ARTICLES

 

The Operative Function in Spanish Lexicography Exemplified through Sport Dictionaries and Other Reference Works

 

Die operatiewe funksie in die Spaanse leksikografie soos geïllustreer met voorbeelde uit sportwoordeboeke en ander naslaanbronne

 

 

Ángel Huete-García

Faculty of Medieval and Modern Languages, University of Oxford, Oxford, Great Britain (angel.huete-garcia@mod-langs.ox.ac.uk)

 

 

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ABSTRACT

Over time, dictionaries have been adapted to meet users' consultation needs. As a result, other types of data such as instructions or specialised explanations have been included in these works in order to fulfil their purpose. It is in this context that operative lexicographical tools are produced, although such tools have traditionally received very little attention from a metalexicographic point of view. Through the analyses of 5 existing dictionaries and other reference works from the 18th to the 20th centuries regarding equestrianism, football and fencing, this article shows that many lexicographical information tools in Spanish were indeed produced to satisfy the need for practical knowledge through instructions (operative need). Based on this finding, this article argues that the operative function of lexicography deserves a place in lexicographical theory and lexicographical academic literature. An interesting finding that emerges from these analyses is that almost all the dictionaries analysed are polyfunctional, and they share a list of characteristics based on their typology, media and historical moment that can help to make clear the importance of the operative function in the Spanish lexicographical tradition. Furthermore, on the basis of the above analyses, several answers are given to guide future research on operative lexicographical products.

Keywords: function theory, spanish lexicography, sport dictionaries, polyfunctional tools, operative function, specialised dictionaries

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OPSOMMING

Woordeboeke is mettertyd aangepas om aan die naslaanbehoeftes van gebruikers te voldoen. As gevolg hiervan is ander tipe data soos aanwysings of gespesialiseerde verklarings in hierdie werke ingesluit om aan hul doelwitte te voldoen. Dit is binne hierdie konteks dat operatiewe leksikografiese hulpmiddels geskep word, alhoewel hierdie hulpmiddels gewoonlik baie min aandag vanuit 'n metaleksikografiese oogpunt geniet het. Deur die ontleding van 5 bestaande woordeboeke en ander naslaanwerke vanuit die 18de tot 20ste eeu betreffende ruiterkuns, voetbal en skermkuns, word daar in hierdie artikel aangetoon dat baie leksikografiese inligtingshulpmiddels in Spaans inderdaad geskep is om in die behoefte aan praktiese kennis deur middel van aanwysings (die operatiewe behoefte) te voorsien. Gebaseer op hierdie bevinding, word daar in hierdie hierdie artikel aangevoer dat die operatiewe funksie van die leksikografie 'n plek in die leksikografiese teorie en leksikografiese akademiese literatuur verdien. 'n Interessante bevinding wat uit hierdie ontleding na vore kom, is dat byna al die woordeboeke wat geanaliseer is, polifunksioneel is, en dat hulle 'n lys kenmerke rakende hul tipologie, medium en geskiedkundige tydperk deel wat van hulp kan wees om die belangrikheid van die operatiewe funksie in die Spaanse leksikografiese tradisie te verstaan. Gegrond op bogenoemde ontledings, word ook verskeie oplossings gebied om toekomstige navorsing oor operatiewe leksikografiese produkte te rig.

Sleutelwoorde: funksieteorie, spaanse leksikografie, sportwoordeboeke, polifunksionele hulpmiddels, operatiewe funksie, gespesialiseerde woordeboeke

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1. Introduction

Lexicography, as a historical discipline, is characterised by its adaptability to the needs of users at any given moment in history. One of the most successful examples of this idea is the form of the traditional dictionary as we know it today: in alphabetical order and with the aim of including as many meanings as possible. This success was partly due to the ease with which the product could be accessed through its simplified content. For this reason and in order to make the knowledge of trade and commerce accessible to all users, as well as to strengthen the British Empire's knowledge thereof, Postlethwayt (1749: 2) decided to create an alphabetically structured dictionary:

A subject of this extensive nature therefore being reduced to the form of a Dictionary, for alphabetical reference, seems the most naturally adapted to answer.

Modifying or adapting the structure of lexicographic products has always been one of the main motivations of lexicographers in order to achieve the desired user-retrieved knowledge with each dictionary. Even more so in the case of specialised lexicography.

In this regard, the Theory of Lexicographic Functions which was first introduced in Bergenholtz and Tarp (2003) developed in the last decades a classification of four main lexicographical functions into which lexicographical products can be divided according to their purpose(s): communicative, cognitive, operative and interpretative. The main focus of this study is on the operative function, which together with the interpretative function is concerned with practical situations (Tarp 2010: 52). More specifically, the operative function is concerned with providing an answer to an individual who needs to solve a problem in which he or she has to act in a physical or mental way and, to do so, needs instructions on how to perform that specific act (Agerbo 2017: 363).

The first reference to the operative function in the specialist literature is in Tarp (2007: 177), where he points out that up to that time there had been many dictionaries and other reference products such as encyclopedias or manuals that were not designed to help in cognitive or communicative situations, but were works that provided instructions on how to act in very specific situations where the user was looking for instructions on how to perform some kind of physical or mental act (e.g. how to use a machine, how to assemble a cabinet, or how to speak well in public). Tarp (ibid.) proposed that these situations should be called 'operative situations', as they had not been taken into account by any theory of lexicography up to that time, including function theory. There is no doubt that dictionaries and other reference products that include instructions do so as a mechanism of adaptation to their users and to the nature of the discipline covered. For this reason, these products share a common basis with traditional dictionaries:

They all have something fundamental in common with traditional lexicographic products, i.e. they are tools conceived to be consulted by specific types of users in order to satisfy specific types of information needs in specific types of social situations. In this respect, they are expected to provide quick and easy access to the relevant data from which the needed information can be retrieved (Tarp 2007: 177).

Tarp's (2008: 129) functional definition of a lexicographical tool is also transferred to operative tools, and he describes operative user situations as the third leg of the lexicographic field. Lexicographic tools that cover these situations, and thus have an operative function, are intended for people who need advice, guidance or instructions on how to perform a certain type of physical or mental act (Agerbo 2019: 84). It was only after Bothma and Tarp's (2013) study of the eighteenth-century dictionary of industry and commerce (The Universal Dictionary of Trade and Commerce) that the research about the existence of more dictionaries with an operative function was opened (Agerbo 2017: 362) - cf. Leroyer (2013), Bergenholtz et al. (2015), Agerbo (2015), although a thorough discussion about the nature of this function did not come to fruition. According to Agerbo (2019: 84), her survey of the lexicographic literature published between 2007 and 2016 found very little evidence of citations and definitions of the operative function through an internet search for the words operation, operative and operational. It should be noted that if this is a search in English, the concepts are much less noticeable in Spanish, since it is enough to google lexicografía operativa to see that there are no results, or función operativa lexicografía (as on 13 June 2020) to see that, among the 200 or so results, only four or five have to do with the discipline of lexicography from the perspective of function theory.

While operative function has not been extensively covered in lexicographic literature, certain authors have introduced or tried to analyse this function, thereby creating a novel and unexplored research avenue within meta- and practical lexicography. Only few authors have discussed the operative function in metalexicographical literature, and there are several examples of: (1) lexicographers who argue that operative needs (though they do not call them operative needs) do not belong in "dictionaries" - such as Sviķe (2018); and (2) lexicographers who have accommodated operative needs in the production of their tools, but who have not thought of these as operative needs and therefore do not refer to their tools as (particularly) operative tools. Examples of recent research in operative function can be found in Rodríguez Gallardo (2013, 2014) in the Spanish field and Agerbo (2019) in the English and Danish field, which point to users' growing need for information that involves instructions (for example, how to use plants as medicinal remedies). However, this growing need is not always taken into account by the producers of lexicographic products, as in the case of Sviķe (2018: 238), who associates this type of need with a type of work that does not fall within the remit of lexicography: "these are not the characteristics of a multilingual dictionary, but of a practical manual." However, as Agerbo (2018, 2019) shows on a more global level, and as will be shown here from the perspective of Spanish lexicography, there are indeed dictionaries with an operative function.

 

2. The operative function in the Spanish context¹

The history of lexicography with its operative function cannot be understood without taking into account the need to disseminate specialised knowledge, which arose especially between the 18th and 19th centuries and was closely linked to the development of practical sciences in the world, such as electricity, agriculture and chemistry. This social need for specialised and practical knowledge led to the production of dictionaries and other reference works:

The dictionary, and in particular the encyclopaedic dictionary, proved to be the ideal instrument for cataloguing this knowledge: on the one hand, the alphabetical order made it possible to present it in a different way, more in keeping with the objectivity of scientific practice; on the other hand, its practical and synthetic aspect made it an attractive and very accessible reference work for the general public, especially for the uninitiated (Translated from Spanish from Moreno Villanueva and Madrona Cao 2004).

Lexicography is constantly changing and adapting to satisfy new (user) needs in new situations of practical use. This justifies not only versatility of dictionaries, but also blurring of the line that apparently separates them from manuals and handbooks, and also assimilation of manuals to dictionaries. An example of this trend is analysed by Moreno Villanueva (2017: 654) in his study of the Gallach collection of manuals (1899, 1915), copies of which from 1915 onwards included a vocabulary to compensate for the lack of technical terms. This study is an example of an attempt to revalue the manuals as a lexicographical reference tool. It is important to note that in the Spanish lexicographic tradition, reference works such as the Manuales Soler were not conceived as lexicographic tools, although they did have a lexicographic function:

From then on, the inclusion of these vocabularies in the form of small dictionaries became a new argument for promoting the collection and claiming its usefulness in comparison with the dictionaries in use. This was a line that had already been drawn when it was published as Manuales Soler. "Why is the acquisition of a MANUALES-SOLER collection more convenient than that of a dictionary?" could be read in the advertising of that first phase (Translated from Spanish from Moreno Villanueva 2017: 654).

When dealing with practical knowledge, it is inevitable to point out that knowledge and skills are not completely isolated concepts; rather, there seems to be a transitional phase between the two. But as Fuertes-Olivera and Tarp (2014: 52) point out, not all types of knowledge can be transformed into skills:

[…] knowledge can be transformed into skills, while a systematic observation and study of the latter can lead to knowledge. The information acquired through consultation of dictionaries can be stored as knowledge but it cannot be directly transformed into skills. This information can assist users in performing specific mental, physical and linguistic tasks related to interpretive, operative or communicative situations and, in this way, it may be gradually internalised and reappear in the form of skills.

Knowledge is relevant to solve problems in operative situations, but it is important to distinguish between two types of knowledge (Agerbo 2017: 364): theoretical knowledge and practical knowledge. Of these two types, practical knowledge is the one that is related to the development of skills, which is the intended purpose of the operative function.

Thus, the Spanish dictionaries and other reference works analysed in this article are examples of the priority given to the operative function of lexicography, although this does not mean that this function appears in isolation from other lexicographic purposes.

 

3. Existing sport dictionaries and other reference works with an operative function

This section gives examples of existing dictionaries and other reference products with an operative function in Spanish. These analyses clearly show how the selected dictionaries are designed to help their users in operative situations. The dictionaries are presented in chronological order. For this purpose, Agerbo's (2017 and 2019) studies, in which she describes twelve dictionaries with an operative function in Danish, English and German, were used for guidance. Operative function-related lexicographic works follow a different architecture than standard dictionaries usually have, so that

[...] the analysis of their construction is more complex than that of products generated from communicative and cognitive situations. Operative products, such as instruction manuals or user guides, are organised on the basis of an information architecture centred on instructions and indications. They have an explanatory and applicative purpose (Translated from Spanish from Rodríguez Gallardo 2014: 320).

In order to carry out the analysis of the different selected works, three basic criteria which were established by Tarp (2018: 244) in his analysis of the criteria for defining the term dictionary were taken into account. These three criteria are

(1) The objective (genuine purpose or function): it can be used to obtain concrete information about language or the non-linguistic world from specific lexicographical data.

(2) Content: more specific than the data, it refers to the nature of the data included in the work, such as illustrations, symbols, etc.

(3) Form: this refers both to the lemma of the work and to the access and form of the entries (definitions, explanations, instructions, etc.).

In Spanish lexicography, as in English and other languages, it has not been possible to distinguish dictionaries with an operative function from dictionaries with other functions by their titles, since they are all known as dictionaries. However, the nature of the data contained in these dictionaries shows that lexicographical works, since their inception, have included the data that users need to solve their lexicographical problems whether linguistic or not. The same applies to other reference products, such as handbooks or manuals, whose internal architecture is alphabetical and whose data access distribution is very similar to that of traditional dictionaries.

In this section three dictionaries and two technical manuals from the fields of equestrianism, fencing and football are analysed. They were chosen because they relate to practical fields, which means they meet the challenge of covering areas where practical knowledge is relevant and prevalent. The fact that they deal with subjects whose extra-lexicographic situations are practical will allow us to better understand the characteristics of the operative function. Several examples are offered for each reference lexicographic product. These were especially selected in order to identify and demonstrate the use or manifestation of operative function in the different reference products. The examples given were chosen arbitrarily to show that they could be identified relatively easily by simply opening each of these works. The result shows that instructions rather than definitions can be found in all the works analysed. A list of the works analysed in chronological order is shown in Figure 1.

 

 

3.1 Diccionario ecuestre (1701-1800?)

The 18th-century Diccionario ecuestre by an anonymous author is a 291-page manuscript that, according to the National Spanish Library, dates from 1701 to 1800. It is the first documented equestrian dictionary in Spanish and is entirely handwritten. The only description of its intended users is a brief introduction which reads: Diccionario ecuestre o exacta definición de los términos del jinete, del albéitar y del herrador para completa instrucción del caballero y de todo hombre a caballo ("Equestrian dictionary or exact definition of the terms of the rider, the groom and the blacksmith for the complete instruction of the rider and every man on horseback"). The words definition and instruction stand out in this introduction, which might lead us to believe that the dictionary could be polyfunctional. However, the function of the dictionary is not clearly stated. Since it is an 18th-century dictionary, from the age of Enlightenment, it would not be surprising if its function was to compile the meaning of these words, with no other pretension than that of being a compendium of this specialist field, in order to valorise and extend it over time.

One of the noticeable features offered by this dictionary is the form of the lemmas, which are compound lemmas (clauses that are often equivalent to actions), such as the example in Figure 2 (How to match the hand to the legs). Since the function that can be deduced from the examples analysed is communicative, the purpose of the dictionary does not seem to go beyond the intellectual demands of the time. In this respect, the absence of linguistic data shows that specialised lexicography has been present in different contexts in which there was no apparent need for it. However, it can be deduced that there is indeed a deliberate aim to provide instructions for users at the entry of How to bridle a horse:

 

 

Poner la brida al potro. Entiéndese en término de amarre por la primera vez que se pone la silla al caballo debe hacerse estas operaciones con mucho tiempo y paciencia para no ostigarle porque si en los principios se le exapera puede quedarse [exaltado] para siempre: Por eso combiene que la primera vez que se pone la silla al potro sea en la caballeriza o en la cuadra … (Diccionario ecuestre, original transcription: 323-324]

How to bridle a horse: As far as harnessing is concerned, it is clear that the first time the saddle is put on the horse, these operations must be carried out with a lot of time and patience so as not to damage the horse, because if it is exaggerated at the beginning, it can remain [exaggerated] forever: For this reason, it is advisable that the first time the saddle is put on the foal, it should be in the stable or in the stall ... (English translation from Spanish)

First of all, the compound lemmas take the form of a clause in addition to the fact that they are practical actions. In this case, the article has a clear operative approach since it does not simply define what is meant by putting the saddle on the foal, which would correspond to the first line, but goes on to give an explanation based on advice and instructions (two types of needs that occur in essential operative situations). Examples such as these are repeated throughout the work and show that the Diccionario ecuestre (1701-1800?) is probably one of the first Spanish dictionaries to incorporate an operative function of lexicography in addition to the communicative one.

3.2 Diccionario hípico y del sport by Federico Huesca (1881)

The Diccionario hípico y del sport by Federico Huesca (1881) is one of the first sport dictionaries (as we understand the term today) in Spanish and consists of 759 pages. From the very beginning, in the "Preface", the author of the dictionary confesses that: No hemos tenido la pretensión de hacer un libro de enseñanza, sino simplemente de exposición de doctrinas, de descripción de ejercicios, de compilación de técnica de datos estadísticos y algunos bibliográficos ("We did not have the pretension of making a textbook, but simply of exposing doctrines, describing exercises, compiling statistical data and some bibliographical data") (1881: 5). There is a direct reference to a descripción de ejercicios (description of exercises), although it is not clear whether this is a list of instructions. The function of the dictionary seems to be cognitive, which in function theory means that it is focused on describing non-linguistic data, in other words, giving specialised explanations. The reason for this is that a dictionary with a cognitive function transmits knowledge (about something) to its users when they want to acquire knowledge, in the same way as dictionaries with communicative functions provide help in ongoing or planned communicative situations. One clear example of this can be found in the entry of 'Lagrange (conde de)', where we find an extensive article with explanations about the life of an important horseman:

[…] Toda su vida se ha ocupado de carreras y de caballos; pero hasta 1857 no se hizo propietario de una caballeriza importante. En esta época compró á Mr. Alejandro Aumont todos los caballos que tenia en el entrainement, entre los cuales figuraba Monarca. […] (Diccionario ecuestre, original transcription: 410]

[...] All his life he had been occupied with racing and horses; but it was not until 1857 that he became the owner of an important stable. At that time he bought from Mr. Alexandre Aumont all the horses he had in entrainement, among which was Monarch. [...] (English translation from Spanish)

While the entries that deal with actions are concerned with offering specialised knowledge, which means that entries offer explanations rather than linguistic definitions or instructions, the dictionary also offers instructions and recommendations which, together with specialised explanations, cover an operative need that is not very well defined in the initial 'warning' prologue. This is the case of the entry on alfalfa (lucerne), which not only defines it as an important fodder plant for horses, but also explains in detail the conditions for its satisfactory cultivation by the user. Thus, we find an extensive lexicographical article with paragraphs very well divided by subject, and its opening shows us its instructive and proscriptive intention, Esta planta es de terrenos frescos […] ("This plant is a plant for cool soils [...]"), Exige terreno indispensablemente calizo […] ("It requires a soil that must be chalky [...]"), La alfalfa se siembra á boleo […] ("Lucerne is sown on the ground [...]"), Si la siembra se verifica al principio del otoño […] ("If it is sown at the beginning of autumn [...]"), Puede consumirse la alfalfa ó en el prado ó en el establo […] ("Lucerne can be eaten either in the meadow or in the barn [...]"), La alfalfa debe regarse siempre en flor […] ("Lucerne should always be watered when in flower [...]") (1881: 31).

As we can see, the characteristics of this type of instruction do not correspond to the usual model for expressing instructions through the imperative or infinitive form in Spanish, but the dictionary uses a more indirect structure, despite the use of the impersonal pronoun 'se', which is undoubtedly used to give instructions in Spanish too. The same happens with the entry for forrajes (fodder). The first part is rather non-linguistic, with explanations that offer specialised information on the benefits of this type of feed for young and even sick horses: Los forrajes á pico son muy beneficiosos, porque adelanta el pelecho del ganado y son purgantes ("The fodder is very beneficial, because it helps the cattle's fodder to grow and is a purgative"). However, as the definition progresses, the content begins to focus more on 'how to do it', completely abandoning the definition itself. It begins to explain where the user should feed the horse in order to obtain the aforementioned benefits, how and when to feed it, and finally, as if it were a recipe, the exact amount per horse is given: El forraje debe darse picado para que no se desperdicie, y conducirlo en espuertas á los artesones. Las pasturas será de poca cantidad […] ("The feed must be chopped so that it is not wasted and carried to the troughs in baskets. The amount of pasture should be small […]").

Other examples of the operative function being employed can be found in the entries aciones (belts) and adelgazar (slimming). In the case of aciones, what is observed is not a sequential component of instructions, but a full-blown proscription. After a very brief definition of the "what", recommendations are made on how to carry out the actions and their immediate consequences. To this end, evaluative expressions are used such as si se rompe una […] ("if a [...] breaks"), expressions of possibility with puede suceder ("it may happen"), with se procura […] ("we will try to [...]") or even with circumstantial cause para que […] ("so that [...]"), interspersed with the impersonal pronoun "se". All this shows that the recommendations are based on real cases experienced by the specialists themselves. In addition, the entry ends with another example of proscription, but this time to solve specific problems that steeplechase riders may have.

To end the analysis, it is necessary to look at the entry of adelgazar (slimming), which refers to an action that does not affect the horses but the riders. In this case it is used to give instructions. The entry states that Para evitar el engordar en todo tiempo, pero principalmente en el invierno, se ideó un sistema para adelgazar, parecido al que se emplea en la preparación de los caballos […] ("In order to avoid getting fat in all weather, but mainly in winter, a system was devised for slimming, similar to that used in the preparation of horses") (1881: 12). The operative process being referred to is always shrouded in specialised explanations, as it usually happens in all the entries regarding riders and its direct actions. Even so, there is a very clear intention to offer some indications that, if the user is a horseman, he will find very useful in order not to put on weight. In addition to the instructions and recommendations offered, other data explanations are also provided that confirm the implementation of this method in England and France.

In conclusion, the dictionary has an operative function, although this function does not manifest itself clearly in all entries, but only in those entries which, by their practical nature, require instructions to the user. From the examples given, it is clear that this is not a reference book for learning about horsemanship in an operative sense. However, you can learn how to prepare food for horses and how riders should look after themselves. It is a good example of how instructional data can be interwoven with the dictionary definition to satisfy different kinds of lexicographical needs. However, this combination only occurs in lemmas that have no direct connection with horses or the use of horses in the development of the sport, leaving the operative function focused on giving answers to equestrian practice.

3.3 Diccionario de fútbol by Wolfgang Koch (1998)

Koch's dictionary is a translation of the German Fussball Von A-Z, Begriffe, Fakten, Regeln by Wolfgang Simon. This dictionary is unique for several reasons. It is one of the first dictionaries to focus on the Spanish football lexicon (even though it is a translation) and it is also a dictionary that, because of the nature of the lexicon it contains, uses strategies that are relevant to this research.

The dictionary consists of a short introduction called Instrucciones para el lector ("Instructions for the reader"), which gives information about the lemmas, symbols or other conventions for using the dictionary. There is no explanation of the target audience or the function(s) of the dictionary. After the brief instructions for the reader, there is an index of signs, the football dictionary itself, bibliographical references (in German), an appendix with a series of questions on the rules of the game, and finally an anthology of the development of the game and the rules, with dates. This dictionary contains parts that were unusual for a dictionary published at a time when there were not so many works that deviated from the usual lexicographical canon (dominated by linguistic theory). Firstly, the dictionary contains lemmas composed of both simple and compound units. For example, táctica de cobertura (hedging tactics) is lemmatised as a unit and not under the same entry as táctica (tactics) (although this is probably due to the direct translation from German). Furthermore, this dictionary prefers explicación (explanation) to definición (definition), as stated in the introduction:

En los párrafos explicativos se ha prescindido expresamente de la máxima precisión científica, prevalenciendo la explicación por delante de una definición con el fin de conseguir la máxima comprensión (In the explanatory paragraphs, maximum scientific precision has been deliberately avoided, preferring to explain rather than define in order to achieve maximum understanding) (Koch 1998: 5).

This means that the dictionary transcends the established limits based on linguistic background and has a certain specialised character, as also highlighted by Nomdedeu Rull (2004: 192), who comments on the same dictionary and its definition of árbitro (referee), which is not only extensive, but also intertwined with the rules of football. Another example of this type of specialised definition is the one that appears in the calentamiento (warm-up) entry, where the field of sports medicine takes on special importance. As Nomdedeu Rull (2004: 195-196) points out, we are dealing with a dictionary which, apart from its specialised nature, sometimes gives the reader the impression that he/she is reading a football manual, because the operative function can be deduced from the type of definitions. This feature blurs the barrier that has always existed between dictionary-encyclopaedia-manual.

An example of this is the barrera (barrier) entry, where recommendations are made after the definitions, at a time when instructions are given on how to act: Si el adversario emplea variantes del tiro libre, es preciso reaccionar rápidamente de manera que se bloquee un tiro a puerta (salir) ("If the opponent uses variants of the free kick, it is necessary to react quickly in order to block a shot on goal (exit)").

This is not the only example in which Koch's football dictionary goes beyond the strictly lexicographical (according to the canon), since the use of instructions and explanations is generally manifested in two ways: (1) through illustrations that complement the explanations of the lemmas, as in the case of the ejercicios de marcaje-desmarque (marking-unmarking exercises) (see Figure 3); or (2) the definition of ball reception is given in a way that is typical of instructional texts, where resources such as numbers are used to sequence different types of ball reception, and illustrations are used to complete the explanation (see Figure 4).

 

 

 

 

The illustrations undoubtedly have a clear instructive purpose, especially since, in the case of football, an explanation like 3. Recoger un balón que viene rodando, botando o volando a nivel del suelo o en el aire ("3. Catching a ball that is rolling, bouncing or flying at ground level or in the air") may be clear to an expert or even semi-expert on the subject without the need for illustrations, but it will not be clear to someone who has no knowledge of this sport. In this case, there is not even an explanation of how to do it, only the type of ball reception is highlighted, while the illustrations show how to act in each case.

Recepción del balón: Forma importante de obtener el control del balón. Sirve para asegurar balones que provienen del compañero o del adversario y se caracteriza por la acción de ceder (amortiguar) que efectúa la parte del cuerpo que recibe el balón. Al ceder, le sigue a ser posible un movimiento contrario. La técnica de la R. se diferencia de la siguiente manera: 1. Detener un balón que viene rodando. 2. Parada del balón a nivel del suelo o en el aire. 3. Recoger un balón que viene rodando, botando o volando a nivel del suelo o en el aire. La → recogida del balón adquiere cada vez mayor importancia ("técnica rápida", ganar espacio/ tiempo). Véase también → parada.

3.4 Teoría y práctica de la esgrima by Pedro Carbonel (1900)

Teoría y práctica de la esgrima (1900) consists of two different editions (850 standard copies and 150 deluxe copies) produced by King Alfonso XIII's Master of Arms, Pedro Carbonel. The book analysed is dedicated to the Marquis of Heredia, whose reply to the dedication is also included. Thanks to this introduction, we know that the work contains useful advice, the function of which, as the Marquis states, is educational: [...] donde encontrarán los fuertes tiradores gran número de avisos y consejos útiles, y las naturalezas más rebeldes la seguridad de vencer las dificultades y llegar, por medio de tu hábil enseñanza, á conseguir lo que les parecía inaccesible (1900: X) ("[...] where strong marksmen will find a great number of useful warnings and advice, and the most rebellious natures will find the security to overcome difficulties and, by means of your skilful teaching, to achieve what seemed inaccessible to them"). In the prologue, the author remarks on the importance of practice and theory, whose function is facilitar con la teoría la práctica de este arte, que, si bien como sport es uno de los más convenientes, considerado como lucha reviste mayor importancia ... ("to facilitate with theory the practice of this art, which, although as a sport it is one of the most convenient, considered as a fight is of greater importance ..."). (Prologue, 1900: XII).

The manual is divided into four parts. The first two parts begin with a technical glossary whose macro-structure is that of a traditional dictionary, as it contains the essential vocabulary in alphabetical order, but without linguistic information (Figure 5). Parts three and four deal with fencing movements and techniques, not in alphabetical order, although in this case they are arranged in order of difficulty (from the easiest to the most difficult) and follow a very heterogeneous structure. Each entry consists of a motto based on an action, and the data are instructions interwoven with some advice and recommendations (proscription) and specialised explanations. In addition, these instructions are supported by images that help the user understand how to proceed (Figure 6).

 

 

 

 

The third part focuses on pedagogical dimension of teaching fencing and is clearly aimed at instructors or teachers. It is therefore a clear example of "how to teach", going beyond the "what to teach" of the first parts. The third part begins with a section on Advertencias y preliminares de la enseñanza ("Warnings and Preliminaries of Teaching"), with extensive advice on class management, followed by various lessons (e.g. the first foil lesson or finger exercises), preceded by a lemma and pedagogical instructions ranging from the way the room is divided to the different subjects to be taught. The fourth part focuses on the protocols and rules to be followed during the attacks, as well as advice that can help the correct development of the activity. It is interesting to note the specificity of some of the situations dealt with in this last part, such as De los zurdos y manera de contrarrestar su juego ("Of the left-handed and how to counteract their game") (1900: 253), which demonstrate the accuracy and variety of the situations covered.

In conclusion, Teoría y práctica de la esgrima by Pedro Carbonel is a polyfunctional manual that covers different types of situations on different levels: it gives precise instructions on how to fence, and it also gives instructions on how to teach it; it incorporates quite frequently and in very different ways the resource of proscription (recommendations). The manual is an example of a hybrid work that aims to cover very different needs in very different situations, and it also follows the structure of a traditional dictionary (it has alphabetical structure with easy access for consultation).

3.5 Novísimo tratado de Foot-Ball by Georges Graham (1913)

Georges Graham's Novísimo tratado de Foot-Ball is one of the first documented works on football in Spanish. The title page states that it is a Método práctico para jugar al FOOT-BALL y apreciar la licitud y oportunidad de las jugadas ("Practical method for playing football and appreciating the legality and opportunity of the plays"), so this subtitle seems to anticipate the function of the handbook: ilustrado con numerosos grabados ("illustrated with many engravings or illustrations"). The book, which is only 48 pages long, is divided into two parts: the first, in five chapters, introduces the reader to the sport and its benefits; the second, also in five chapters, deals with the technique of the game.

The first part of the guide has a didactic approach and is divided into chapters with explanations aimed at satisfying the needs for knowledge (in function theory, this would be called a cognitive lexicographical tool). This first part could be classified as a football encyclopaedia, with the exception of Capítulo cuarto. Entrenamiento del jugador ("Chapter four. Player training"), in which the operative function is introduced as a natural development of the cognitive progress of the previous chapters. In this chapter we can identify what Rodríguez Gallardo (2014: 323) calls degrees of operativeness in relation to an operative situation, which in this case deals with two situations: (1) Ejercicios de gimnasia y desarrollo de la fuerza muscular ("gymnastic exercises and development of muscular strength"), and (2) Ejercicios técnicos ("technical exercises"). These degrees classify the operative situations to be solved according to their specificity which means that each concrete situation requires specific instructional data. They include an introduction by definition or explanation, followed by instructions of varying difficulty, adapted to the way in which the information is accessed: written and illustrated (Figure 7).

 

 

The written instructions are numbered and preceded by a short lemma, which in the case of Figure 7 is Detener la pelota ("Stop the ball"). In addition, instructions for different types of sub-situations can appear within the same entry, as on page 25: estudiemos dos casos que pueden ofrecerse ("let's study two possible cases"). As for the illustrations, they support what is written, as can be seen in Figure 7.

In the second part of the manual, the tool is designed to meet the user's operative needs. From the first chapter, which focuses on the rules of the game for the general public, instructions are used and a very clear lexicographical structure is followed: starting with a lemma and its lexicographical article with the applicable rule. The second chapter, on the other hand, has a different structure, avoiding the introduction of new lemmas in order to focus on the team captain. However, unlike the explanatory chapters of the first part, in this case the whole chapter has a clear operative function, but applied to a new type of user, need and situation, which mediates between knowledge and the teaching of an action. The complexity of its typology of users and situations increases in the third chapter, which introduces the figure of the referee and the need to resolve "some dubious plays" such as offside, with up to ten explanations of how to proceed and illustrated examples (see Figure 8).

 

 

Chapter four continues the tendency to follow a complex lexicographical structure by again introducing lexicographical entries preceded by a lemma, this time to introduce the profile of the players of the team and what are the cualidades que debe poseer cada uno ("qualities that each one must possess") (1913: 69). The last chapter of the second part is formulated as a kind of commandment on how to act according to the different sub-situations. This takes the form of an article, without entries or lemmas, but in which recommendations predominate.

To summarise, it can be said without a doubt that Georges Graham's handbook has an operative function, although it is a polyfunctional work, as is usual in this specialised context, since it also has a cognitive function. However, what is truly characteristic of this work is its desire to bring together many different types of users and situations - and sub-situations - in a single short volume. At least four different types of users can be identified: the general public (most of Part I and Chapter I of Part II), the team captain (Part II, Chapter 2), the referee (Part II, Chapter 3) and the players (Part II, Chapters 4 and 5). The weakness of the handbook is precisely the lack of organisation to ensure that the different types of users can easily access the data.

 

4. Main characteristics of the Spanish sport works with an operative function

The lexicographical products analysed, which all have an operative function, share different characteristics:

(1) They are all polyfunctional.

(2) They usually have a longer lemma (or 'action'), such as acortar los estribos (how to shorten the stirrups).

(3) They include different types of data, such as instructions, explanations and definitions, in order to meet lexicographic needs arising from operative situations.

(4) They have a complex lexicographical data structure, sometimes not following a coherent pattern, in order to facilitate user access.

(5) They are aimed at solving reference needs that are practical and therefore require the acquisition of skills that can only be performed on the move.

In addition, this study shows that there is a number of similarities between works of a different typology (but similar subject matter - sport) that have an operative lexicographic function. One remarkable similarity is the access to data, which is organised assuming a lexicographic structure. This means that in most of them data access distribution is very similar to that of traditional dictionaries (alphabetically structured). After the analysis, it can be concluded that reference tools with an operative function are consultation tools for specific (social) situations that focus on the need to develop a practical skill.

It is important to highlight that in sport reference tools with an operative function access to and distribution of the data is more complex and not governed by homogeneous criteria, which often makes it difficult for users to obtain information. Both dictionaries and reference works analysed, have in common that they have more than one lexicographic function, even if this is not made explicit at first sight. The fact that a single work could have different functions (in many cases operative and cognitive) shows that even in the past there was an interest, unconscious or not, in achieving a greater degree of individualisation.

The reference works from the early days of the sport (dictionaries and other reference works) gave priority to the cognitive function because the need for information at that time was focused on understanding the newly emerging sport (theoretical knowledge). Their real aim was to explain the basics of the sport before teaching how to play it. Depending on the model, works/tools with an operative function seek different types of individualisation, which is determined according to the characteristics of the users (needs and situations) they are designed for. In fact, some of them cover not only different consultation needs and situations, but also different types of users (experts and laypeople). An example of this can be found in Carbonel's fencing reference work, where there is a pedagogical need that is closely linked to the didactic component of the task - "how to teach". This pedagogical-operative need belongs to the coach user, which means that different types of user can be covered by a single reference work.

Finally, sport operative products analysed usually cover a procedural need for "how to act" (through practical knowledge), which is not so common for an expert user, and also the need for understanding the different types of situations and conditions in each sport (through theoretical knowledge). This means that data is presented in different ways depending on the function/s of each product. These explanations are constructed to respond to the specific needs of users in specific situations: definitions, specialised explanations or instructions can be intercalated to fulfil the function of each product type (polyfunctional or pluri-monofunctional).

 

5. Discussion

Taking into account the limitations of the tools analysed, a roadmap can be established for the development of future tools with an operative function in today's world. Thus, it is important to emphasise that the needs of the users of these tools are linked to practical knowledge that leads them to develop practical skills. In this respect, it will be important to carry out a prior study of the potential user's profile, whose needs are linked to the practical situations in which they will need to use the tool. The data to be included in new tools of this type should therefore correspond to a functional approach, which means that the type of explanation to include is adapted to the specific needs of the user in the relevant lexicographic situations. This also means that the type of article - be it a definition, a specialised explanation or instructions - is chosen on the basis of the function(s) it is intended to cover. One of these functions will undoubtedly be operative, but this should not be understood as incompatible with sharing space with other functions, such as cognitive functions, as demonstrated in previous analyses. For example, the basic football instructions for an inexperienced young learner will not be the same as those for a football coach seeking to improve; although the situation is operative and the sub-situations that arise are also likely to coincide, the profile means that the type of data must necessarily change in order to fulfil each function. In order to address this, a pedagogical operative function ("how to teach") must have a clear didactic character, and to fulfil this purpose, the data it contains must be adapted to the specific functional and retrieval characteristics of this operative situation. This process is reminiscent of Pétroff's (1984: 66-67) so-called "reformulation", because it involves the adaptation of scientific and technical discourse to the intended user. Reformulation consists of adapting data to a new situation, to a specific type of recipient and in accordance with a given action. According to this, all categories and units from a lexicographic article, both linguistic and graphic, are susceptible to reformulation.

Finally, to guarantee a good data structure in operative function products, it is useful to include all the main categories and all the concepts significant to the topic and the individual user needs. The reference works analysed are generally not organised according to consistent criteria or their structure is not clear, which means that users often get lost in a maze of mixed-up data. One solution for new tools is to follow the principle of intuitive design for each of the categories so that they can be understood globally and rationally.

 

6. Conclusions

The purpose of this article has been to analyse a series of sport dictionaries and other reference works in Spanish that have an operative function without them explicitly stating it. These analyses have demonstrated the existence of the operative function in Spanish lexicography, even if the tools have not explicitly stated this as their purpose. However, this is only a small part of what is known about this practical dimension of lexicography, which is still insufficiently studied. Throughout the history of lexicography, the presence of instructions to meet operative needs is common in several languages, as demonstrated by Agerbo (2017) for English, German and Danish. Similarly, the long-standing lexicographic tradition of Spanish is not different. Agerbo (2017: 387) states that her work aims to "convince lexicographers that the unexplored but highly relevant operative function deserves their attention, both in their meta-lexicographical and practical work", and thanks to this, a completely new line of research has been opened for the historical lexicography of Spanish. Studies about the operative function will lay the foundation and catalogue an unexplored function of lexicography that is still relevant for the development of future lexicographic tools related to sport and other practical subjects.

 

Endnotes

1 The quotes from Spanish authors have been translated into English by me. The original source can be found in the references section.

 

References

A. Dictionaries and other reference works

Anonymous. 1701-1800? Diccionario ecuestre. Madrid. Available from the Biblioteca Digital Hispánica and Biblioteca Nacional de España:http://bdh-rd.bne.es/viewer.vm?id=0000062278&page=1

Carbonel, P. 1900. Teoría y práctica de la esgrima. Madrid: Suc. de Rivadeneyra. Available from the Biblioteca Digital Hispánica and Biblioteca Nacional de España:http://bdh-rd.bne.es/viewer.vm?id=0000084352&page=1

Graham, G. 1913. Novísimo tratado de Foot-ball. Método práctico para jugar y apreciar la licitud y oportunidad de las jugadas. Barcelona: Ciencias y Letras.         [ Links ]

Huesca, F. 1881. Diccionario hípico y del sport. Madrid: J. M. Pérez. Available from the Biblioteca Digital Hispánica and Biblioteca Nacional de España:http://bdh-rd.bne.es/viewer.vm?id=0000084341&page=1

Koch, W. 1998. Diccionario de fútbol (Spanish translation from German Fussball Von A-Z, Begriffe, Fakten, Regeln a cargo de Wolfgang Simon). Barcelona: Editorial Paidotribo.         [ Links ]

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Agerbo, H. 2018. Explaining Meaning in Lexicographical Information Tools. Fuertes-Olivera, P.A. (Ed.). 2018. The Routledge Handbook of Lexicography: 59-77. London: Routledge.         [ Links ]

Agerbo, H. 2019. A Theoretical Description of the Operative Function and its Implementation in the Conceptualisation of Danish Lexicographical Tools in Physical Training. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation. Aarhus: Aarhus University.         [ Links ]

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Moreno Villanueva, J.A. and A. Madrona Cao. 2004. Los primeros diccionarios de electricidad en español: el Diccionario de electricidad y magnetismo (1893) de Lefèvre y el Diccionario práctico de electricidad (1898) de O'Conor Sloane. Battaner, P. and J. DeCesaris (Eds.). 2004. Actas del I Symposium internacional de lexicografía, Barcelona, 16-18 de maig de 2002): 1000-1013. Barcelona: Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Documenta Universitaria.         [ Links ]

Nomdedeu Rull, A. 2004. Terminología del fútbol y diccionarios: elaboración de un diccionario de especialidad para el gran público. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation. Barcelona: Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona.         [ Links ]

Pétroff, A.J. 1984. Sémiologie de la reformulation dans le discours scientifique et technique. Langue française 64: 53-67.         [ Links ]

Postlethwayt, M. 1749. A Dissertation on the Plan, Use, and Importance, of the Universal Dictionary of Trade and Commerce; Translated from the French of the Late Celebrated Mons. Savary, Inspector-General of the Manufactures of the Custom-House of Paris: With such Considerable Additions and Improvements, As will Appear at Large Throughout this Dissertation; And which More Particularly Accommodate the Fame to the Trade and Navigation of the British Empire, Addressed to the Nobility, Gentry, Merchants, and Traders of Great Britain. London: John and Paul Knapton.         [ Links ]

Rodríguez Gallardo, Á. 2013. The Function Theory and Its Application on Manuals of Economics. Hermes, Journal of Language and Communication in Business 50: 83-95.         [ Links ]

Rodríguez Gallardo, Á. 2014. Situaciones sociales y lexicografía operacional. Garcés Gómez, Mª.P. (Ed.). 2014. Lexicografía teórica y aplicada. Anexos Revista de Lexicografía 26: 317-330. A Coruña: Servizo de Publicacións Universidade da Coruña.

Sviķe, S. 2018. A New Dictionary of Botanical Terms: Data Analysis of a Lexicographic Survey. Economics World 6(3): 228-241.         [ Links ]

Tarp, S. 2007. Lexicography in the Information Age. Lexikos 17: 170-179.         [ Links ]

Tarp, S. 2008. The Third Leg of Two-legged Lexicography. Hermes 40: 117-131.         [ Links ]

Tarp, S. 2010. Functions of Specialised Learner's Dictionaries. Fuertes-Olivera, P.A. (Ed.). 2010. Specialised Dictionaries for Learners: 39-53. Berlin: De Gruyter.         [ Links ]

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