully." Paul probably presents this formulation in response to a charge against his/their integrity. Three consecutive adjectives serve to dismiss the charge by affirming how eschatologically blameless their actions are, how holy they are before God, and how righteous they are before men (Weima 2014:153). Paul appeals to the memory of those who responded with faith to their preaching. Also, note v. 11: ώς ενα εκαστον ύμών ώς πατήρ τέκνα έαυτοΰ, "We dealt with each one of you like a father with his children." After he denied an implied accusation (v. 10), he adds a commendable self-characterization (v. 11). He uses a metaphor to compare the integrity of their actions with those of a typical father. His comparison is completed in the phrase τέκνα έαυτοΰ, "his own children," which identifies the congregation as Paul's children. In ancient times, a child was distinguished from an adult as physically and intellectually inferior. In this way, Paul and his associates are favourably portrayed in solidarity with the congregation yet hierarchically superior to them (Burke 2000:59-80; Burke 2012:269-287; Gerber 2005:301).

The first supportive argument involves an oath. Note v. 10a: μάρτυρες καΐ ό θεός, "God is witness." Now, Paul re-emphasizes the integrity of their actions. Before refuting any charge, he identifies the witness(es) who will confirm his version, namely God! The congregation's testimony (v. 10a) is insufficient (Whitenon 2012:22-23). Earlier in this pericope, he appeals to God's selection and assessment (v. 4). Now, God - the One who called the congregation and will also judge him eschatologically - is identified as his witness. The emphasis on witnesses means that one cannot help but interpret his description in verse 10 as a reaction to an accusation, something that he rejects with an oath (Crook 1997:156; Marshall 1983:73).

The second supportive argument comprises an exhortation. Take note of v.12a: παρακαλοΰντες υμάς καΐ παραμυθούμενοι καΐ μαρτυρόμενοι εις τό περιπατεΐν υμάς άξίως τοΰ θεοΰ, "While we exhort, encourage and urge you to live a life worthy of God." This statement emphasizes Paul's fatherly involvement (v. 11); "he admonishes, encourages, and urges each of his children in this congregation," note ώς ενα εκαστον υμών, "with each one of you." As to the relationship of this element, the second παραμυθέομαι, "encourage," and the third μαρτύρομαι, "urge," seems to explain the first one, παρακαλέω, "admonishes" (Burke 2012:276). These characteristics, typical of a father in Paul's time, describe the pastoral involvement of teaching and guidance. Like a father, they are personally involved with everyone in the congregation (Fee 2009:81).

The third supportive argument focuses on divine control or initiative. Note v. 12b: θεοΰ τοΰ καλοΰντος υμάς εις την έαυτοΰ βασιλείαν καΐ δόξαν, "God who calls you to his own kingdom and glory." The infinitive περιπατεΐν, "to walk," takes on a metaphorical meaning: "to live." The adverb άξίως, "worthily," completes this infinitive to indicate the way according to which they should live (Holloway 1992:29). Earlier in the pericope, Paul reminded the young believers about their worthy conduct (vv. 4-8). By presenting God as the one calling upon them, he manages to urge them to live worthily, for they are called to do so. Underlying God's call is the Jewish depiction of God as the Creator, who created through his act of calling (Holtz 1986:91). Paul used the present participle καλοΰντος, "calling," here to assure the young believers that this God is continuously present and involved in their lives (Johnson 2016:70). Although the members of the congregation used to worship idols and were subject to Roman rule, God eschatologically called them to another βασιλεία, "kingdom."¹⁰ Through their faith in Jesus Christ, they share in God's δόξα, "glory," and glorious presence, which will materialize as a reality when they are resurrected from the dead in the future at the parousia (4:13-5:11) (Nicholl 2004:82).

Various rhetorical techniques complete Paul's rhetorical strategy in this pericope. The first technique involves the usage of metaphor. The repeated usage of άδελφοί, "brothers" (v. 9) provides an example. At the time, Paul used the characteristics of a family to confirm the close bond between him and the congregation and to highlight the hierarchical structure of their relationship. The congregation is portrayed in solidarity with Paul and his co-workers as their brothers, although neither Paul nor his co-workers are equaled as the brothers of the congregants. Another example is the usage of πατήρ, "father," and τέκνα, "children," as familial metaphors to characterize Paul and his associates as fathers of the congregation (Aasgaard 2004:288; Burke 2000:72; Burke 2012:279).

The second technique is the usage of a comparison: By comparing the familial roles of πατήρ, "father," and τέκνα, "children," Paul portrays his and his co-workers' fatherly and, therefore, the traditional role of teaching the congregation as their children (v. 11) (Aasgaard 2004:288; Burke 2012:286).

The third technique concerns hyperbole. The hyperbole, νυκτος καί ημέρας έργαζόμενοι, "we worked day and night," is thirdly used to emphasize Paul's/their dedication to their work (v. 9).¹¹

Paul's fourth technique is an oath; he mentions μάρτυς ό θεός, "God as (a) witness." This helps him place his claim's credibility above suspicion (v. 10) (Tolmie 2005:251).

The fifth technique uses a stacking effect to describe Paul and his co-worker's actions: όσίως καί δικαίως καί άμέμπτως, "pure upright and blameless." By stacking the positive descriptions of their behaviour in this sequence, he emphasizes the praiseworthiness of their actions' nature (v. 10) (Weima 2014:153).

Paul finally uses the technique of anacoluthon by omitting the main verb in v. 12 and by only using infinitives to focus attention on the content of this verse (Holtz 1986:82; Verhoef 1998:112; Weima 2014:153, 155-156).

To summarise: Paul's overall strategy involves confirming his/their integrity by using a claim to divine authority to refute the implied charges against them. He implements this strategy in several supporting arguments. His dominant arguments are based on experience and ethos. His supporting arguments include an oath, emotion-type 1, inducement, and divine control/initiative. Rhetorical techniques further support his overall strategy: metaphor, comparison, hyperbole, oath, stacking effect, and anacoluthon.

Conclusion

A reading of the current state of scholarship has indicated that existing rhetorical analyses are typically based on ancient rhetorical categories. However, it is also true that none of these studies agree on describing Paul's letter's rhetoric. This article has presented another methodology, namely a text-centred rhetorical analysis, which focuses on presenting a rhetorical analysis of the text instead of merely applying ancient theoretical principles. The text was demarcated as one pericope, 1 Thessalonians 2:112, an autographic apology. This text-centred analysis has confirmed Paul's rhetorical objective ofreaffirming his integrity or ethos in the light of external accusations. He included various arguments, some dominant and others supportive, for example, divine control and initiative, ethos, experience, oath, emotion - type 1, exhortation. He used several rhetorical techniques: antithetical formulation, anacoluthon, anaphora, alliteration, stacking effect, metaphor, inclusive language, comparison, contrast, echo of the Old Testament Prophetic tradition, and inclusio. A text-centred rhetorical analysis of Paul's letter does not merely repeat the use of ancient rhetorical categories in identifying this pericope as narratio; rather, it enhances the application of a persuasive strategy in Paul's first correspondence to the Thessalonians. Further, some limitations in his overall strategy have also been identified that previous scholars have overlooked. Thus, from this article, it seems clear that the vocabulary of ancient rhetorical categories, in the absence of a close reading of the text, is insufficient to outline his rhetorical strategy and to highlight his persuasiveness. A close reading of Paul's letter is also adequate to deepen one's understanding of the text before any responsible attempt of appropriation in contextual reading could follow.

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1 "his/their" refers with "his" primarily to Paul's conduct as apostle but "their" includes the conduct of his co-missionaries which he reaffirms.
2 Contra Weima (2014:120). Weima accepts that Paul does not affirm his/their integrity but "defends" it, considering the implied charges. To confirm the grounds for the rejection, "defend", see Malherbe (2000:134).
3 Contra Lyons (1985:27, 182-185). Lyons is aware of the definition of "autographic apology" but questions its applicability in the case of 2:1-12. From his comparison of 1 Thessalonians with Galatians, he notes that the absence of a more direct reference to the identity of the opponents in 1 Thessalonians (unlike in Galatians) renders an apologetic function unlikely. However, in this case, Galatians cannot be used as a criterion as 1 Thessalonians was written prior to Galatians. Lyons is correct; Paul does not need to affirm his authority but rather his integrity or ethos but denies that it functions as a counter-reaction. See Hiebert (1992:83) for a further discussion of the applicability of apology as a description of this pericope.
4 Contra Boring (2015:79); Donfried (2000:46); and Lyons (1985:184-185, 189-190, 195). Boring denies that Paul is using an apologetic defence of real accusations against him, although he does believe that he is trying to confirm his integrity here. According to Donfried, these are only hypothetical accusations. Lyons denies that Paul responds to any charges. He argues that through his antitheses he wants to encourage his followers to imitate him and his associates. In light of the demarcation of the pericope (2: 1-12), this seems highly unlikely to be the sole function of the pericope, apart from Paul's detailed description of their dignified conduct and encouragement of the congregation to act with dignity, since μιμηταί έγενήθητε first appears in the second chapter (2:14). See Du Toit (1994:349); Still (1999:139-143); Weima (1997:73 -74); and Weima (2014:128-129) for a further discussion about the idea that Paul responds to real accusations, as well as for a responsible assessment of his use of antitheses.
5 When reading Paul's First Letter to the Thessalonians as a whole it becomes clear that three types of emotional arguments are used, namely: (a) Emotion Type 1 - Paul's desire to meet with the congregation again, (b) Emotion Type 2 - The congregation's desire to see Paul and his co-missionaries again, (c) Emotion Type 3 - Paul's concern about their spiritual endurance.
6 Contra Donfried (2000:52). Donfried identifies the interpretation of a financial burden as appropriate.
7 In some manuscripts, ήπιοι, "soft", is found instead of νήπιοι "babies/children". To compare the two options, the position in the sentence is to be considered: έγενήθημεν (ν) ήπιοι: ήπιοι was due to haplography or νήπιοι to dittography. Textual critics agree that νήπιοι is the most likely, appropriate, and difficult reading. Refer to the following sources for confirmation: Fowl (1990:469-473); Gaventa (1990:205-207); McNeel (2014:35-39, 42); Sailors (2000:81-83, 88).
8 Contra Crawford (1973:69-72). Crawford argues that νήπιοι should be considered as a vocative in the sentence construction and identifies the young congregation, not Paul and his associates, as νήπιοι. For confirmation see Weima (2000:547-564).
9 For further discussion on the political and/or cultural-background of the notion "father", see Malina & Pilch (2006:31-32).
10 For further discussion on the political and/or cultural background of the notion "kingdom", see Malina & Pilch (2006:35).
11 Contra Weima (2014:150). Weima denies the applicability of hyperbole as relevant to νυκτος καί ημέρας. Considering that Weima does not mean this literally, it seems highly unlikely that hyperbole is inappropriate here.