RESEARCH ARTICLE

 

Establishing a baseline of published air pollution and health research studies in the Waterberg-Bojanala Priority Area

 

 

Bianca Wernecke^{I, III, *}; Natasha Pillay Naidoo^II; Caradee Yael Wright^{II, III, IV}

^IEnvironment and Health Research Unit, South African Medical Research Council, Johannesburg, South Africa
^IIEnvironment and Health Research Unit, South African Medical Research Council, Pretoria, South Africa
^IIIEnvironmental Health Department, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Johannesburg, South Africa
^IVDepartment of Geography, Geoinformatics and Meteorology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

 

 

---

ABSTRACT

Though originally the Waterberg-Bojanala Priority Area (WBPA) was strategically declared as an air quality priority area due to potential future air pollution risks, it is now a confirmed air pollution hotspot. More research is needed to assess the health impacts of air pollution in the WBPA. The aim of this study was to conduct an umbrella review to establish a baseline of the peer-reviewed research which has been conducted and published to assess the health outcomes associated with air pollution exposure, specifically in the WBPA. Just over seventy peer-reviewed research studies were included, based on the systematic search criteria. Fewer than ten studies considered air quality and health in the WBPA (as opposed to only air quality) and of these studies, only a few collected human health data in relation to air pollution exposure. Identified studies together showed that poor air quality is a problem in the WBPA, with ambient air quality levels often exceeding national ambient air quality standards. Based on the findings, we recommend that more focused health studies be conducted in the WBPA to advance our understanding of the air pollution-related health burden at the population and the individual level. Such studies will help bolster the baseline evidence of the impacts of air pollution on human health and wellbeing in the WBPA and support decision-making in the future.

Keywords: air quality, environmental health, epidemiology, umbrella review, South Africa

---

 

 

Introduction

In September 2021, the World Health Organization (WHO) released revised ambient air quality guidelines (AQGs) which are more ambitious than those proposed in 2005 (WHO, 2006; WHO, 2021a). Based on the latest scientific evidence, the new AQGs reinforce the need for urgent action to address air pollution and improve the health and wellbeing of people, especially for vulnerable populations. Around 90% of the global population is exposed to air pollution at concentrations above the WHO AQGs (DFFE 2019). Globally, there are an estimated 7.4 million premature deaths from air pollution exposure every year (WHO 2021b; WHO 2022).

Air pollution is a longstanding environment and health problem in South Africa (DFFE 2019). There are numerous sources of air pollution including from coal-fired power stations, mines, industry, residential burning of fuels, vehicles, biomass burning / veld fires and unpaved roads (DEA 2014). These emissions have environmental and health impacts, hence a network to monitor criteria pollutant concentrations is run to monitor air quality around the country. These concentrations are compared with the South African National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQSs) which were set to indicate what levels of exposure to pollution are generally "safe" for most people's health.

South Africa has a long history in air quality management to ensure all its citizens the right to a clean, healthy environment, officially instituted in The Constitution (RSA 1996). One of the mechanisms that South Africa (specifically the Department of Forestry, Fisheries and Environment) has implemented, is the declaration of air pollution priority areas. These have been put in place to highlight geographical areas in which elevated concentrations of criteria pollutants are, or could be, present and where the concentrations are likely to exceed the NAAQS, and where air quality management activities are required to address the air pollution problem. The Vaal Triangle Airshed Priority Area was declared in 2007 and the Highveld Priority Area was later declared in 2008 (DEAT 2006; DEAT 2007). Several studies have been conducted in these two priority areas (Terblanche et al., 1992; Zwi et al., 1990; Shirinde et al., 2014; Albers et al., 2015; Wright et al., 2018). The Department of Environmental Affairs commissioned air pollution-related health baseline assessment studies in each of these priority areas between 2010 and 2020. Results of the Vaal report have recently been written up into a manuscript (Phaswana et al., 2022), while the Highveld report is not yet publicly available.

The Waterberg-Bojanala Priority Area (WBPA) was declared as the third national air quality Priority Area on 15 June 2012 in line with the precautionary principle of the National Environmental Management Act (Act No. 107 of 1998) due to planned developments in the area (DEA 2012). The Priority Area's main emission sources are mining, industry, residential areas, motor vehicles and biomass burning (DEA 2014). The WBPA Air Quality Management Plan: Baseline Characterisation Report describes the state of air two years after the Priority Area was declared. The report listed twelve government-owned ambient air quality monitoring stations and two industry-owned stations. Sulphur dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) and benzene (C₆H₆) concentrations were deemed to be relatively low in the Priority Area. While the concentrations of particulate matter (PM₁₀ and PM_2.5) were also generally low, there was evidence of exceedances of the both the annual and the daily 2015 and 2016 NAAQS, respectively (DEA 2014).

The report also identified important gaps in knowledge (DEA 2014, p141) for example -

'...health impacts as a result of air pollution in the Waterberg-Bojanala Priority Area are not understood and therefore not prioritised' ... 'There is no health baseline with respect to air pollution in the WBPA and ecological impacts are not understood, i.e., with modelling and monitoring, efforts focus on industry, mining and residential fuel burning. Emissions from small boilers, biomass burning, waste management and transport were excluded...' and 'There is generally a poor understanding of air quality and potential impacts on human and ecological health...'

According to the District Health Barometer published in 2019/2020 (Massyn et al., 2020), many of the leading causes of death (e.g., respiratory diseases, preterm birth complications, cerebrovascular disease, hypertensive heart disease and even diabetes) listed in the WBPA District Municipalities have been linked to air pollution exposure in previous research studies around the world (Burkart et al., 2022; Stafoggia et al., 2022).

More research is needed on the health impacts of air pollution in the WBPA. To the best of our knowledge, no study has drawn together the peer-reviewed evidence reporting on air pollution (ambient and / or household air pollution) and health outcomes associated with exposure to air pollution in the WBPA. The aim of this study was to conduct an umbrella review of published literature to fill this gap and to present evidence to inform future studies.

 

Methods

Study area

This study's geographical area of focus is the WBPA, and the provinces within which it falls i.e., North West Province and Limpopo Province. Figure 1 illustrates the location of the WBPA in South Africa, in relation to the two other Priority Areas. It includes parts of North-West and Limpopo Provinces and covers an area of about 67 000 km² and comprises two District Municipalities (i.e., Waterberg and Bojanala) and nine Local Municipalities (i.e., Thabazimbi, Modimolle, Mogalakwena, Bela-Bela, Mookgopong, Lephalale, Moses Kotane, Rustenburg and Madibeng) (DEA 2014).

Ambient air quality monitoring network

The South African Air Quality Information System was used to identify the location (in the form of GPS coordinates) of all ambient air quality monitoring stations located in the WBPA that reported to SAAQIS at the time during which this manuscript was conceptualised and written. Knowing where ambient air pollution is measured on the ground helps us identify areas in which ambient air quality standards are not being met, and consequently where air pollution exposure may be harmful to the health of humans and biodiversity. Though ambient air quality monitoring stations are sparsely located, and their position is mainly focused on industrial air pollution hot spots, they are essential in helping us measure what air pollution concentrations people on the ground in the WBPA may be experiencing. In this study, their location was referenced for contextual purposes to discuss the literature reviewed.

Review methods

An umbrella review, broadly following the PRISMA guidelines (Moher et al., 2009), of published and peer-reviewed research studies considering air pollution and air pollution-related health outcomes and symptoms in the WBPA was conducted. Health was considered broadly to include health and well-being (including mental health, for example).

The following databases were searched for articles published up until 31 August 2022: Pubmed, Web of Science, ScienceDirect and Google Scholar. The term groups listed in Table 1 were used for the separate searches and in various combinations. The reference lists of included papers were searched to ensure no studies were omitted. Over and above this, the Clean Air Journal's archives from all articles available online to 2022 were systematically checked for applicable studies which may have been missed in the systematic online search. This was done as the CAJ was deemed most likely to have published studies relevant to the aim of this study.

Any studies which took place outside of these geographical areas (Table 1, column 3) and were not written in English were excluded. Municipality-specific Air Quality Management Plans or Specialist Air Quality Reports, which were conducted as part of Environmental Impact Assessments, were not included, as these do not fall under peer-reviewed and published research articles. All epidemiological study designs were considered and there was no limit set for the number of studies included.

Once studies which met our broad search criteria were identified, these were classified as "inside" or "outside" the WBPA and as "having conducted" or "not having conducted" a health-related study. Indirect health assessments, defined as studies which only evaluated their air quality findings against the NAAQS or the WHO Guidelines, but which did not consider actual health data, were not classified as "health studies". Results are discussed descriptively.

 

Results

Sample description

A total of 51 studies in North-West Province and 18 studies in Limpopo Province were identified as eligible for inclusion in the study (see Table 2 and Supplementary Material). Over and above this, there were three studies, where the geographical scope of the research included both provinces.

Based on the search criteria, 72 studies were identified. Of these 72 studies, 58 were located in the WBPA, and most of these studies were based in North West Province (Figure 1). A fifth of the identified studies included health outcomes in their scope. Only seven studies were both located in the WBPA and considered health outcomes in their research objectives and findings.

Studies and study findings

Many studies were conducted around large industrial centres (in particular, in Rustenburg and surrounds) where major industrial activities, mining and power generation occur and where ambient air quality monitoring stations are located (Figure 1). Many air quality studies were also conducted in the Welgegund measurement site, approximately 25km north-west of Potchefstroom.

Overall, the air pollution-related parameters which were measured across the studies spanned all primary pollutants (PM₁₀, PM₂₅, SO₂, NO₂, O₃ and CO) and considered ambient, indoor and personal air pollution levels (See Supplementary Material). Particulates were measured especially frequently in study sites closest to mining activities (e.g., in Rustenburg, see Kgabi et al., 2006) and power generation activities (e.g., Langerman and Pauw 2018). Air pollutants were not only measured using in situ air quality instruments, but they were also modelled using a Land Use Regression Model (Simelane and Langerman 2020), as well as dispersion modelling tools (Bryszewski and Visser 2004; DEA 2014; Tshehla and Wright 2019). Remote sensing and satellite data were also used to identify air quality concentrations for various pollutants (Barnes 2015). Amongst the monitored gaseous pollutants, over and above the primary pollutants mentioned, were TVOCs (BTEX), H₂S, CO₂ and non-methane hydrocarbons.

A combination of health outcomes and symptoms were considered in relation to air pollution exposure (See Supplementary Table). Most of the studies focused on respiratory health. This included self-reported and quantitatively measured health parameters. Asthma was the most frequently considered respiratory health outcome (Zwi et al., 1991; Cairncross and Kisting 2016; Njoku et al., 2019; Kapwata et al., 2021). One study considered psychological consequences and responses associated with air pollution exposure (Barnwell 2021).

Air quality and health in the WBPA

We found seven studies located in the WBPA which considered air quality and health (Table 3). Of these studies, four studies used self-reported information as the source of their health data. Only one study, which was published in 1991 conducted physical health measurements (spirometry) in combination with self-reports to identify associations between air pollution and health. Studies considered health data from existing databases/ research to conduct health risk assessments (e.g., Simelane and Langerman 2020). Only one of the seven studies physically measured air pollution levels as part of the study design (i.e., this study did not rely on existing data/data collected by third parties) (Zwi et al., 1991). The remaining studies either used self-reports on air quality as proxy data or sourced their air quality data from pollution sources (e.g., stack emissions), existing ambient monitoring networks or other studies.

 

Discussion

A review of the available, published and peer-reviewed literature of air quality-related health studies in the WBPA illustrated a paucity of such studies despite the WPBA having been declared ten years ago.

Air quality in the WBPA

Considering the air quality findings from the reviewed material, several studies found that ambient air pollution levels in the WBPA were high and at times exceeded relevant NAAQS. Highstack industry emissions (including from power generation activities) and mining activities as well as combustion activities in semi-formal and informal communities (including domestic fuel burning and waste burning activities) were most quoted as notable pollution sources. A principal component analysis also identified soil dust and traffic as abundant air pollution sources (Kgabi et al., 2006).

A study conducted in an area just south-east of Rustenburg in North-West Province recorded an average of 322 exceedances / annum of the O₃ 8-h moving average NAAQS and an average of 42 exceedances / annum of the daily PM₁₀ NAAQS (Venter et al., 2012). The remaining pollutants measured (i.e., CO, NO₂ and SO₂) did not exceed their relevant NAAQS. High-stack emissions were identified as the main source of ambient SO₂ concentrations, while household combustion from semi-formal and informal settlements were identified as the predominant sources of PM₁₀, NO₂ and CO. The influx of regional precursor pollutants contributed to the high O₃ concentrations (Venter et al., 2012).

Similarly, in the WBPA, in Limpopo Province, Feig et al., (2016) conducted a study which assessed the ambient air pollution in Lephalale, Thabazimbi and Mokopane. Peak SO₂ concentrations were also attributed to industrial activities, and high morning and evening PM peaks were attributed to domestic burning practices. At times, the daily PM_2.5 NAAQS were exceeded. High O₃ concentration events were associated with periods with strong winds from other regions (Feig et al., 2016).

More qualitative studies focused on the visible wind-blown dust from mining activities in the WBPA (e.g., platinum, gold, or coal mining). Images of dust blowing off tailing dams in the direction of residential mining communities, as well as self-reports about dust levels in houses by dwelling occupants paint a picture that air quality is poor and represents a health risk in the affected communities.

Though there have been studies measuring indoor air pollution in Limpopo and in North West Province, only one peer-reviewed and published research article identified here measured indoor air pollution levels within the WBPA (Barnes et al., 2011). The study considered behavioural change interventions to improve indoor levels of PM₁₀ and CO in solid fuel-using households. The control site, in which indoor pollutants were also measured, was located in the WBPA. Due to indoor fires for heating and / or cooking, daily average indoor PM₁₀ and CO concentrations were high, exceeding 'safe' values.

Air pollution exposure and health in the WBPA

Of the two studies (Cairncross and Kisting 2016; Barnwell 2021) which focused on the North West Province section of the WBPA and included air quality and health data, none collected empirical data for both air quality exposure and health outcomes to conduct a rigorous analysis of the associations between the risk and the health outcomes in their respective studies. For air pollution exposure data, these studies relied on self-reported responses, images or previous research findings in the area. The health outcomes were determined by self-reported questionnaire data, self-reported data gathered in focus group meetings and previous study findings of air pollution impacts on human health, including mental health. Cairncross and Kisting (2016) reported on the multiple health problems faced by those who partake in mining activities or are exposed to their emissions (e.g., people reportedly suffered from asthma, sinusitis and eye problems to name a few). Barnwell (2021) highlights the severe health burden placed on physical health and psychological wellbeing when people are exposed to air pollution, especially in highly polluted and poor communities.

One of the two air quality and health studies conducted in the Limpopo Province section of the WBPA (Itzkin 2015) collected self-reported health data (i.e., self-reported respiratory health outcomes at a household level combined with ambient air quality data). An older study conducted by Zwi et al. (1991) collected self-reported respiratory health data, and also conducted lung function tests to find associations between ill health symptoms and air pollution exposure. Zwi et al. (1991) found that respiratory symptoms (e.g., wheezing or coughing) were significantly more common in children who went to school in polluted communities, than in children who went to schools in less polluted areas.

One study developed a Land Use Regression Model to estimate ambient PM₂₅ concentrations from coal-fired power stations and

their associated health risks on human health (Simelane and Langerman 2020). District municipality-level population data were used to derive population-weighted PM₂₅ concentrations. The study found that emissions from coal-fired power stations contribute between 1.8% and 5.6% of all deaths attributable to PM₂₅ exposure in the study area identified (RSA as a whole, in areas affected by PM₂₅ from power stations). They also found that coal-fired power station emissions contribute to a relatively higher proportion of premature deaths where power stations have the highest contribution to ambient PM₂₅ concentrations (Simelane and Langerman 2020).

Study limitations

The scope of the umbrella review focused solely on peer-reviewed and published research articles, theses, dissertations and book chapters, but excluded reports which would have been written by air quality specialists as a legal requirement as part of an Environmental Impact Assessment process, or by consultants appointed to conduct an assessment for the government (e.g., for an Air Quality Management Plan or cost-benefit analysis).

There are several such studies which have been conducted within the WBPA due to the high number of industrial activities taking place there, and which have an impact on air quality. These studies will typically have considered the ambient air quality impacts of the industrial activity for which the environmental impact assessment / study was conducted. Air quality specialist studies usually include the results of rigorous dispersion modelling exercises which take into account the emissions created by the proposed activity (e.g., they would use a dispersion model to determine how the activities would influence the ambient air quality in the proximity of the activity, including in any surrounding residential areas). While these are important studies, which should receive special mention here as work which highlights the health risks associated with poor air quality, these are not peer reviewed and published research articles, and were thus not included in this study. This is an acknowledged limitation of this article, and a future study could expand on this research by including such work. Additionally, studies which may have considered air quality and/ or health in the North West Province or Limpopo Province, but did so indirectly, and not as part of their main scope/ research aim of the study, may have been missed (e.g., if a study inadvertently included parts of the study area, as it was located on the periphery of the main research area).

Recommendations for future research

Based on the evidence outlined in this umbrella review, evidence suggests poor air quality in the WBPA represents a human health risk. We need to learn about the health impacts of criteria air pollutants at a population-level, but also at the individual level, so that we can answer questions like: How do chronic and acute ambient and indoor air pollution levels impact on the health of those living in the WBPA? How does air pollution exposure influence the genome of those exposed? How does air pollution exposure influence the unborn children of those mothers who are exposed? What types of interventions can be implemented to reduce air pollution exposure and to improve health?

 

Conclusions

This review set out to establish a baseline of published and peer-reviewed air pollution and health research studies in the WBPA. Just over 70 studies were identified as relevant based on the systematic search criteria. Only seven studies considered air quality and health in the Priority Area (as opposed to only air quality or only health) and of these, only one actively collected human health data in relation to air pollution exposure. All of the reviewed articles identified air quality as a problem with ambient air quality levels often exceeding relevant NAAQSs. We recommend that well-designed epidemiological health studies be conducted in the WBPA to enhance our understanding of the air pollution-related health burden in the WPBA population.

 

Acknowledgements

B Wernecke and CY Wright receive research funding support from the South Africa Medical Research Council. CY Wright receives funding support from the National Research Foundation. We would like to thank Semakaleng Monyai for her assistance with the references.

 

References

Albers P, Voyi K, Wright CY and Mathee A. 2015, 'Household fuel use and child respiratory ill health in two South African towns, Mpumalanga', South African Medical Journal, 205(7): 573-577. https://doi.org/10.7196/SAMJnew.7934.         [ Links ]

Aurela, M., Beukes, J.P., Van Zyl, P.G., Vakkari, V., Teinilä, K., Saarikoski, S., Laakso, L. 2016 'The composition of ambient and fresh biomass burning aerosols at a savannah site, South Africa', South African Journal of Science, 112(5/6):55-62. http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/sajs.2016/20150223.         [ Links ]

Backman, J., Virkkula, A., Vakkari, V., Beukes, J. P., Van Zyl, P. G., Josipovic, M., Piketh, S., Tiitta, P., Chiloane, K., Petäjä, T., Kulmala, M., and Laakso, L. 2014 'Differences in aerosol absorption Angstrom exponents between correction algorithms for a particle soot absorption photometer measured on the South African Highveld', Atmospheric Measurement Techniques, 7:4285-4298. https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-7-4285-2014.         [ Links ]

Barnes B., Mathee A. and Thomas E. 2011, 'The impact of health behaviour change intervention on indoor air pollution indicators in the rural North West Province, South Africa', Journal of Energy in Southern Africa, 22:35-44. https://doi.org/10.17159/2413-3051%2F2011%2FV22I3A3220.         [ Links ]

Barnes, B.C. 2015, 'The Spatial Distribution of Haze Over the Bojanala District', MSc dissertation, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa. Available at: https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/188768999.pdf. [Accessed 25 September 2022].         [ Links ]

Barnwell, G. 2021, 'The Psychological and Mental Health Consequences of Climate Change in South Africa', Available at: https://cer.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/CER-Expert-Report-Garret-Barnwell-31-August-2021-Public-1.pdf. [Accessed on 25 September 2022].         [ Links ]

Bird, T., Liebenberg-Enslin, H.,v Gruenewaldt, R., Modisamongwe, D., Thivhafuni, P. And Mphahlele, T. 2012, 'Developing an Air Quality Management Plan: Lessons from Limpopo'. Available at: https://docplayer.net/101051882-Developing-an-air-quality-management-plan-lessons-from-limpopo.html [Accessed 10 December 2021].         [ Links ]

Booyens, W., Van Zyl, PG., Beukes, JP., Ruiz-Jimenez, J., Kopperi, M., Riekkola, M-L., Josipovic, M., Venter, A., Jaars, K., Laakso, L., Vakkari, V., Kulmala, M., Pienaar, J.J. 2015 'Size-resolved characterisation of organic compounds in atmospheric aerosols collected at Welgegund, South Africa', Journal of Atmospheric Chemistry, 72:43-64. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10874-015-9304-6.         [ Links ]

Booyens, W., Beukes, J.P., Van Zyl, P.G. Ruiz-Jimenez, J., Kopperi, M., Riekkola, M.-L., Josipovic, M., Vakkari, V., Laakso, L. 2019, 'Assessment of polar organic aerosols at a regional background site in southern Africa', Journal of Atmospheric Chemistry, 76,89113. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10874-019-09389-y.         [ Links ]

Booyens, W., Van Zyl, G. P.,Beukes, P.J.,Ruiz-Jimenez, J., Kopperi, M., Riekkola, M.-L., Vakkari, V., Josipovic, M., Kulmala, M., Laakso, L. 2019, 'Characterising Particulate Organic Nitrogen at A Savannah-Grassland Region in South Africa', Atmosphere, 10(9), 492. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos10090492.         [ Links ]

Bryszewski W. and Visser J. 2004, Air quality management in the North West Province of South Africa-A successful partnership with industry. In Proceedings: Tenth International Ferroalloys Congress', 1:4. Available at: oai:CiteSeerX.psu:10.1.1.616.4941. [Accessed on 10 December 2021].         [ Links ]

Burkart, K., et al. 2022, 'Estimates, trends, and drivers of the global burden of type 2 diabetes attributable to PM₂₅ air pollution, 1990-2019: an analysis of data from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019', The Lancet Planetary Health, 6(7):e586-e600. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2542-5196(22)00122-X.         [ Links ]

Cairncross, E. and Kisting S. 2016, 'Platinum and Gold Mining in South Africa: The Context of the Marikana Massacre', NEW SOLUTIONS: A Journal of Environmental and Occupational Health Policy, 25(4):513-534. https://doi.org/10.1177/1048291115622027.         [ Links ]

Chiloane, K. E., Beukes, J. P., van Zyl, P. G., Maritz, P., Vakkari, V., Josipovic, M., Venter, A. D., Jaars, K., Tiitta, P., Kulmala, M., Wiedensohler, A., Liousse, C., Mkhatshwa, G. V., Ramandh, A. and Laakso, L. 2017 'Spatial, temporal and source contribution assessments of black carbon over the northern interior of South Africa', Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 17(10):6177-6196. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-17-6177-2017.         [ Links ]

Cohen C., Kleynhans J., Moyes J., McMorrow M.L., Treurnicht F.K., Hellferscee O., Mathunjwa A., von Gottberg A., Wolter N., Martinson N.A. and Kahn K. 2021, Asymptomatic transmission and high community burden of seasonal influenza in an urban and a rural community in South Africa, 2017-18 (PHIRST): a population cohort study, The Lancet Global Health, 9:e863-e874. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(21)00141-8.         [ Links ]

Cronje, F. and Chenga, C. 2007, 'Health issues in a mining community in South Africa. In HIV/AIDS, Illness, and African Well-Being', Editors Falola, T. and Heaton, M.M., Rochester, University of Rochester Press.         [ Links ]

Cronjé, F., Reyneke, S. and Van Wyk, D., 2013, 'Local communities and health disaster management in the mining sector', Jamba: Journal of Disaster Risk Studies 5(2). http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/jamba.v5i2.78.         [ Links ]

Dambisya, Y.M. and Modipa, N.B. 2007, 'Risk of exposure to silica dust at some dust-generating workplaces in the Limpopo Province: a survey and recommendations', Occupational Health Southern Africa. Available at: https://www.occhealth.co.za/index.php/files/info@sasom.org?/viewArticle/860. [Accessed 01 February 2022].         [ Links ]

Department of Environmental Affairs (DEA). 2012, 'Declaration of the Waterberg National Priority Area', Available at: https://www.dffe.gov.za/sites/default/files/gazetted_notices/nemaqa_waterberg_declaration_g35435gen495_0.pdf. [Accessed 15 September 2015].         [ Links ]

Department of Environmental Affairs (DEA). 2014, 'The Waterberg-Bojanala Priority Area Air Quality Management Plan: Baseline Characterization, October 2014', Available at: https://saaqis.environment.gov.za/Pagesfiles/Annexure%20A1%20-%20Waterberg%20Bojanala%20Priority%20Area%20AQMP%20Baseline%20assessment_24-04-2015.pdf [Accessed 15 September 2022].         [ Links ]

Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism DEAT, 2006, 'Declaration of the Vaal Triangle Air-Shed Priority Area', Available at: https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/201409/28732b.pdf. [Accessed 15 September 2022].         [ Links ]

Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism (DEAT). 2007, 'Declaration of the Highveld as Priority Area', Available at: https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/201409/30518.pdf. [Accessed 15 September 2022].         [ Links ]

Department of Forestry, Fisheries and the Environment (DFFE). 2019, 'The state of our global air report', Available at: https://soer.environment.gov.za/soer/CMSWebSite/Reporting.aspx?menuId=4323# [Accessed on 15 September 2022].         [ Links ]

Feig, G., Naidoo, S., & Ncgukana, N. 2016, 'Assessment of ambient air pollution in the Waterberg Priority Area 2012-2015', Clean Air Journal 26(1):21-28. https://doi.org/10.17159/2410-972X/2016/v26n1a9.         [ Links ]

Gierens, R., Laakso, L., Mogense, D., Vakkari, V., Beukes, J.P., va Zyl, P.G., Hakola, H., Guenther, A., Pienaar, J.J., Boy, M. 2014 'Modelling new particle formation events in the South African savannah', South African Journal of Science, 110(5/6). http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/sajs.2014/20130108.         [ Links ]

Hirsikko, A., Vakkari, V., Tiitta, P., Manninen, H. E., Gagné, S., Laakso, H., Kulmala, M., Mirme, A., Mirme, S., Mabaso, D., Beukes, J. P., and Laakso, L. 2012, 'Characterisation of sub-micron particle number concentrations and formation events in the western Bushveld Igneous Complex, South Africa', Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 12:3951-3967. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-12-3951-2012.         [ Links ]

Hirsikko, A., Vakkari, V., Tiitta, P., Hatakka, J., Kerminen, V.-M., Sundström, A.-M., Beukes, J. P., Manninen, H. E., Kulmala, M., and Laakso, L. 2013, 'Multiple daytime nucleation events in semi-clean savannah and industrial environments in South Africa: analysis based on observations', Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 13:5523-5532. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-13-5523-2013.         [ Links ]

Itzkin, A. 2015, 'Health in the Waterberg, Up in Smoke?' MSc Thesis, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa. Available at: 188770545.pdf (core.ac.uk) [Accessed on 01 February 2022].         [ Links ]

Jaars K. 2012, Temporal assessment of volatile organic compounds at a site with high atmospheric variability in the North-West Province, PhD Thesis, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa. Available at: https://repository.nwu.ac.za/handle/10394/9513 [Accessed on 28 January 2022].         [ Links ]

Jaars, K., Beukes, J. P., van Zyl, P. G., Venter, A. D., Josipovic, M., Pienaar, J. J., Vakkari, V., Aaltonen, H., Laakso, H., Kulmala, M., Tiitta, P., Guenther, A., Hellen, H., Laakso, L., and Hakola, H. 2014 'Ambient aromatic hydrocarbon measurements at Welgegund, South Africa', Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 14:7075-7089. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-14-7075-2014.         [ Links ]

Jaars, K., van Zyl, P. G., Beukes, J. P., Hellen, H., Vakkari, V., Josipovic, M., Venter, A. D., Räsänen, M., Knoetze, L., Cilliers, D. P., Siebert, S. J., Kulmala, M., Rinne, J., Guenther, A., Laakso, L., and Hakola, H. 2016 'Measurements of biogenic volatile organic compounds at a grazed savannah grassland agricultural landscape in South Africa', Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 16(24):15665-15688. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-16-15665-2016.         [ Links ]

Jaars, K., Vestenius, M., van Zyl, P. G., Beukes, J. P., Hellen, H., Vakkari, V., Venter, M., Josipovic, M. and Hakola, H. 2018, 'Receptor modelling and risk assessment of volatile organic compounds measured at a regional background site in South Africa', Atmospheric Environment, 172(1):133-148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2017.10.047.         [ Links ]

Kaonga, B. and Ebenso, E.E. 2011, 'An Evaluation of Atmospheric Aerosols in Kanana, Klerksdorp Gold Mining Town, NorthWest Province, South Africa'. In Mazzeo, N.A. (ed.) Air Quality Monitoring, Assessment and Management, Rijeka: InTech, pp285 - 304. https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/16226. https://doi.org/10.5772/17826.         [ Links ]

Kapwata T., Language, B., Piketh S. and Wright C.Y. 2018, Variation of indoor particulate matter concentrations and association with indoor/outdoor temperature: a case study in rural Limpopo, South Africa, Atmosphere, 9:124. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos9040124        [ Links ]

Kapwata T., Piketh, S. and Wright, C.Y. 2019, Indoor particulate matter concentration variations and associations with indoor/ outdoor temperature in rural Limpopo, Clean Air Journal, 29:1717. http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2410-972x/2019/v29n1a46.         [ Links ]

Kapwata T., Wright C.Y., du Preez D.J., Kunene Z., Mathee A., Ikeda T., Landman W., Maharaj R., Sweijd N., Minakawa N. and Blesic S. 2021, Exploring rural hospital admissions for diarrhoeal disease, malaria, pneumonia, and asthma in relation to temperature, rainfall and air pollution using wavelet transform analysis, Science of The Total Environment, 791():148307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.148307.         [ Links ]

Kgabi N.A., Pienaar J.J. and Kulmala M. 2006, Sources of atmospheric pollutants in the North West province of South Africa: a case of the Rustenburg municipality, WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, 99. https://doi.org/10.2495/rav060581.         [ Links ]

Kgabi, N.A., Pienaar, J.J. and Kulmala, M. 2005, 'Trace Metal composition of atmospheric aerosols in the North West province of South Africa,' Geophysical Research Abstracts, 7():03229. Available at: http://repository.nwu.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10394/1504 [Accessed on 28 January 2022].         [ Links ]

Kok, L., van Zyl, P.G. Beukes, J.P., Swartz, J-S., Burger, R.P., Ellis, S., Josipovic, M., Vakkari, V., Laakso, L., and Kulmala, M. 2021, 'Chemical composition of rain at a regional site on the South African Highveld', Water SA, 47 (3). https://doi.org/10.17159/wsa/2021.v47.i3.11861.         [ Links ]

Korhonen, K., Giannakaki, E., Mielonen, T., Pfüller, A., Laakso, L., Vakkari, V., Baars, H., Engelmann, R., Beukes, J. P., Van Zyl, P. G., Ramandh, A., Ntsangwane, L., Josipovic, M., Tiitta, P., Fourie, G., Ngwana, I., Chiloane, K., and Komppula, M. 2014, 'Atmospheric boundary layer top height in South Africa: measurements with lidar and radiosonde compared to three atmospheric models', Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 14:4263-4278. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-14-4263-2014.         [ Links ]

Kuik, F., Lauer, A., Beukes, J. P., Van Zyl, P. G., Josipovic, M., Vakkari, V., Laakso, L., and Feig, G. T. 2015, 'The anthropogenic contribution to atmospheric black carbon concentrations in southern Africa: a WRF-Chem modeling study', Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 15: 8809-8830. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-15-8809-2015.         [ Links ]

Laakso, L., H. Laakso, P.P. Aalto, P. Keronen, T. Petäjä, T. Nieminen, T. Pohja, E. Siivola, M. Kulmala, N. Kgabi, D. Phalatse, M. Molefe, D. Mabaso, K. Pienaar, Kerminen, V.-M. 2008, 'Basic characteristics of atmospheric particles, trace gases and meteorology in a relatively clean Southern African Savannah environment', Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 8: 4823-4839. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-8-4823-2008.         [ Links ]

Laakso, L., Vakkari, V., Virkkula, A., Laakso, H., Backman, J., Kulmala, M., Beukes, J. P., van Zyl, P. G., Tiitta, P., Josipovic, M., Pienaar, J. J., Chiloane, K., Gilardoni, S., Vignati, E., Wiedensohler, A., Tuch, T., Birmili, W., Piketh, S., Collett, K., Fourie, G. D., Komppula, M., Lihavainen, H., de Leeuw, G., and Kerminen, V.-M. 2012, 'South African EUCAARI measurements: seasonal variation of trace gases and aerosol optical properties', Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 12:1847-1864. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-12-1847-2012.         [ Links ]

Laakso, L., Merikanto, J., Vakkari, V., Laakso, H., Kulmala, M., Molefe, M., Kgabi, N., Mabaso, D., Carslaw, K. S., Spracklen, D. V., Lee, L. A., Reddington, C. L., and Kerminen, V.-M. 2013, 'Boundary layer nucleation as a source of new CCN in savannah environment', Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 13:1957-1972. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-13-1957-2013.         [ Links ]

Laban, T. L., van Zyl, P. G., Beukes, J. P., Vakkari, V., Jaars, K., Borduas-Dedekind, N., Josipovic, M., Thompson, A. M., Kulmala, M., and Laakso, L. 2018, 'Seasonal influences on surface ozone variability in continental South Africa and implications for air quality', Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 18(1):15491-15514. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-18-15491-2018.         [ Links ]

Laban, T. L., van Zyl, P. G., Beukes, J. P., Mikkonen, S., Santana, L., Josipovic, M., Vakkari, V., Thompson, A. M., Kulmala, M. and Laakso, L. 2020, 'Statistical analysis of factors driving surface ozone variability over continental South Africa', Journal of Integrative Environmental Sciences, 1-28. https://doi.org/doi:10.1080/1943815X.2020.1768550.         [ Links ]

Langerman, K. E., & Pauw, C. J. 2018, 'A critical review of health risk assessments of exposure to emissions from coal-fired power stations in South Africa', Clean Air Journal, 28(2). https://doi.org/10.17159/2410-972X/2018/v28n2a19.         [ Links ]

Lethoko M.X. 2016, Inclusion of climate change strategies in municipal Integrated Development Plans: A case from seven municipalities in Limpopo Province, South Africa, Jamba: Journal of Disaster Risk Studies, 8:1-6. http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/jamba.v8i3.245.         [ Links ]

Mafusire, G., Annegarn, H. J. Vakkari, V., Beukes, J.P., Josipovic, M., van Zyl, P.G. and Laakso,L. 2016 'Sub-micrometer aerosols and excess CO as tracers for biomass burning air mass transport over southern Africa', Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 121(10):262-282. https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JD023965.         [ Links ]

Massyn, N., Day, C., Ndlovu, N. and Padayachee, T. 2020, 'District Health Barometer 2019/2020. Health Systems Trust;, Available at: https://www.hst.org.za/publications/District%20Health%20Barometers/DHB%202019-20%20Complete%20Book.pdf . [Accessed 26 September 2022].         [ Links ]

Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., Altman, D. G. 2009,' Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement', British Medical Journal, 339:b2535. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.b2535.         [ Links ]

Mokgoetsi, K.J. 2015, 'The environmental effects of population growth: a case study of the Rustenburg core area (Bojana Region) in North West Province (South Africa)', MSc dissertation. North-West University. Available at: https://repository.nwu.ac.za/handle/10394/38644?show=full. [Accessed 25 September 2022].         [ Links ]

Momoh A., Mhlongo S.E., Abiodun O., Muzerengi C. and Mudanalwo M. 2013, Potential implications of mine dusts on human health: A case study of Mukula Mine, Limpopo Province, South Africa, Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences, 29:1444-1446. http://dx.doi.org/10.12669/pjms.296.3787.         [ Links ]

Morosele, I. P., & Langerman, K. E. 2020, 'The impacts of commissioning coal-fired power stations on air quality in South Africa: insights from ambient monitoring stations', Clean Air Journal, 30(2). https://doi.org/10.17159/caj/2020/30/2.8833.         [ Links ]

Mundackal A. and M Ngole-Jeme V. 2020, Evaluation of indoor and outdoor air quality in university academic buildings and associated health risk, International Journal of Environmental Health Research, 0(0): 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1080/09603123.2020.1828304.         [ Links ]

Mundackal A.J. 2020, An Assessment of Indoor and Outdoor Air Quality in a University Environment: A Case of University of Limpopo, South Africa', PhD Thesis. University of Pretoria, Hatfield, South Africa. https://uir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/27534.         [ Links ]

Ncipha, X.G. 2011, 'Comparison of air pollution hotspots in the Highveld using airborne data', MSc dissertation. University of Witwatersrand. Available at: https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/39669036.pdf. [Accessed 25 September 2022].         [ Links ]

Ngoasheng M., Beukes J.P., van Zyl P.G., Swartz J.S., Loate V., Krisjan P., Mpambani S., Kulmala M., Vakkari V. and Laakso L. 2021, Assessing SO₂, NO₂ and O₃ in rural areas of the North West Province, Clean Air Journal, 31:1-14. http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/caj/2021/31/1.9087.         [ Links ]

Njoku P.O., Edokpayi J.N. and Odiyo J.O. 2019, Health and environmental risks of residents living close to a landfill: A case study of Thohoyandou Landfill, Limpopo Province, South Africa, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16:2125. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16122125.         [ Links ]

Nkosi V., Wichmann J. and Voyi K. 2017, Indoor and outdoor PM 10 levels at schools located near mine dumps in Gauteng and North West Provinces, South Africa, BMC Public Health, 7:1-7. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-016-3950-8.         [ Links ]

Paasonen,P., Asmi, A., Petäjä, T., Kajos, M. K., Äijälä, M., Junninen, H., Holst, T., Abbatt, J.P.D., Arneth, A., Birmili, W., van der Gon, H.D., Hamed, A., Hoffer, A., Laakso, L., Laaksonen, A., Leaitch, W.R., Plass-Dülmer, C. Pryor, S.C., Räisänen, P., Swietlicki, E., Wiedensohler, A., Worsnop, D.R., Kerminen, V.-M. and Kulmala, M. 2013, 'Warming-induced increase in aerosol number concentration likely to moderate climate change', Nature Geoscience, 6:438-442. https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo1800.         [ Links ]

Phasawa, S., Wright Y.C., Garland, R.M., Khumalo, N.T. and Naidoo, R.N. 2022, 'Lagged acute respiratory outcomes among children related to ambient pollutant exposure in a high exposure setting in South Africa', Environmental Epidemiology, (in press).         [ Links ]

Republic of South Africa. 1996,. 'Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996'. Government Printer, Pretoria. Available at: https://www.justice.gov.za/legislation/constitution/saconstitution-web-eng.pdf.         [ Links ]

Rice, B., Boccia, D., Carter, D.J. et al. 2022, 'Health and wellbeing needs and priorities in mining host communities in South Africa: a mixed-methods approach for identifying key SDG3 targets', BMC Public Health, 22(68). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-021-12348-6.         [ Links ]

Shirinde J, Wichmann J, Voyi K. 2014, 'Association between wheeze and selected air pollution sources in an air pollution priority area in South Africa: a cross-sectional study', Environmental Health, 6;13(1):32. https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-069X-13-32.         [ Links ]

Simelane, S.P. and Langerman, K.E. 2020, 'Improving Health Risk Assessments of PM₂₅ from Coal-fired Power Stations', Proceedings of the NACA Conference 2020. Available at: https://www.naca.org.za/uploads/2020_NACA_Conference_Proceedings_Full_Papers.pdf. [Accessed 25 September 2022].         [ Links ]

Stafoggia, M., et al. 2022, 'Long-term exposure to low ambient air pollution concentrations and mortality among 28 million people: results from seven large European cohorts within the ELAPSE project', The Lancet Planetary Health, 6(1): e9-e18. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2542-5196(21)00277-1.         [ Links ]

Steyn S. 2006, The management of aerial particulate pollution: the case of Platinum Industry Smelters in the Rustenburg region of North West Province, South Africa, PhD Thesis, University of Pretoria, Hatfield, South Africa. Available at: https://repository.up.ac.za/handle/2263/30332 [Accessed on 28 January 2022].         [ Links ]

Terblanche AP, Opperman L, Nel CM, Reinach SG, Tosen G, Cadman A. 1992, 'Preliminary results of exposure measurements and health effects of the Vaal Triangle Air Pollution Health Study', South African Medical Journal, 6;81(11):550-6. PMID: 1598646.         [ Links ]

Tiitta, P., Vakkari, V., Croteau, P., Beukes, J. P., van Zyl, P. G., Josipovic, M., Venter, A. D., Jaars, K., Pienaar, J. J., Ng, N. L., Canagaratna, M. R., Jayne, J. T., Kerminen, V.-M., Kokkola, H., Kulmala, M., Laaksonen, A., Worsnop, D. R., and Laakso, L. 2014, 'Chemical composition, main sources and temporal variability of PM₁ aerosols in southern African grassland', Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 14:1909-1927. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-14-1909-2014.         [ Links ]

Tshehla C.E. 2020, Determination of heavy metal composition of particulate matter in a typical chrome and platinum mine area in the Limpopo Province, South Africa, PhD Thesis, University of Pretoria, Hatfield, South Africa, Available at: https://repository.up.ac.za/handle/2263/77890 [Accessed on 04 November 2022].         [ Links ]

Tshehla C.E. and Wright C.Y. 2019, Spatial and temporal variation of PM₁₀ from industrial point sources in a rural area in Limpopo, South Africa, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16:3455. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16183455.         [ Links ]

Tshehla, C. and Djolov, G., 2018, Source profiling, source apportionment and cluster transport analysis to identify the sources of PM and the origin of air masses to an industrialised rural area in Limpopo, Clean Air Journal, 28:54-66. http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2410-972X/2018/v28n2a18.         [ Links ]

Vakkari, V., Laakso, H., Kulmala, M., Laaksonen, A., Mabaso, D., Molefe, M., Kgabi, N. and Laakso, L. 2011, 'New particle formation events in semi-clean South African savannah', Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 11:3333-3346. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-11-3333-2011.         [ Links ]

Vakkari, V., Beukes, J. P., Laakso, H., Mabaso, D., Pienaar, J. J., Kulmala, M., and Laakso, L. 2013, 'Long-term observations of aerosol size distributions in semi-clean and polluted savannah in South Africa', Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 13:17511770. http://doi.org/10.5194/acp-13-1751-2013.         [ Links ]

Vakkari, V., Kerminen, V.-M., Beukes, J.P., Tiitta, P., van Zyl, P.G., Josipovic, M., Venter, A., Jaars, K., Worsnop, D., Kulmala, M., and Laakso, L. 2014 'Rapid changes in biomass burning aerosols by atmospheric oxidation', Geophysical Research Letters, 41. http://doi.org/10.1002/2014GL059396.         [ Links ]

Vakkari, V., Tiitta, P., Jaars, K., Croteau, P., Beukes, J.P., Josipovic, M., Kerminen, V.-M., Kulmala, M., Venter, A.D., Van Zyl, P.G., Worsnop, D.R., Laakso, L. 2015, 'Reevaluating the contribution of sulfuric acid and the origin of organic compounds in atmospheric nanoparticle growth', Geophysical Research Letters, 42(10):486-493. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/2015GL066459.         [ Links ]

Vakkari, V., Beukes, J. P., Josipovic, M. and van Zyl, P. G. 2020, 'Observations of ozone formation in southern African savanna and grassland fire plumes', Atmospheric Environment 223, 117256. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2019.117256.         [ Links ]

Van Zyl P.G., Beukes J.P., Du Toit G., Mabaso D., Hendriks J., Vakkari V., Tiitta, P., Pienaar, J.J., Kulmala, M., Laakso, L. 2014, 'Assessment of atmospheric trace metals in the western Bushveld Igneous Complex, South Africa', South African Journal of Science, 110(3/4). http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/sajs.2014/20130280.         [ Links ]

Venter A.D., Beukes J.P., Van Zyl P.G., Tiitta P., Josipovic M., Pienaar J.J., Laakso L., Vakkari V., Laakso H. and Kulmala M. 2012, An air quality assessment in the industrialised western Bushveld Igneous Complex, South Africa, South African Journal of Science, 108;1-10. Available at: http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0038-23532012000500017&lng=en&nrm=iso. [Access on 23 January 2022].         [ Links ]

Venter, A.D., Jaars, K., Booyens, W., Beukes, J.P., Van Zyl, P.G., Josipovic, M., Hendriks, J., Vakkari, V., Hellen, H., Hakola, H., Aaltonen, H., Ruiz-Jimenez, J., Riekkola M-L., and Laakso, L. 2015 'Plume characterisation of a typical South African braai', South African Journal of Chemistry, 68:181-194. https://doi.org/10.17159/0379-4350/2015/v68a25.         [ Links ]

Venter, A. D., Beukes, J. P., Gideon van Zyl, P., Josipovic, M., Jaars, K. and Vakkari, V. 2016 'Regional atmospheric Cr(VI) pollution from the Bushveld Complex South Africa', Atmospheric Pollution Research, 7(5):762-767. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apr.2016.03.009.         [ Links ]

Venter, A.D., van Zyl, P.G. , Beukes, J.P. , Swartz, J-S., Josipovic, M., Vakkari, V., Laakso, L., Kulmala, M. 2018 'Size-resolved characteristics of inorganic ionic species in atmospheric aerosols at a regional background site on the South African Highveld', Journal of Atmospheric Chemistry, 75(1):285-304. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10874-018-9378-z.         [ Links ]

Venter, M., Beukes, J. P., van Zyl, P. G., Vakkari, V., Virkkula, A., Josipovic, M., Kulmala, M. and Laakso, L. 2020, 'Six-year observations of aerosol optical properties at a southern African grassland savannah site', Atmospheric Environment, 230,117477. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2020.117477.         [ Links ]

World Health Organization (WHO) 2006, 'Air Quality Guidelines. Global Update 2005', Available at: https://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/78638/E90038.pdf [Accessed 25 September 2022].         [ Links ]

World Health Organization (WHO). 2021a, 'Key facts: Ambient (outdoor) air pollution', Available at: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ambient-(outdoor)-air-quality-and-health [Accessed 15 September 2022].         [ Links ]

World Health Organization (WHO). 2021b, 'WHO global air quality guidelines: particulate matter (PM_2.5 and PM₁₀), ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide'. Available at: https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/345329. [Accessed 04 November 2022].         [ Links ]

World Health Organization (WHO). 2022, 'Key facts: Household air pollution and health', Available at: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/household-air-pollution-and-health [Accessed 15 September 2022].         [ Links ]

Wright C.Y. and Wernecke B. 2020, 'Using Microsoft© Power BI© to visualise Rustenburg Local Municipality's Air Quality Data, Clean Air Journal, 30:1-5. http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/caj/2020/30/1.7512.         [ Links ]

Wright CY, Nkosi V and Wichmann J. 2018, 'Respiratory health symptoms among school children in relation to possible food-related risk and protective factors', International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(3):502. https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fijerph15030502.         [ Links ]

Zwi S, Davies JC, Becklake MR, Goldman HI, Reinach SG, Kallenbach JM. 1991, 'Respiratory health status of children in the eastern Transvaal highveld', South African Medical Journal, 78(11):647-53. PMID: 2251608.         [ Links ]

Supplementary material

Supplementary material can be accessed at https://cleanairjournal.org.za/article/view/14887

 

 

Received: 27 September 2022
Reviewed: 26 October 2022
Accepted: 27 March 2023

 

 

* bianca.wernecke@mrc.ac.za