ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Authentic leadership and work engagement: The indirect effects of psychological safety and trust in supervisors

 

 

Natasha Maximo; Marius W. Stander; Lynelle Coxen

Optentia Research Focus Area, North-West University, Vanderbijlpark, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

---

ABSTRACT

ORIENTATION: The orientation of this study was towards authentic leadership and its influence on psychological safety, trust in supervisors and work engagement.
RESEARCH PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of authentic leadership on trust in supervisors, psychological safety and work engagement. Another aim was to determine whether trust in supervisors and psychological safety had an indirect effect on the relationship between authentic leadership and work engagement. An additional objective was to determine if authentic leadership indirectly influenced psychological safety through trust in supervisors.
MOTIVATION FOR THE STUDY: Globally, businesses are faced with many challenges which may be resolved if leaders are encouraged to be more authentic and employees more engaged. In this study, investigating the role of trust in supervisors and psychological safety on the relationship between authentic leadership and work engagement is emphasised.
RESEARCH DESIGN, APPROACH AND METHOD: This study was quantitative in nature and used a cross-sectional survey design. A sample of 244 employees within the South African mining industry completed the Authentic Leadership Inventory, Utrecht Work Engagement Scale, Workplace Trust Survey and Psychological Safety Questionnaire.
MAIN FINDINGS: The results indicated that authentic leadership is a significant predictor of both trust in supervisors and psychological safety. This study further found that authentic leadership had a statistically significant indirect effect on work engagement through trust in supervisors.
PRACTICAL OR MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS: The main findings suggest that having more authentic leaders in the mining sector could enhance trust in these leaders. Authentic leadership thus plays an important role in creating a positive work environment. This work environment of authenticity and trust could lead to a more engaged workforce.
CONTRIBUTION OR VALUE-ADD: Limited empirical evidence exists with regard to the relationship between authentic leadership, work engagement, psychological safety and trust in supervisors. This is particularly true in the mining sector. This study aimed to contribute to the limited number of studies conducted.

Keywords: Authentic leadership; trust in supervisor; work engagement; psychological safety; mining industry.

---

 

 

Introduction

Because of continuous changes in the global business environment, organisations are facing numerous challenges. These challenges may result in many organisations experiencing economic and ethical meltdowns (Deloitte, 2014; George, Sims, McLean, & Mayer, 2007). In particular, South African mining companies are experiencing cost pressures and constraints which place tremendous strain on the mining industry. The daily operations of mines are further adversely affected by the continual shortage of frontline and professional skills within South Africa (Deloitte, 2014). As experienced personnel retire or leave the supply of experienced skills in frontline positions, such as supervisors, the workforce is placed under tremendous pressure. This has a direct effect on production output, quality and safety while further increasing overhead costs (Deloitte, 2014).

Changing the type of leadership and the way that mining employees perceive their leaders could assist in addressing the challenges experienced in the mining industry (Breytenbach, 2017). Leaders should display integrity, strong values and purpose as well as the ability to develop durable organisations through the motivation of subordinates (Breytenbach, 2017). Integrity and authenticity are widely regarded as highly important societal values and are important components of effective leadership (George et al., 2007). Leaders should be open and transparent as well as cognisant of the effects that their actions might have on others. They should further be aware of the internal and external influences and processes of an organisation (Clapp-Smith, Vogelgesang, & Avey, 2009). If they possess these behaviours, subordinates will be able to identify with the organisation's goals and challenges (Clapp-Smith et al., 2009). When subordinates perceive their supervisors to possess the necessary skills and abilities to facilitate growth and productivity within the organisation, it leads to an increased assurance among subordinates of a better and more profitable future in the organisation (Hassan & Ahmed, 2011). This may result in an increase in work engagement as subordinates gain a sense of trust and feelings of safety in the capabilities and competence of their supervisors (Hassan & Ahmed, 2011).

For the purposes of this study, authentic leadership as a form of positive leadership will be focused on (Stander & Coxen, 2017) as it has been found to have a positive effect on many organisational and employee behaviours (Avolio & Gardner, 2005; Coxen, Van der Vaart, & Stander, 2016). These behaviours may include psychological safety, trust in supervisors and work engagement.

The topic of authentic leadership has become more prominent in recent years in both practical and academic fields (Agote, Aramburu, & Lines, 2015; Coxen et al., 2016; Du Plessis & Boshoff, 2018; Shamir & Eilam-Shamir, 2018; etc.). Previous studies have indicated that authentic leadership may have a positive effect on psychological safety (Eggers, 2011), trust in supervisors (Caldwell & Dixon, 2010; Coxen et al., 2016) and work engagement (Walumbwa, Avolio, Gardner, Wernsing, & Peterson, 2008; Walumbwa, Wang, Wang, Schaubroeck, & Avolio, 2010). Although studies have been conducted to link authentic leadership with certain behavioural outcomes, the indirect effects of some of these outcomes have not been empirically tested in the South African mining context. The indirect effects of psychological safety have been tested (Lyu, 2016), but not as a mechanism through which authentic leaders influence subordinate behaviour. According to Hsieh and Wang (2015), trust fully mediates the relationship between authentic leadership and employee engagement. It would be interesting to determine if these findings can also be replicated in a South African context, with particular reference to the mining industry. The specific model (including the constructs) indicated in this study has not yet been empirically tested in a South African mining organisation. Work engagement is often regarded as an important employee outcome in ensuring optimal performance (Breevaart, Bakker, Demerouti, & Derks, 2015).

The purpose of this study was, therefore, to: (1) examine the effects of authentic leadership on trust in supervisors, psychological safety and work engagement; (2) investigate whether psychological safety and trust in the supervisor indirectly affect the relationship between authentic leadership and work engagement; and (3) determine whether trust in the supervisor indirectly affects the relationship between authentic leadership and psychological safety.

 

Literature review

Authentic leadership

According to Gardner, Avolio, Luthans, May and Walumbwa (2005), authentic leadership can be described as the process whereby leaders are aware of their thoughts and behaviours within the context in which they operate. Authentic leaders are often aware of their own leader and subordinate values, moral perspectives, strengths and knowledge (Avolio & Luthans, 2006). They are regarded as mindful of both their own personal authenticity and the manner in which they allow subordinates to achieve common goals and objectives (Clapp-Smith et al., 2009).

Recent studies suggested that authentic leadership is a 'higher-order, multidimensional construct, comprised of self-awareness, balanced processing, the internalisation of moral and ethical perspectives and relational transparency' (Walumbwa et al., 2008, p. 89). Self-awareness refers to leaders' knowledge of themselves, their mental state and the perceived image they have of themselves (Gardner et al., 2005; Neider & Schriesheim, 2011), whereas balanced processing refers to a leader's ability to consider and analyse all relevant facts objectively before making a decision (Gardner et al., 2005; Neider & Schriesheim, 2011). Possessing a moral perspective is when leaders rely on their own morals, values and standards to drive their actions, irrespective of external pressures (Gardner et al., 2005; Neider & Schriesheim, 2011). Finally, relational transparency refers to these leaders' ability to express their true thoughts and motives, facilitating their ability to openly share information (Gardner et al., 2005; Neider & Schriesheim, 2011).

Authentic leadership is focused on a leader's relationship with his or her subordinates (Avolio & Gardner, 2005; Wong & Cummings, 2009). A fair number of leadership theories emphasise a leader's behaviours and characteristics; however, very few leadership theories focus on the relationship between leaders and subordinates (Wong & Cummings, 2009). Even though authentic leadership has a significant focus on the relational transparency and self-awareness of leaders, it also focuses on personal and social identification (Wong & Cummings, 2009). Authentic leadership views personal and social identification as processes through which the behaviour of a leader results in self-awareness among the leaders and subordinates (Wong & Cummings, 2009).

A positive moral perspective and balanced processing are important components of authentic leadership (Neider & Schriesheim, 2011). Leaders need to objectively consider all of the facts to engage in ethical and transparent decision-making; therefore, authentic leaders utilise their own moral capacity and resilience to confront and deal with ethical dilemmas and make moral decisions. Making decisions in a fair and moral manner is crucial given the nature of change in social, political and business environments (Sarros & Cooper, 2006). The nature of these environments makes it important to rely on leaders who are genuine and possess moral attributes.

Because of the high moral standards, integrity and honesty displayed by authentic leaders, subordinates may develop positive expectations as well as increased levels of trust and a stronger willingness to cooperate with leaders to the benefit of the organisation (Avolio, Gardner, Walumbwa, Luthans, & May, 2004; Wang & Hsieh, 2013). This is confirmed by Caldwell and Dixon (2010), who found that authentic leaders influence individuals at various levels in an organisation. Authentic leaders thus have a significant impact on both their subordinates and the organisations that they lead.

Trust in supervisors

Although building stronger trust in leaders is required to address the many challenges faced by organisations, trust continues to be low in organisations (Gallup, 2012). To foster trust in supervisors, leadership that impacts the entire organisation in a positive manner is required. To achieve such leadership, loyalty, commitment and the willingness to take risks should be the important characteristics of organisational members. The above-mentioned characteristics can only be achieved if leaders instil extensive trust within their subordinates.

According to Agote et al. (2015), trust in a leader will have an effect on subordinates' work attitudes and behaviours. Trust can be defined as the disposition of an individual to be vulnerable to the actions of another while believing that the other will conduct a specific action (with good intentions) - this action should be important to the trustor (Clapp-Smith et al., 2009; Roussin, 2008). Trust is also the willing exchange of actions between individuals. This exchange only takes place if the trustor believes that exploitation is unlikely and as a result is willing to display trust behaviours and to risk vulnerability (Eggers, 2011; Ferres, 2003).

The intentions and actions of an individual must be confidently perceived, while the expectation of ethical treatment should also be present for trust to exist (Eggers, 2011; Ferres, 2003). In order for trust to exist within a leader-follower relationship, it is necessary for a subordinate to observe the following characteristics within a leader: open communication, cooperation, willingness to sacrifice, confidence, predictability and fair treatment (Clapp-Smith et al, 2009; Ferres, 2003). As a result, unbiased processing as well as moral and ethical perspectives can be expected to nurture trust within a leader-follower relationship (Miniotaite, 2012).

Leaders can develop collaborative relationships, build credibility and gain the respect of subordinates when they act authentically, thereby building trusting relationships with subordinates (Avolio et al., 2004). A subordinate's trust stems from judgements of authenticity which are based on consistent leader actions (Coxen et al., 2016). Dirks and Ferrin (2002) suggest that when a subordinate is treated fairly and respectfully, he or she is more likely to display positive attitudes and commitment to a leader.

Studies have suggested that trust plays an important role in the relationship between leadership constructs (e.g. authentic leadership) and follower outcomes (e.g. employee behaviours) (Clapp-Smith et al., 2009; Coxen et al., 2016).

Psychological safety

Both psychological safety and trust involve vulnerability or the perception of risk through choices which seek to minimise negative consequences (Edmondson, Kramer, & Cook, 2004). Psychological safety is conceptualised as an individual's view of the risks and consequences associated with his or her work environment, stemming from a subconscious conviction of how others will respond when an individual finds him/herself in a particular situation (Edmondson et al., 2004; Roussin, 2008). The presence of psychological safety creates confidence in an individual that others will accept and not reprimand his or her actions (Edmondson, 1999).

The difference between psychological safety and trust stems from choice. The trustor's conscious decisions to trust an individual cannot be a choice to feel psychologically safe, but can be a choice to place his or her trust in someone (Edmondson et al., 2004). Psychological safety is thus defined as an individual's perception of the consequences of taking an interpersonal risk in his or her job environment, without the fear of negative consequences to his or her image, status or career (Edmondson & Lei, 2014).

The relationship between a supervisor and subordinate has a direct influence on the feeling of psychological safety that the subordinate experiences within the work environment (Edmondson, 1999; Newman, Donohue, & Eva, 2017). When a supervisor supports rather than controls the subordinate, the subordinate will experience a sense of psychological safety. Such supervisors show a sense of concern for their subordinates' feelings and needs, providing them with positive feedback which not only enables them to develop new skills, but also encourages them to share their opinions without any fear of negative consequences (Edmondson, 1999; Roussin & Webber, 2011).

Employees might be less willing to take risks or express themselves if they perceive these risks to result in negative consequences or even if these risks may lead to embarrassment (Detert & Burris, 2007). Examples of such interpersonal workplace risk include (1) harm resulting from opportunism; (2) identity damage as a result of social interactions and (3) neglect of an individual's interest by others (Williams, 2007). Trust in supervisors can serve to mitigate these interpersonal risks in the workplace, which could result in increased psychological safety (Ning Li & Hoon Tan, 2012).

An increased experience of psychological safety may result in work engagement (Lyu, 2016), as psychological safety reflects upon the belief that an individual can be engaged without any fear of negative consequences (Edmondson, 1999; Eggers, 2011; Roussin & Webber, 2011). Where a work environment displays ambiguity, unpredictability and is threatening, the opposite would be true as subordinates would perceive the environment as being psychologically unsafe. Subordinates working in a perceived psychologically unsafe work environment may disengage from their work and may be reluctant to attempt new things (May, Gilson, & Harter, 2004).

Authentic leaders utilise their own self-awareness as well as the self-awareness of their subordinates to lead (Avolio & Gardner, 2005). Displaying an awareness of their own strengths and shortcomings as well as those of their subordinates helps them to lead more transparently. They motivate their subordinates by inspiring them and displaying charisma (Eggers, 2011). Authentic leaders further motivate subordinates by being intellectually stimulating and considerate of subordinates' individuality (Eggers, 2011). Through this, leaders assist their subordinates in developing leadership skills by helping them become more aware of their own feelings, behaviours and thoughts. Leaders and subordinates must be aware of one another's expectations, needs and wants. This leads to positive change in an organisation through developing psychological safety. Psychological safety and trust will lead to transparency, positive self-awareness, a positive moral perspective and a willingness to continually learn (Eggers, 2011).

Work engagement

Work engagement is defined as the 'harnessing of organisational members' selves to their work roles: In engagement, people employ and express themselves physically, cognitively, emotionally and mentally during role performances' (Kahn, 1990, p. 694). Bakker, Schaufeli, Leiter and Taris (2008) describe work engagement as 'a positive, fulfilling and effective motivational state of work-related well-being that is characterised by vigour, dedication and absorption' (p. 187). Vigour refers to increased levels of energy and mental resilience at work, whereas dedication refers to an individual's involvement and fulfilment in his or her work (Bakker et al., 2008). Finally, absorption refers to an individual's happiness and concentration at work which allows time to pass quickly (Schaufeli, Salanova, Gonzales-Roma, & Bakker, 2002).

Engaged employees are energetic and experience a feeling of enthusiasm for their work, and as a result, are completely absorbed by their work to the extent that time flies while working (Bakker et al., 2008; Hassan & Ahmed, 2011). The improvement of work engagement levels in the workforce has become critical for organisational success (Harter, Schmidt, & Hayes, 2002; Du Plessis & Boshoff, 2018). This is because work engagement has a positive impact on business, financial and in-role performance, as well as employee productivity (Bakker & Demerouti, 2008; Du Plessis & Boshoff, 2018).

Various studies suggest that leadership is an important factor that positively contributes to work engagement, either directly or indirectly through other constructs (Coxen et al., 2016; Ebrahim, 2017; Harter et al., 2002; Heyns & Rothmann, 2018). Authentic leaders lead by example - they lead through their values and strive for truthful relationships (Gardner et al., 2005; Kernis, 2003). Leading by example illustrates one's commitment to work and provides guidance to subordinates (Bandura, 1977), allowing subordinates to remain emotionally and physically connected as well as cognitively vigilant in their work roles.

Authentic leadership, trust in supervisors and work engagement

A key element of leadership effectiveness is having trust in supervisors (Coxen et al., 2016). According to Hsieh and Wang (2015), trust in supervisors is linked to favourable organisational outcomes, such as job satisfaction, employee commitment and organisational citizenship behaviour. Studies indicate that trust in supervisors has an indirect effect between the leader's actions and employee behaviours (Coxen et al., 2016; Hsieh & Wang, 2015). When subordinates perceive their supervisors as being trustworthy, it will positively affect their psychological well-being (Lee, 2017). As a result, these subordinates will experience higher levels of work engagement (Wang & Hsieh, 2013). Furthermore, a subordinate's desire to voluntarily return authenticity is increased when the subordinate perceives his or her supervisor to have authenticity. This, in turn, creates an environment of trust and dependency which enables subordinates to be engaged and fully immersed in their work (Wang & Hsieh, 2013). Therefore, trust and employees' attitudes are inextricably linked with leadership being an antecedent.

Authentic leadership, psychological safety and work engagement

Authentic leaders' behaviour stems from their own values and such leaders are driven to display truthfulness and openness in relationships (Gardner et al., 2005; Kernis, 2003). These leaders can be said to lead by example through the demonstration of transparent decision-making (Avolio & Gardner, 2005). Supervisors' commitment to their work is displayed when leading by example. This provides subordinates with guidance to become cognitively vigilant as well as emotionally and physically connected with their work performance (Bandura, 1977). According to the research of Kahn (1990), leaders have an influence on the levels of work engagement displayed by subordinates. In a psychologically safe environment, an individual feels accepted and supported as well as able to provide input without any fear of negative consequences or social embarrassment (Kahn, 1990).

Based on the above discussion, the hypotheses of this study were formulated as follows:

H1: Authentic leadership is a significant predictor of trust in supervisors.

H2: Authentic leadership is a significant predictor of psychological safety.

H3: Authentic leadership has an indirect effect on psychological safety through trust in supervisors.

H4: Authentic leadership is a significant predictor of work engagement.

H5: Authentic leadership has an indirect effect on work engagement through trust in supervisors.

H6: Authentic leadership has an indirect effect on work engagement through psychological safety.

The hypothesised model is illustrated in Figure 1.

 

 

Research design

Research approach

This study was quantitative in nature. A cross-sectional survey design was used as the data were collected at one single point in time.

Research method

Research participants

The sample consisted of 244 employees from a South African coal mining company. An availability sampling technique was used because of its convenience and accessibility. Participation in the project was voluntary, anonymous and participants had the right to refuse to participate without consequence. The majority of the sample consisted of males (86.9%) and 54.5% of the sample was African. The most representative home language was Afrikaans (35.7%), followed by Sesotho (29.1%). Thirty-two per cent of the sample fell in the 26-35 years' age group, with 29.9% falling within the 36-45 years' age group. In addition, 50.4% had a grade 12-certificate as highest qualification, while 16.8% received education up until grade 11. Of the participants, 48.8% were employed in the engineering department and a further 23.8% were employed in the operations department. A total of 73.8% of the participants were employed at the C1-C4 level and 14.8% at the B1-B5 level. Years of experience ranged from 1-5 years (28.7%) to 6-10 years (27.9%).

Measuring instruments

Participants completed a biographical questionnaire as well as four measuring instruments to measure authentic leadership, trust in supervisors, psychological safety and work engagement.

Authentic Leadership Inventory (ALI; Neider & Schriesheim, 2011): The ALI consists of 16 items and uses a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (disagree strongly) to 5 (agree strongly). The scale measures the four dimensions of authentic leadership behaviours, namely, self-awareness (four items), balanced processing (four items), moral perspective (four items) and relational transparency (four items). Examples of items include 'My leader describes accurately the way that others view his/her abilities' (self-awareness), 'My leader asks for ideas that challenge his/her beliefs' (balanced processing), 'My leader uses his/her core beliefs to make decisions' (moral perspective) and 'My leader admits mistakes when they occur' (relational transparency). In this study, the ALI showed a composite reliability coefficient of 0.94, indicating acceptable reliability.

Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES; Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004): The UWES comprises nine items and uses a six-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (never) to 6 (always). It measures the three dimensions of work engagement, namely, vigour (three items), dedication (three items) and absorption (three items). Examples of items include 'At my job, I feel strong and vigorous' (vigour), 'I find the work I do full of meaning and purpose' (dedication) and 'When I am working, I forget everything else around me' (absorption). The UWES showed acceptable reliability in this study with a composite reliability coefficient of 0.92.

Workplace Trust Survey (WTS; Ferres, 2003): The WTS consists of 36 items, but for the purpose of this study only trust in the immediate supervisor was utilised (nine items). It uses a seven-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). An example item is 'I feel that my manager listens to what I have to say'. The trust in the immediate supervisor section of the WTS showed a composite reliability coefficient of 0.94, indicating acceptable reliability.

Psychological Safety Questionnaire (PSQ; Edmondson, 1999): The PSQ contains six items and uses a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Examples items are: 'Members of the team were able to discuss problems and tough issues openly' and 'Members of the team accepted each other's differences'. The internal consistency of the measure has been acceptable, with a composite reliability coefficient of 0.78.

Statistical analysis

Mplus 7.4 (Muthén & Muthén, 1998-2016) was utilised to perform the statistical analysis. Descriptive statistics (e.g. means, standard deviations, skewness and kurtosis) and inferential statistics (e.g. correlations) were used for data analysis. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to test the factorial validity of the measuring instruments. Raykov's rho coefficients were used to assess the composite reliability of the measuring instruments and a cut-off value of 0.70 was used (Raykov, 2009). Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients were used to measure the relationships between the proposed variables. Cohen's effect sizes were used to determine the practical significance of the results, with cut-off values of 0.30 (medium effect) and 0.50 (large effect). A value of 95% (p ≤ 0.05) was set for the confidence interval level for statistical significance.

Structural equation modelling (SEM) was used to test the measurement and structural models. The following fit indices were used: chi-square (χ²), comparative fit index (CFI), standardised root-mean-square residual (SRMR) and root-mean-square error of approximation (RMSEA). Acceptable model fit was indicated by non-significant χ² values, GFI and CFI (≥0.90) and RMSEA (≤0.08) (Byrne, 2012). The Akaike information criterion (AIC) and Bayes information criterion (BIC) were used. The smallest value of the AIC and BIC indicates good model fit (Kline, 2011).

To determine whether common method variance (CMV) influenced the results, Harman's single-factor test, a common method, was used. This technique is a post hoc test conducted to determine whether a single factor is responsible for variance in the data (Tehseen, Ramayah, & Sajilan, 2017). This test thus aims to determine the presence or absence of CMV (Tehseen et al., 2017).

The bootstrapping method was used to test for indirect effects. The method was set at 5000 draws (Hayes, 2012) and the bias-corrected confidence level (BC CI) was set at 95%. When zero is not in the 95% CI, one can conclude that the indirect effect is significantly different from zero at p < 0.05.

 

Ethical consideration

This article adheres to the ethical guidelines for research. Ethical clearance was obtained from the North-West University.

 

Results

Testing the measurement model

Confirmatory factor analysis was used to estimate the factor structure of the variables. Using SEM, a four-factor measurement model and three alternative models were tested to assess possible relationships between the latent variables.

Model 1 consisted of four first-order latent variables, namely, authentic leadership (measured by 13 observed variables), work engagement (measured by eight observed variables), trust in supervisors (measured by eight observed variables) and psychological safety (measured by three observed variables). All the latent variables were allowed to correlate.

Model 2 consisted of three first-order latent variables, namely, authentic leadership (measured by 13 observed variables), trust in supervisors (measured by eight observed variables) and psychological safety (measured by three observed variables) as well as a second-order latent variable consisting of vigour combined with dedication (measured by six observed variables) and absorption (measured by two observed variables).

Model 3 consisted of three first-order latent variables, namely, work engagement (measured by eight observed variables), trust in supervisors (measured by eight observed variables) and psychological safety (measured by three observed variables) as well as a second-order latent variable of authentic leadership, consisting of self-awareness (measured by three observed variables), relational transparency (measured by three observed variables), balance processing (measured by four observed variables) and moral perspective (measured by three observed variables).

Model 4 consisted of seven first-order latent variables, namely, self-awareness (measured by three observed variables), relational transparency (measured by three observed variables), balanced processing (measured by four observed variables), moral perspective (measured by three observed variables), work engagement (measured by eight observed variables), trust in supervisors (measured by eight observed variables) and psychological safety (measured by three observed variables).

Table 1 presents the fit statistics for the four competing measurement models described above.

 

 

Further analyses were conducted in an exploratory mode to improve the fit of the selected model even more. The item errors were allowed to correlate which could improve model fit. According to Byrne (2012), correlated errors could be representative of the respondent's characteristics that reflect bias and social desirability as well as a high degree of overlap in the item content. The revised model (model 1) indicated that the fit improved once the errors were allowed to correlate. A comparison of the AIC and BIC values indicated that model 1 fitted the data the best with a χ² of 636.23. The fit indices for CFI and Tucker-Lewis index (TLI) were acceptable (>0.90), as well as the model fit for the RMSEA (<0.05). The SRMR for model 1 was 0.05; values lower than 0.08 indicate an acceptable fit.

Structural model including descriptive statistics, reliabilities and correlations

Table 2 contains the descriptive statistics which include the descriptive statistics (e.g. means and standard deviations), Raykov's rho reliability coefficients and a correlation matrix.

 

 

As per the results in Table 2, it is evident that the Raykov's rho coefficients of all the measuring instruments were considered acceptable, ranging from 0.70 to 0.94. Raykov's rho coefficients have the same acceptable cut-off points as Cronbach's alpha coefficients, recognising values of ≥0.70 as acceptable (Wang & Wang, 2012).

Table 2 further provides the correlation coefficients of the variables which were all statistically significant at either 0.01 or 0.05. Authentic leadership was practically and significantly related to work engagement (r = 0.49) (medium effect); psychological safety (r = 0.45) (medium effect) and trust in supervisors (r = 0.74) (large effect). Work engagement was practically and significantly related to psychological safety (r = 0.37) (medium effect) and trust in supervisors (r = 0.52) (large effect). Trust in supervisors was practically and significantly related to psychological safety (r = 0.39) (medium effect).

The measurement model formed the basis of the structural model. The hypothesised relationships shown in the model were tested. An acceptable fit of the model to the data was found: χ² = 636.23, df = 455, CFI = 0.95, TLI = 0.95, SRMR = 0.05 and RMSEA = 0.04. Table 3 shows the fit statistics and path coefficients of the three models.

 

 

In the above calculations, the maximum likelihood estimation with robust standard errors (MLR) estimator was utilised, taking into account the skewness and kurtosis of frequencies. The χ² values for MLR cannot be directly compared (Satorra & Bentler, 1999). Chi-square difference testing had to be done to determine how the χ² would change between the different models. Table 4 shows the difference testing for competing structural models. The results in Table 4 indicate that both models 1 and 2 had a significant p -value, which suggests a significantly worse fit than model 3. Therefore, model 3 was the best-fitting model.

 

 

Figure 2 shows the path coefficients estimated by Mplus 7.4 (Muthén & Muthén, 1998-2016) for model 3.

 

 

From Figure 2, it is evident that authentic leadership is a significant predictor of both trust in supervisors (β = 0.74; p < 0.01) and psychological safety (β = 0.36; p < 0.01). Hypotheses 1 and 2 were therefore accepted. Authentic leadership thus explains 54% of the variance in trust in supervisors and 21% of the variance in psychological safety. Hypothesis 4 was rejected as authentic leadership was not a significant predictor of work engagement (β = 0.16). This is apparent in Table 3.

Based on the results from Harman's single-factor test, the fit statistics of loading the model onto one factor were as follows: χ² = 1756.65, df = 464, CFI = 0.66, TLI = 0.63, SRMR = 0.11 and RMSEA = 0.11. The fit statistics show that the model did not fit, which indicates that CMV was not a problem (Tehseen et al., 2017). If there was model fit to the one factor, CMV could have posed a problem to the study.

Testing indirect effects

To determine whether indirect effects were present in this study, the procedure, as explained by Hayes (2012), was used. Bootstrapping was used to construct two-sided bias-corrected 95% CIs to evaluate indirect effects.

Table 5 shows that the indirect effect of authentic leadership on work engagement through trust in supervisors was significant (p < 0.01) and did not include zero. This suggests that authentic leadership did have an indirect effect on work engagement via trust in supervisors. Based on these results, hypothesis 5 was accepted. Trust in supervisors did not have a statistically significant indirect effect on psychological safety; therefore, hypothesis 3 was rejected. Psychological safety did not have a statistically significant indirect effect on work engagement. Therefore, hypothesis 6 was also rejected. All the hypotheses were thus accepted, except for hypotheses 3, 4 and 6.

 

 

Discussion

The objectives of this study were to determine the direct and indirect effects between authentic leadership, trust in supervisors, psychological safety and work engagement. The study was to provide an understanding of how authentic leadership can result in fostering feelings of supervisor trust and psychological safety among employees, resulting in employees being more engaged in their work.

The results indicated that authentic leadership positively influences trust in supervisors. When subordinates perceive authenticity in their leaders, the subordinates will be more inclined to trust those leaders. The results are consistent with previous research which also established that authentic leadership is a positive predictor of supervisor trust (Agote et al., 2015; Coxen et al., 2016; Hassan & Ahmed, 2011). Authentic leaders are regarded by subordinates as transparent, authentic and willing to listen to their ideas (Neider & Schriesheim, 2011). These leaders are also guided by their moral values and are inclined to allow subordinates to take part in decision-making (Walumbwa et al., 2008). Subordinates thus perceive authentic leaders as honest, truthful, reliable and genuine (Avolio & Gardner, 2005; Ilies, Morgeson, & Nahrgang, 2005), which contributes to their experience of trust in their supervisor. Leaders who display authentic behaviours in the form of openness and truthfulness thus result in subordinates more readily trusting their intentions (Ilies et al., 2005). These findings are in line with the Leader-Member Exchange Theory (LMX) (Cho & Park, 2011) which regards leadership as a two-way relationship between leaders and followers. In this regard, if leaders display authenticity and transparency, subordinates will reciprocate by trusting the leaders more. A study done in the mining industry in South Africa found the implementation of authentic leadership to be a challenge faced by mines in South Africa (Bezuidenhout & Schultz, 2013). It was found that an environment of trust and openness among employees in this environment was missing because of the lack of effective authentic leadership (Bezuidenhout & Schultz, 2013). It is therefore imperative that mining companies develop authentic leadership within their supervisors to create a climate of trust. This climate of trust will lead to openness and transparency among all employees.

In terms of the impact of authentic leadership on psychological safety, this study found a positive effect between the two constructs. When supervisors engage in authentic leadership behaviours, it leads to a climate of psychological safety among their subordinates. The results are consistent with previous research which also established that authentic leadership is positively related to psychological safety (Edmondson, 1999; Eggers, 2011). The behaviours displayed by a leader are pivotal in promoting psychological safety. Leaders motivate by inspiration, displaying charisma towards their subordinates as well as by being intellectually stimulating and considerate of individuality (Eggers, 2011). Through this, leaders assist their subordinates in developing leadership skills by helping them become more aware of their own feelings, behaviours and thoughts. Leaders and subordinates must be aware of one another's expectations, needs and wants. This leads to positive change within an organisation by developing psychological safety (Eggers, 2011). A platform which allows for continuous communication and participation was identified as a need by employees in the mining industry. These employees felt that they did not have the freedom to express their own ideas and opinions (Bezuidenhout & Schultz, 2013). Authentic leadership would allow mining companies to establish an environment of psychological safety as well as allow employees to freely participate in the organisation.

The results showed that trust in supervisor did not significantly indirectly affect the relationship between authentic leadership and psychological safety. The results of this outcome were unexpected, as a positive indirect effect of authentic leadership on psychological safety via trust in supervisor was expected. According to Eggers (2011), trust between leaders and subordinates is a requirement for the presence of psychological safety. The relationship between the leader and subordinate must be transparent and vulnerable in order for subordinates to experience psychological safety. Leaders who display transparency will create a climate of psychological safety for their subordinates. This, in turn, will promote increased participation by subordinates in the decision-making process as well as foster increased trust in leaders (Eggers, 2011). The unexpected results can perhaps be explained with due consideration to the context of the study. The mining sector is characterised by stringent procedures, rules and regulations - employees thus operate in a structured environment where there is little opportunity for taking risks (Carvalho, 2017). Employees are aware that taking a risk might often result in disciplinary action or, in extreme cases, accidents. The results thus indicate that although employees may trust their supervisors, this does not indirectly affect their feelings of psychological safety.

The results indicated that authentic leadership is not a significant predictor of work engagement. These results also were unexpected, as in theory a positive effect was expected between authentic leadership and work engagement. Authentic leaders display behaviours that are aligned with their own values as well as attempt to achieve truthfulness and openness in their relationships with subordinates (Avolio & Gardner, 2005). They demonstrate transparent decision-making and lead by example, which illustrates their commitment to their work. This serves as a guideline to subordinates to remain physically and emotionally involved in their work and, in so doing, increase the levels of work engagement (Bamford, Wong, & Laschinger, 2013). The impact of authentic leadership and work engagement is also supported by Schaufeli and Bakker (2004) and is consistent with the authentic leadership theory of Avolio et al. (2004). A possible explanation of the results in this study could be that if the organisation's environment limits ownership, then authentic leadership may potentially not prompt work engagement (Mayhew, Ashkanasy, Bramble, & Gardner, 2007). In a former study, the mining industry in South Africa had experienced difficulty with regard to ownership of tasks (Bezuidenhout & Schultz, 2013). The mentioned study found that mining employees were not provided with the opportunity to participate in decision-making or to take responsibility for tasks (Bezuidenhout & Schultz, 2013). Research suggests that employees experience ownership when they are given the opportunity to take control of their job and the work setting (Alok & Israel, 2012). Thus, having an authentic leader does not necessarily mean that employees will be more engaged if they are not afforded the opportunity to take personal ownership of their work tasks (George, 2015). Another study conducted in the South African context among public healthcare employees also found authentic leadership to not be a predictor of work engagement (Ebrahim, 2017).

The findings of this study indicate that authentic leadership had a significant indirect effect on work engagement via trust in supervisor. Authentic leadership has a positive effect on trust in supervisor which, in turn, results in increased work engagement. The results are consistent with a previous South African study which also established that authentic leadership is positively related to work engagement via trust in supervisor (Ebrahim, 2017). In order for a subordinate to perceive a leader as being authentic, a level of trust must be present between the leader and the subordinate (Hassan & Ahmed, 2011). Furthermore, components of authentic leadership such as authentic action and relational transparency are positively related to a subordinate's trust in a leader. Trust between a leader and subordinate also positively predicts employee work engagement (Bamford et al., 2013; Hassan & Ahmed, 2011). When a subordinate has developed a high level of trust in an organisation and its leaders, the subordinate is more likely to become more engaged in his or her work (Bamford et al., 2013; Hassan & Ahmed, 2011). Supervisors who display authentic leadership and lead by example will foster trust within subordinates and encourage subordinates to be more engaged in their work.

In terms of the indirect effect of authentic leadership on work engagement via psychological safety, the results did not confirm the indirect effect. The results of this outcome were unexpected, as a positive indirect effect of authentic leadership on work engagement via psychological safety was expected in theory. According to Kernis (2003), authenticity is related to high levels of work engagement. Kahn (1990) found that work engagement increases in an environment where leaders promote psychological safety, in other words, an environment that allows subordinates to feel supported and accepted as well as able to participate without fear of negative consequences should they fail. Again, if the organisation's environment limits ownership, then authentic leadership may potentially not prompt psychological safety and work engagement (Mayhew et al., 2007). Also, when the environment limits ownership, the subordinates may have perceived this limitation as unsupportive and may have felt constrained - not feeling open to take risks without a fear of the consequences. Therefore, even though psychological safety was present, it may not have had the anticipated effect on work engagement. Supervisors within the mining industry are among the most disempowered of all levels of management as they are caught up in the demands to deliver production (Bloch, 2012). This disempowerment of supervisors would result in a lack of ownership and leave them feeling constrained in their role, thus not inspiring subordinates to remain engaged in their work.

Limitations and recommendations for future studies

This study had several limitations. The first limitation of the study was the use of a cross-sectional design, which restricts the determination of causal relationships among the study variables. The second limitation of the study was the use of the convenience sampling approach which could influence the generalisability of the results obtained. Thirdly, the research was conducted during a time of uncertainty in the mining industry of South Africa, which may be perceived as a limitation. Finally, the research was conducted on a single operation in the mining industry; as a result, generalisation of the findings to other contexts may not be possible.

The following recommendations can be made for future research. Firstly, future research should use longitudinal research designs or diary studies to determine the causal relationships among the study variables. Secondly, future research should expand the study to other organisations and industries as well as other provinces because of the fact that each of these factors may pose its own unique set of challenges and may yield a different result. Thirdly, future research may improve on this study by gathering data from additional sources within organisations, over and above the supervisors and subordinates. Fourthly, future research may improve on this study by utilising a mixed-method approach which includes both quantitative and qualitative data collection. This would allow the researcher to establish the authentic style of the leader as well as the prevailing variables and employee outcomes such as trust and psychological safety. The researcher would then be able to mitigate the close relation between constructs such as trust and psychological safety. Lastly, future research could also include other related leadership constructs into the data collection. This would allow the researcher to determine if the outcomes were exclusively related to authentic leadership, to exclude potential outcomes from other positive leadership constructs such as ethical, transformational, leader-member exchange and empowering leadership.

Implications for management

It is important for employees, leaders and the human resources department to understand the impact of authentic leadership on outcomes such as supervisor trust, psychological safety and work engagement. The lack of ownership, strict rules and regulations, as well as other challenges in the mining sector such as economic uncertainty, may have a likely effect on the leaders' willingness to display authentic behaviours which may have an impact on the feelings of psychological safety, trust and engagement experienced by subordinates. Feeling psychologically safe is important as it decreases 'barriers to engagement' (Wanless, 2016, p. 6). The benefit of having an engaged workforce is enhanced employee performance (Markos & Sridrevi, 2010), which is an important factor in the mining industry.

Trust is an important component of organisational interventions. Therefore, it is vital that employees and the organisation understand that the only way to remain viable is to support one another. When an organisation builds an environment of trust, its employees will reciprocate by becoming more engaged in their work. Both the organisation and employees should participate in a give-and-take relationship. This will help both parties feel confident as well as foster a positive work environment which enhances work performance, psychological safety and work engagement. Authentic leadership plays a key role in creating this positive work environment. Leadership development programmes could be designed in the mining sector to develop authentic leaders who could have a positive impact on the experience of trust, psychological safety and work engagement.

 

Conclusion

The results of this study emphasise the crucial role of authentic leadership and trust in the supervisor in increasing work engagement. It also highlights the impact that authentic leadership has on psychological safety. Although authentic leadership was not a significant predictor of work engagement, it impacted work engagement indirectly through supervisor trust. These findings indicate that authentic leadership is important for creating trust in supervisors and allowing subordinates to experience psychological safety. It also shows that authentic leadership and trust are important in the development of work engagement.

 

Acknowledgements

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

Author's contributions

N.M. acted as first author (as the article is partially based on her mini-dissertation with M.W.S. as supervisor). M.W.S. and L.C. contributed towards the editing of the article.

 

References

Agote, L., Aramburu, N., & Lines, R. (2015). Authentic leadership perception, trust in the leader, and followers' emotions in organizational change processes. Journal of Applied Behavioural Science, 52(1), 35-63. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021886315617531        [ Links ]

Alok, K., & Israel, D. (2012). Authentic leadership and work engagement. The Indian Journal of Industrial Relations, 47(3), 498-510.         [ Links ]

Avolio, B. J., & Gardner, W. L. (2005). Authentic leadership development: Getting to the root of positive forms of leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 16, 315-338. https://doi.org/10.bakker1016/j.leaqua.2005.03.001        [ Links ]

Avolio, B. J., & Luthans, F. (2006). High impact leader: Moments matter in authentic leadership development. New York: McGraw-Hill.         [ Links ]

Avolio, B. J., Gardner, W. L., Walumbwa, F. O., Luthans, F., & May, D. R. (2004). Unlocking the mask: A look at the process by which authentic leaders impact follower attitudes and behaviors. The Leadership Quarterly, 15, 801-823. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2004.09.003        [ Links ]

Bakker, A. B., & Demerouti, E. (2008). Towards a model of work engagement. Career Development International, 13, 209-223. https://doi.org/10.1108/13620430810870476        [ Links ]

Bakker, A. B., & Schaufeli, W. B., Leiter, M. P., & Taris, T. W. (2008). Work engagement: An emerging concept in occupational health psychology. Work and Stress, 22, 187-200. https://doi.org/10.1080/02678370802393649        [ Links ]

Bamford, M., Wong, C. A., & Laschinger, H. (2013). The influence of authentic leadership and areas of worklife on work engagement of registered nurses. Journal of Nursing Management, 21, 529-540. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2834.2012.01399.x        [ Links ]

Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.         [ Links ]

Bezuidenhout, A., & Schultz, C. (2013). A leadership initiative to enhance employee engagement amongst engineers at a gold mining plant in South Africa. Paper presented at the Picmet Conference, San Jose, CA, July 2013.         [ Links ]

Bloch, L. (2012). The 4th wave: Culture-based behaviour safety. Retrieved from http://www.saimm.co.za/conference/Pt2012//163-176_Bloch.pdf.         [ Links ]

Breevaart, K., Bakker, A. B., Demerouti, E., & Derks, D. (2015). Who takes the lead? A multi-source diary study on leadership, work engagement, and job performance. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 37(3), 309-325. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2041        [ Links ]

Breytenbach, M. (2017, October). Mining leaders stress the need for good leadership. Retrieved from http://www.miningweekly.com/article/mining-leaders-stress-need-for-good-leadership-2017-10-05.         [ Links ]

Byrne, B. M. (2012). Structural equation modeling with Mplus: Basic concepts, applications and programming. New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group.         [ Links ]

Caldwell, C., & Dixon, R. D. (2010). Love, forgiveness, and trust: Critical values of the modern leader. Journal of Business Ethics, 93(4), 497-512. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-009-0184-z        [ Links ]

Carvalho, F. P. (2017). Mining industry and sustainable development: Time for change. Food and Energy Security, 6(2), 61-77. https://doi.org/10.1002/fes3.109        [ Links ]

Cho, Y. J., & Park, H. (2011). Exploring the relationships among trust, employee satisfaction, and organizational commitment. Public Management Review, 13(4), 551-573. https://doi.org/10.1080/14719037.2010.525033        [ Links ]

Clapp-Smith, R., Vogelgesang, G. R., & Avey, J. B. (2009). Authentic leadership and positive psychological capital: The mediating role of trust in the group. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 15, 231-232. https://doi.org/10.1177/1548051808326596        [ Links ]

Coxen, L., Van der Vaart, L., & Stander, M. W. (2016). Authentic leadership and organisational citizenship behaviour in the public health care sector: The role of workplace trust. South African Journal of Industrial Psychology, 42(1), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip/v42i1.1364        [ Links ]

Deloitte. (2014). Tough choices facing South Africa mining industry. Retrieved from http://www.deloitte.com/assets/…southafrica/…/final_mining_tough_choicesLinks ] Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif" size="2">.

Detert, J. R., & Burris, E. R. (2007). Leadership behavior and employee voice: Is the door really open? Academy of Management Journal, 55, 869-884. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2007.26279183        [ Links ]

Dirks, K. T., & Ferrin, D. L. (2002). Trust in leadership: Meta-analytic findings and implications for research and practice. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 611-628. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.87.4.611        [ Links ]

Du Plessis, M., & Boshoff, A. B. (2018). Authentic leadership, followership, and psychological capital as antecedents of work engagement. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 28(1), 26-32. https://doi.org/10.1080/14330237.2018.1438832        [ Links ]

Ebrahim, A. (2017). Authentic leadership, trust and work engagement amongst health care workers (Master's dissertation, North-West University, South Africa). Retrieved from http://repository.nwu.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10394/24948/Ebrahim_AB.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y.         [ Links ]

Edmondson, A. C. (1999). Psychological safety and learning behavior in work teams. Administrative Science Quarterly, 44(2), 350-383. https://doi.org/10.2307/2666999        [ Links ]

Edmondson, A. C., & Lei, Z. (2014). Psychological safety: The history, renaissance, and future of an interpersonal construct. The Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 1, 23-43. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-031413-091305        [ Links ]

Edmondson, A. C., Kramer, R. M., & Cook, K. S. (2004). Psychological safety, trust, and learning in organizations: A group-level lens. Trust and Distrust in Organizations: Dilemmas and Approaches, 12, 239-272.         [ Links ]

Eggers, J. (2011). Psychological safety influences relationship behaviour. Retrieved from http://www.aca.org/research/pdf/researchnotes_fed2011.pdf.         [ Links ]

Ferres, N. (2003). The development and validation of the Workplace Trust Survey (WTS): Combining qualitative and quantitative methodologies. Unpublished master's thesis. University of Newcastle, Australia.         [ Links ]

Gallup. (2012). Gallup poll on homestyle ethics of professional. Retrieved from http://www.gallup.com/poll/1654/honesty-ethics-professions.aspx.         [ Links ]

Gardner, W. L., Avolio, B. J., Luthans, F., May, D. R., & Walumbwa, F. (2005). 'Can you see the real me?' A self-based model of authentic leader and follower development. The Leadership Quarterly, 16, 343-372. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2005.03.003        [ Links ]

George, B., Sims, P., Mclean, A. N., & Mayer, D. (2007). Discovering your authentic leadership. Harvard Business Review, 85, 129-138.         [ Links ]

George, K. (2015). The relationship between psychological ownership, work engagement and happiness Master's dissertation. University of Pretoria, South Africa. Retrieved from https://repository.up.ac.za/bitstream/handle/2263/50907/George_Relationship_2015.pdf;sequence=1.         [ Links ]

Harter, J. K., Schmidt, F. L., & Hayes, T. L. (2002). Business-unit-level relationship between employee satisfaction, employee engagement, and business outcomes: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 268-279. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.87.2.268        [ Links ]^rND^1A01^nRachéle^sPaver^rND^1A01^nSebastiaan^sRothmann^rND^1A01 A02^nAnja^svan den Broeck^rND^1A01 A03^nHans^sde Witte^rND^1A01^nRachéle^sPaver^rND^1A01^nSebastiaan^sRothmann^rND^1A01 A02^nAnja^svan den Broeck^rND^1A01 A03^nHans^sde Witte^rND^1A01^nRachéle^sPaver^rND^1A01^nSebastiaan^sRothmann^rND^1A01 A02^nAnja^svan den Broeck^rND^1A01 A03^nHans^sde Witte

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Labour market interventions to assist the unemployed in two townships in South Africa

 

 

Rachéle Paver^I; Sebastiaan Rothmann^I; Anja van den Broeck^{I, II}; Hans de Witte^{I, III}

^IOptentia Research Focus Area, North-West University, Vanderbijlpark, South Africa
^IIWork and Organization Studies, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
^IIIDepartment of Research Group Work Organisational and Personnel Psychology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium

Correspondence

 

 

---

ABSTRACT

ORIENTATION: Given the absence of organised and accessible information on programmes relating to unemployment in South Africa, it may be difficult for beneficiaries to derive value from existing programmes; and for stakeholders to identify possible gaps in order to direct their initiatives accordingly
RESEARCH PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to conduct a review of existing employment initiatives within two low-income communities in South Africa, with the aim of identifying possible gaps in better addressing the needs of the unemployed
MOTIVATION FOR THE STUDY: Unemployment in South Africa does not appear to be the result of a lack of initiatives or a lack of stakeholder involvement, but rather the result of haphazard implementation of interventions. In order to intervene more effectively, addressing the identified gaps, organising and better distribution of information for beneficiaries is suggested.
RESEARCH APPROACH, DESIGN AND METHOD: The data were collected via documentary research complemented with structured interviews. Relevant documents (N = 166) and participants (N = 610) were consulted during the data collection phase, using convenience and purposive sampling.
MAIN FINDINGS: A total of 496 unemployment programmes were identified. Most of the interventions were implemented by the government. Vocational training followed by enterprise development and business skills training were the most implemented programmes. Less than 6% of programmes contained psychosocial aspects that are necessary to help the unemployed deal with the psychological consequences of unemployment. Finally, in general, benefactors involved in alleviating unemployment seem unaware of employment initiatives in their communities
PRACTICAL AND MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS: The compilation of an inventory of employment programmes may be valuable, as it will assist in identifying the most prominent needs of the South African labour market.
CONTRIBUTION OR VALUE-ADD: This study contributes to scientific knowledge regarding the availability of existing unemployment programmes, projects and interventions, and the need for specific interventions.

Keywords: Interventions; unemployment; government; civil society organisations; private sector; township; Gauteng.

---

 

 

Introduction

Unemployment has a detrimental effect on a nation's success, development and prosperity (Feather, 2018; Klehe & Van Hooft, 2018). In South Africa, several role players have started initiatives to deal with the detrimental effects of unemployment. Solely from a government perspective, 27% (ZAR 1.5 trillion) of the annual gross domestic product (GDP) was spent on but a few of the largest, best-funded employment programmes in 2018 (Ramaphosa, 2018). This amount does not include the cost of any other initiatives implemented by the government or other key stakeholders. Yet, despite the major efforts, expenditure and the considerable impact of these interventions, actions seem inadequate as the issue of unemployment remains unresolved and increasingly concerning.

From a report written by the Independent Evaluation Group, it seems that employment programmes in general are somewhat uncoordinated and functioning in isolation (IEG, 2013). Given the absence of organised and accessible information on programmes relating to employment in South Africa, it may be difficult for stakeholders to identify possible gaps in order to direct their initiatives accordingly (National Treasury, 2011). Likewise, beneficiaries may also be unaware of (and may have limited access to) the available resources (Dieltiens, 2015a). Therefore, the problem with employment initiatives in South Africa does not appear to be a lack of initiatives or a lack of stakeholder involvement but rather the haphazard implementation of interventions. As a result, valuable time and money are invested, without a clear indication of the impact thereof (Cloete & De Coning, 2011).

The aim of this study was to identify existing interventions aimed at helping the unemployed in South Africa. A meaningful way to approach the task at hand is to determine the 'who' and 'what' regarding unemployment initiatives by studying current literature and available documentation. Relevant interventions will be clustered according to the involved role players ('who') and the types of programmes that have been implemented within the selected communities ('what'; based on the aim of the intervention).

To date, some inventories of employment initiatives in South Africa have been published (see Centre for Development and Enterprise [CDE], 2008a; Development Bank of Southern Africa [DBSA], 2011; Economic of Regions Learning Network [ERLN], 2015; Graham et al., 2016; International Labour Organisation [ILO], 2012). However, some limitations should be noted. South Africa has undergone substantial economic and social change in the last couple of years. Therefore, reports older than 5 years may be considered obsolete. Furthermore, these reports mainly focus on large-scale interventions, whereas many employability programmes also operate on a smaller scale (Dieltiens, 2015b). Such smaller-scale programmes often deliver more hands-on services, such as providing information about jobs and looking and applying for jobs.

Another noteworthy observation from the above-mentioned documents is that employability programmes are mostly driven from an economic perspective, neglecting the psychosocial aspects of being unemployed (Patel, Noyoo, & Loffell, 2004; Van den Hof, 2015). People generally take up work not only to be compensated (also referred to as a manifest function of employment; Jahoda, 1982) but also to benefit from other latent functions (time structure, social contact, common goals, status or identity and enforced activity) while being employed (Jahoda, 1982). Consequently, when people are (or become) unemployed, it leads to deprivation of both functions, which has been found to negatively impact one's psychological well-being (Jahoda, 1982). By applying interventions that solely focus on easing financial hardship, the psychological aspects, which may contribute to making unemployment bearable, are deliberately left out of the equation, which may result in the unemployed remaining in a state of joblessness.

In general, research regarding programmes aimed at alleviating unemployment within the low-income communities is limited. Identifying existing employment interventions may not only be valuable in recognising the most prominent needs in the labour market but also to promote more focussed action, and make an important contribution to rethink and redesign strategies in addressing employment encounters in South Africa. Based on the above statement of the research problem, the main aim of this study was to make an inventory of employment interventions in two South African townships. The specific objectives were:

• to determine the primary stakeholders involved in addressing unemployment in the involved communities

• to develop a framework to classify active labour market programmes

• to identify labour market programmes in Orange Farm and Emfuleni, implemented by included stakeholders, according to the framework, as a means of relieving unemployment; and

• to make recommendations for future research and practice.

 

Role players

Intervening to promote employment is regarded as a major challenge (IEG, 2013). Consequently, different role players execute initiatives. Organisations such as trade unions, banks, economic development agencies, universities and research entities have been found to be involved in addressing the issue of unemployment. While all the role players make valuable contributions, reports documenting labour market interventions consider the main role players to be the government, civil society organisations (CSOs - including international development organisations) and the private sector (CDE, 2008a; IEG, 2013; Mayer et al., 2011; National Treasury, 2011). Therefore, we elaborate on these role players next.

South African government

Definition: Government is described as the people who have the authority to govern a country (Oxford Dictionary, 2017). Form: The South African government consists of three spheres, namely, national, provincial and municipal (local), as well as state-owned enterprises (SOE; Republic of South Africa, 1996). Regulated by: According to South Africa's latest macro policy, the New Growth Path, it aims to develop effective strategies to reduce poverty, inequality and unemployment, by means of making job creation the focal point of the policy. The government aims to create a million jobs by involving role players such as the private sector and trade unions (National Treasury, 2011). Contribution to unemployment: As a means of achieving the desired goals, the national government has implemented several job creation programmes, such as the Expanded Public Works Programme (EPWP; Department of Public Works, 2009), the Community Work Programme (CWP) (Department of Cooperative Governance, 2011) and the Jobs Fund (CDE, 2016). Concurrent with the national policies and initiatives, both provincial and municipal governments have implemented numerous programmes and centres providing services such as skills training and entrepreneurship development, job placement services, career guidance and workplace readiness services. During the literature review, Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) were also identified as a role player. As both Orange Farm and Boipatong are located close to five relatively large institutions, who are all actively involved in community projects, HEIs seemed important to consider. Higher Education Institutions are classified as a SOE, and were therefore included as government initiatives.

Civil society organisations

Definition: Civil society organisations can be defined as non-government organisations mainly established to help vulnerable interest groups (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development [OECD] and United Nations Development Programme [UNDP], 2014). Form: CSOs come in various forms, such as non-governmental organisations (NGOs), community-based organisations (CBOs) and faith-based organisations (FBOs). Because of the similar humanitarian nature, International Development Organisations have also been classified under this category. Regulated by: Although somewhat regulated by codes, such as the Non-Profit Organisations Act of 1997 (Non-Profit Organisations Act, 1997), these acts are unrelated to and have no impact on the purpose of CSOs' existence. Therefore, because of the voluntary, humanitarian nature of CSOs and international development organisations, they are under no obligation to perform certain duties. Contribution to unemployment: CSOs invest a great deal in the development of communities, which often include services for the unemployed, such as job training programmes, vocational rehabilitation, vocational counselling and guidance (Chitiga-Mabugu et al., 2013). Similar to CSOs, the purpose of international development organisations is to provide support to developing countries, by means of financial aid, usually aimed at human development, sustainability and alleviating poverty in the long term (Venter, 2015).

Private sector

Definition: The private sector refers to that part of an economy that is not ruled or owned by the government (Merriam-Webster, 2017). Form: The private sector comprises the Small, Medium and Micro Enterprise sector (SMMEs) and larger corporate enterprises. Regulated by: Labour market legislation such as the Employment Equity Act and the rise of Broad-Based Black Economic Empowerment regulations, although initiated by the government, may impact private sector involvement. Furthermore, organisations may also become involved in community projects for the sake of their Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) reputation. However, according to the South African Companies Act, South African organisations do not have a legal obligation to engage in CSR projects (South African Companies Act, 61 of 1973). Contribution to unemployment: There are various ways in which the private sector can contribute to the plight of unemployment. Firstly, it contributes funds for skills development and workplace training through the Skills Development Levy (Skills Development Act, 1998). Secondly, it employs workers and claims a tax allowance through recognised learnership and apprenticeship programmes (Levinsohn, Rankin, Roberts, & Schöer, 2014). These initiatives are essentially government initiatives; therefore, except for their involvement in these government initiatives and the odd CSR project, the private sector's participation in unemployment initiatives seems minimal and heavily underutilised (ILO, 2012).

 

Development of labour market intervention framework

There are different ways of categorising employment interventions. One of the objectives of the current study was to create a framework according to which the different types of employment interventions can be categorised.

Much of the available literature on labour market programmes distinguishes between 'active' and 'passive' labour market policies (see Kluve et al., 2016). Passive labour market policies are described by the ILO as generosity policies that replace labour income (ILO, 2010). Unlike other countries that offer unemployment grants, South Africa only has one such policy, the Unemployment Insurance Fund (UIF), which provides temporary relief to those who are financially distressed owing to losing their job (Bhorat, Goga, & Tseng, 2013). Whereas active labour market policies are strategies that emphasise labour market (re)integration, these policies focus on reducing unemployment by creating and improving employment opportunities and increasing the employability of the unemployed (National Treasury, 2011).

Furthermore, active labour market policies are often subdivided into labour 'demand' and 'supply' side. Demand-side initiatives are crucial in influencing economic growth, as they are primarily designed to create decent jobs and to incentivise the private sector by means of subsidies to create employment and training opportunities for the unemployed who are also inexperienced. It generally lies within the governments' responsibilities to manage and implement such macroeconomic policies (Altman & Potgieter-Gqubule, 2009; Ernst & Berg, 2009). The South African government has implemented a few programmes (e.g. EPWP, National Treasury's Jobs Fund and the youth wage subsidies) to serve as demand-side policy measures (Altman & Potgieter-Gqubule, 2009). Given the fact that South Africa has only one passive labour market policy, and limited demand-side interventions, covering only a narrow scope of this study, it was omitted from the study. Most government interventions have been directed at the supply side (initiatives promoting and enhancing the employability of the unemployed; Levinsohn et al., 2014). Therefore, the emphasis of the study was mainly on active labour market policies focussing on supply-side interventions.

Quite a number of studies have been conducted as a means of compiling a comprehensive list of supply-side employment interventions (Betcherman, Godfrey, Puerto, Rother, & Stavreska, 2007; Bertrand et al., 2013; Burchell, Coutts, Hall, & Pye, 2015; Cho & Honorati, 2014; Cunningham, Sanchez-Puerta, & Wuermli, 2010; Dar & Tzannatos, 1999; Kluve, 2014; Kluve et al., 2014, 2016). However, within the South African context, these inventories are somewhat more limited (see CDE, 2008a; Development Bank of Southern Africa, 2011; Economic of Regions Learning Network, 2015; ILO, 2012). Based on both national and international literature, broad corresponding themes were identified. In most studies, three broad themes were noted: skills development programmes, business development opportunities and a variety of employment services.

According to the Economic of Regions Learning Network (2015), education and vocational training are crucial requirements to facilitate entry into employment (ERLN, 2015). Because many young people drop out of mainstream education, finding employment may be especially challenging (ERLN, 2015). One approach to enhancing their employability may be programmes that focus on education (Kluve et al., 2014). These programmes can be divided into formal and informal programmes. Generally, formal programme opportunities are offered to gain a formal education (also referred to as 'second-chance programmes'), whereas informal programmes are designed to teach basic skills and/or cognitive abilities, specifically for school dropouts (e.g. literacy and numeracy programme; Betcherman et al., 2007; Dar & Tzannatos, 1999; Development Bank of Southern Africa, 2011; ILO, 2011). Another approach linking with education seems to be vocational training programmes. These programmes are generally aimed at equipping the unemployed with the necessary trade- or job-specific vocational skills and/or practical work (e.g. internships, on-the-job training, and apprenticeships; Kluve et al., 2014). The first broad category was therefore identified as education and expertise development, comprising education and vocational training.

Another much required skill, particularly within the South African context, where job opportunities are limited, is entrepreneurship (CDE, 2008a). Entrepreneurship programmes cover a broad variety of skills aimed at empowering the unemployed to successfully establish and manage their own businesses (Kluve et al., 2014). These skills range from basic training on enterprise development (business plan writing and development) to business skills development (such as basic finance, marketing, sales and management programmes; Puerto, 2007). Programmes focussing on enterprise development may include financial support services (such as start-up loans or information regarding finance opportunities), mentoring and consultation services from experienced entrepreneurs. The second broad category was identified as entrepreneurship and enterprise development and consists of enterprise development, business skills training, financing and mentoring programmes.

Lastly, it seems that certain non-cognitive skills are required to deal with the challenges of the modern labour market. Although these skills are increasingly demanded by employers, it is surprising that some inventories overlook programmes that are not strictly focussed on labour market activities (lessening economic hardship; see CDE, 2008a; Cho & Honorati, 2014; Dar & Tzannatos, 1999; Economic of Regions Learning Network, 2015; Godfrey, 2003; Grimm, 2016; Grimm & Paffhausen, 2014; Holden, 2013; IEG, 2013; ILO, 2012). Fortunately, other inventories regard initiatives aimed at increasing participants' non-cognitive skills, such as soft skills, life skills and behavioural skills, as important aspects for gaining employment (see Bertrand et al., 2013; Cunningham et al., 2010; Economic of Regions Learning Network, 2015; Goldin, Hobson, Glick, Lundberg, & Puerto, 2015; Kluve, Lehmann, & Schmidt, 2008; Kluve et al., 2014, 2016; Mayer et al., 2011; Puerto, 2007). A distinction is often made between services aimed at preparing the unemployed for the workplace, helping them to look for a job and teaching them necessary, non-technical, soft skills (e.g. interpersonal, time management and problem-solving skills). The last category was therefore labelled employment services and consists of workplace readiness, job-search assistance and soft skills development programmes.

Based on the combination of the different classifications of vocational interventions, a meaningful way to classify these employment programmes is summarised below:

 

Research design

Research approach

A systematic review methodology consisting of documentary research was used to collect the data for this article. Documentary methods in social research involve the systematic collection of data about a particular social phenomenon for the purpose of finding and/or understanding patterns and regularities in it (Nieuwenhuis, 2010). Furthermore, documentary research is described as a technique used to identify, classify, investigate and interpret written documents (Payne & Payne, 2004). Sources of documentary research include academic articles, official reports, governmental records, newspapers and other unpublished documents. In cases where limited information was available, structured interviews were conducted with individuals from the identified government departments, CSOs and private sector organisations, which were used to complement information found in the documentary search.

Research method

Research setting

Behaviour such as lack of motivation, withdrawal from the labour market and discouraged behaviour resulting from high unemployment rates is common in South African, particularly in townships (Van der Vaart, De Witte, Van den Broeck, & Rothmann, 2018). However, two townships in the Gauteng Province are particularly well known for their high unemployment rates and lack of resources. The first township, Orange Farm, falls within the municipal area of the City of Johannesburg. The community has a population of 76 767 people, of which approximately 40% are unemployed (Stats SA, 2012). Because South African metros (such as the City of Johannesburg) dominate economic activities and job creation (CDE, 2008a), the unemployed are gradually moving to these areas. Although it may be true that job creation efforts are easier to implement and have a better chance of success in metropolitan areas, the increase in people relocating there makes addressing unemployment an increasingly daunting task. In contrast, the second township, Emfuleni, has a population of 721 663 people, and is located in a non-metropolitan municipality (Stats SA, 2012). It is one of the three local municipalities constituting the Sedibeng district and has the highest unemployment rate of the three (34.7%; Stats SA, 2016). Although Emfuleni is largely urbanised, is strategically located and has a lot of potential for economic development, non-metropolitan areas are often greatly neglected. Labour market interventions should therefore be aimed at accommodating the needs of these communities and should regard them as equally important.

Data collection method

Based on the preliminary identified role players and framework developed from the literature review, an additional search was conducted to further identify employment programmes that exist in the particular communities. The search was executed by collecting and studying strategic documents (annual reports, development plans, budget reports and policy documents) from government departments, international development organisations and the private sector. Where insufficient information was available from the documents, the involved departments/entities/organisations were contacted (via telephone and email) to make appointments to conduct structured interviews, as a means of gaining more information regarding the programmes. In total, 467 calls were made, the majority to CSOs, followed by the government. In addition, a total of 426 emails were sent, with a general response rate of 27.7%, with the lowest from CSOs (22.6%).

Because of the nature of CSOs, specifically regarding their limited access to the internet, and availability of information on the internet, a somewhat different approach was used to collect data. A list with of all the registered CSOs was requested from the National Department of Social Development in South Africa. Inclusion was based on the CSO's objective; the aim of the CSO had to be focussed on services aimed at assisting the unemployed (e.g. youth services, adult education, employment and training services). Examples of categories that were excluded are: Services to animals, children, the disabled and the elderly, and HIV prevention and education and housing services - these CSOs were removed from the list. The remaining (n = 389) CSOs were contacted to schedule a meeting with the founder of the CSO. Of these, 62.9% were unreachable (called three times, no answer; no contact details; number did not exist; phone was switched off; wrong number). Another 17.7% of the programmes had indicated in documentation that they focussed on activities related to employment, but when asked about the aim of the programme, it appeared to be different than stated. Of those who could be reached, 4.6% indicated that they were not in practice anymore, or had not yet been established, owing to financial constraints. Finally, of the initial 389 CSOs, only 26 (6.7%) CSO founders were interviewed. The interview questions used in structured interviews are available in Appendix 1.

Identified programmes had to adhere to the following inclusion criteria:

• They must have an eligible outcome variable specifically focussed on the unemployed.

• They must be implemented by the South African government (national, provincial, municipal or SOEs), CSOs or the private sector.

• They must be based in one of the identified regions; if not, they should apply to the unemployed in the regions (i.e. national incentive schemes).

Documents dated within the past 10 years that could be relevant to the study were obtained by searching general academic databases, as well as specialised databases. Academic databases included the Academic Search Premier, Business Source Premier, EbscoHost, Emerald Insight, Google Books, Google Scholar, JSTOR, ProQuest, PsycInfo, Sabinet, SACat, SAePublications, Science Direct, Scopus and Web of Science Government website. Specialised databases included Parliamentary Monitoring Group (PMG), Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab (J-PAL) Evaluation and Publication Database, African Development Bank, Campbell Collaboration, Chamber of Commerce, Cooperative Governance and Traditional Affairs (COGTA), Development Bank of Southern Africa, Innovations for Poverty Action (IPA), ILO, Local Economic Development, Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), South African Department of International Relations and Cooperation (DIRCO), Development Cooperation Management and Information System (DCMIS), South African Department of Social Development database of non-profit organisations (NPOs), South African Local Government Association (SALGA), South African Regional Poverty Network, Statistics South Africa (Stats SA), World Bank Poverty Impact Evaluations and the Youth Employment Inventory (YEI).

Key terms that were used to obtain academic literature and non-academic document searches included employment interventions, unemployment, employability programmes, labour market initiatives, active labour market programmes/policies, passive labour market programmes/policies, youth interventions, employment inventory, directory, government programmes, national government, parastatals, state-owned entities, government departments, Sector Education Training Authority (SETA), provincial government, provincial programmes, provincial departments, provincial-owned entities, municipal government, municipal programmes, municipal departments, municipal-owned entities, NPOs, NGOs, FBOs, CBOs, private sector, international development organisations, skills development programmes, vocational training, life skills, education programmes, adult-learning, entrepreneurship, enterprise development, bursary, financial assistance, community programmes, CSR, economic development strategy, integrated development plan, annual report, budget, growth and development strategy, policy, Emfuleni, Orange Farm, City of Johannesburg and South Africa.

Strategies employed to ensure data quality and integrity

After the role players were identified and the classification framework was developed, a list of people knowledgeable about employment programmes in the two communities and nearby areas were contacted. Informal interviews were held with identified experts. The purpose of the interviews was to get participants' input regarding the identified stakeholders and developed framework. After these interviews were conducted, the role players and the framework were finalised.

Furthermore, to ensure that data are accurately and reliably presented, an additional reviewer was consulted to assist with validating the data. After the framework was developed, the identified programmes had to be categorised according to the framework. In cases of uncertainty regarding the inclusion or categorisation of the selected programmes, deliberations were held and the different viewpoints were considered as a means of deciding. One researcher captured the data to ensure consistency. The collected data were reassessed by the additional reviewer.

Data recording

The development of the role player and categorisation frameworks were documented and continuously changed, until the final versions were decided on. Minutes of informal interviewers held with experts were kept and referred to during the development of the frameworks. All documents pertaining to employment programmes that were accessed throughout the data collection phase were kept and documented in an excel sheet. Additional information gained from structured interviews were added to the excel sheet.

Data analysis

Possible stakeholders were identified using an inductive approach, whereas a deductive approach was used to develop the labour market intervention framework. Themes (demand and supply side) and subthemes (category of intervention) were identified, which were used to conduct a thematic analysis. Thematic analysis was applied as a means of identifying, analysing and reporting on themes within data (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Existing programmes implemented by selected stakeholders in the selected regions were categorised according to the relevant category within the developed framework.

Reporting style

The aim of the study is to present a comprehensive picture of the current employment initiatives in Orange Farm and Emfuleni. Findings were reported according to the identified role players and the developed framework. Such a presentation of the findings may enable the researcher to identify possible gaps in literature and in practice.

Research participants and sampling methods

A combination of purposive and convenience sampling was utilised to identify and include interventions. Purposive sampling seemed applicable as documents were selected based on specific previously mentioned inclusion criteria. Furthermore, the researcher also held interviews and included interventions based on the access and availability of documentation and participants (Struwig, Struwig, & Stead, 2001). A total of 610 participants and 166 documents were consulted in this study; characteristics are shown in Table 1.

 

 

Most of the participants contacted to obtain data were from the CSOs (66.9%), followed by the government (27.2%). Participants were contacted mainly via email and telephone. In some cases, unsolicited visits (where no prior contact was made with participants) were used to get hold of them. Not all participants' responses led to findings. Where limited information was gained from documents, structured interviews were conducted. Documents from CSOs (31.9%) yielded the most information, followed by the national government (21.1%).

 

Ethical consideration

Prior to conducting the interviews, permission was obtained from the Basic and Social Science Research Ethics Committee (BaSSREC) at the North-West University.

 

Results

In total, 496 unemployment programmes were identified. It should be noted that the number of participants contacted and documents viewed does not necessarily reflect the number or distribution of the included employment interventions. In Table 2, the selected employment interventions, as implemented by the various stakeholders, as well as the distribution among the different types of programmes, are presented.

 

 

Figure 1 shows that a total of 496 interventions were ultimately included in the study. To gain a better understanding of the results, it is important to take into account that each of the included interventions consists of various components. For that reason, the 'number of interventions' column refers to the number of programmes implemented by each stakeholder, whereas the 'number of components' column refers to the total number of components the included programmes consist of. The percentages provided in the shaded columns indicate the distribution of the components across the different role players and the various intervention categories. Different shades are used to indicate the frequency of the number of components.

Referring to the number of interventions implemented per role player, it is evident that the majority of the programmes were implemented by the national government (36.9%), followed by the municipal government (23.0%). A noteworthy finding may be that 86.3% of the interventions are implemented by the government (national, provincial, municipal and state-owned entities), compared to 11.1% by CSOs and 2.6% by the private sector.

A closer look at the distribution of the components that the interventions consist of reveals that 43.8% of components are directed towards enterprise and entrepreneurship development, followed by 36.9% aimed at education and expertise development, with only 19.3% focussed on employment services. In line with these findings, the subcategories yielded results showing that interventions consist mostly of vocational training (31.7%), followed by (to a lesser extent) enterprise development (17.1%) and business skills training (16.9%) components. However, significantly fewer components (5.0%) concentrate on soft skills development.

A further investigation of the subcategories has shown that within the education and enterprise development category, a major difference exists between the number of components aimed at education (5.2%) and vocational training (31.7%). It also seems that the subcategories enterprise development (17.1%) and business skills training (16.9%) are almost equally represented in the entrepreneurship and enterprise development category. However, quite a large difference is evident when compared to financial support (3.6%) and mentoring services (6.2%). Lastly, no major differences between the employment services subcategories are evident; however, it is again evident that the soft skills component is the least focussed on (5.0%), compared to workplace readiness (7.8%) and job-search assistance (6.5%).

It is apparent from the shaded columns that the focus of all three government spheres - national, provincial and municipal - seems to be on vocational training (11.7%, 5.1% and 3.6%, respectively), followed by enterprise development (4.2%, 3.4% and 2.4%, respectively) and business skills development (3.7%, 3.2% and 1.9%, respectively). In contrast, only 2% of components of government interventions, combined, are directed at soft skills development, and even less (1.3%) on education. State-owned enterprises in general have similar findings to the other government bodies; however, skills development and business skills training are equally focussed on (6.6%), followed by enterprise development (6.0%). It is, however, evident that SOEs, compared to other government spheres, place considerably more emphasis on education (3.2%).

Finally, as the shaded columns give an indication of the overall distribution of the components, it seems that the employment services components of the programmes implemented by CSOs are relatively equally distributed compared to other stakeholders. This finding has led to further exploration, which yielded some interesting findings. When comparing the distribution workplace readiness, job-search assistance and soft skills development components, CSOs focus considerably more on these services (10.5%, 13.2% and 14.0%, respectively) compared to national government (6.1%, 3.1% and 2.0%, respectively) and municipal government (12.3%, 7.4% and 5.7%, respectively). If the same comparison is done with the private sector's focus on vocational training, it is indicated that 40.9% of the components of the private sector's programmes focus on skills development, compared to the national (31.3%) and provincial (30.3%) governments.

 

Discussion

Outline of the results

The main aim of this article was to identify labour market programmes in Orange Farm and Emfuleni, implemented by selected role players, according to the developed framework (Table 1). Three broad categories were identified as education and expertise development, entrepreneurship and enterprise development, and employment services. Based on the identified role players and categories of labour market interventions used in the framework, a total of 496 interventions, located in Orange Farm and Emfuleni, were included in the study.

The first noteworthy finding, specifically regarding the role players' involvement in implementing unemployment interventions, is that 86.3% of the interventions were implemented by the government (national, provincial, municipal and SOEs combined). This finding should come as no surprise as the National Development Plan clearly states that employment is a key priority to all government departments (National Planning Commission, 2011). Despite these efforts, South Africa is still burdened with a high level of unemployment. Such an elevated unemployment rate may indicate that although the majority of programmes are initiated and implemented by government, the problem does not necessarily lie in a shortage of good policies and strategies but rather the lack of proper execution (Zagotta & Robinson, 2002). Consequently, owing to the lack of an execution plan from higher levels, uncertainty may be caused for other role players (including lower government spheres) regarding their roles and responsibilities in this undertaking. Not only are role players unaware of endeavours by other role players but they are also uninformed of programmes initiated by their own departments.

Civil society organisations are constantly faced with obstacles such as insufficient funding and the lack of necessary resources and proper systems coordinating funding and ensuring effectiveness. Despite these challenges, the results show that CSOs, in relation to other role players, are considerably more involved in providing employment services to the unemployed in the communities. Therefore, given the nature of CSOs, it is a remarkable finding that they are responsible for executing 11.1% of all the employment programmes. This involvement may be because it seems like a less expensive approach to have some, albeit limited, impact, or because of their first-hand experience in understanding the needs of the unemployed in the community. Regardless of the motive, the reality is that despite CSOs' hands-on approach in the communities, less attention is given to smaller-scale programmes, and the desired impact of their efforts seems limited.

In contrast to the government, only 2.6% of interventions were implemented by the private sector. These results are supported by a study conducted in 2011 by the International Development Organisation, in which it was found that the private sector seems uninvolved in employment initiatives (ILO, 2012). Although it was found that some organisations are involved in community programmes, these programmes were generally aimed at scholars, and limited to larger corporate organisations. It therefore seems that CSR is considered a prerogative of corporate organisations, simply because smaller businesses may not be able to afford such expenses (Perrini, Russo, & Tencati, 2007). In addition, the global economic collapse in 2008 has caused devastating job losses in the private sector. Thus, many organisations are forced to implement cost-cutting initiatives, causing the limited CSR initiatives to either be scaled down, or stopped. Because of the lack of devotion from the private sector, the benefits that may be reaped by the labour market, and ultimately by the unemployed, seem limited (ILO, 2012).

To have a sustainable impact on unemployment, the role players should ideally collaborate. Notwithstanding the efforts of the government in driving current initiatives to address South Africa's unemployment crisis, there seems to be a lack of guidance from higher spheres of government to engage more with the CSOs, private sector and other government departments. Because of a lack of coordination, efforts and investments seem to be scattered, resulting in the failure to achieve the anticipated outcomes.

When exploring the content of programmes, the current study showed that interventions are mainly driven from an economic perspective. The results show that role players focus their time and money mainly on programmes that provide resources and that equip the unemployed with entrepreneurial and business development skills (43.8%), education and expertise development (36.9%), compared to only 19.6% on employment services.

Results indicating that entrepreneurship and enterprise development are accentuated are fortunate. However, in a country such as South Africa, it is quite understandable. Considering the shortage of job opportunities, it is crucial for people to create self-employment opportunities (Cho & Honorati, 2014), hence the strong emphasis on providing the unemployed with these types of resources (DBSA, 2011). Although financial support contributes only to 3.3% of the components, various other resources, such as developing business plans, business management skills training and consultation services, are put in place to help the unemployed develop and maintain stable enterprises. It is, however, unfortunate that the success of these initiatives may once again be put into jeopardy owing to a lack of information or a lack of dissemination of the information.

In a similar vein, this study proposes a prominent focus on the education and expertise development category (36.9%) in the included programmes. More specifically, from the vocational training subcategory, it was found that 31.7% of programmes have a component aimed at providing the unemployed with the required skills and preparing them for the workplace. Similar findings suggesting that approximately one-third of labour market programmes are aimed at skills development, are not uncommon (see CDE, 2008b; ILO, 2012; Kluve et al., 2014). Therefore, on the one hand, these results are expected. On the other hand, perhaps a less anticipated finding is the much-neglected focus on educational attainment for school dropouts (5.2%). Given the youth unemployment problem in South Africa (see Economic of Regions Learning Network, 2015; ILO, 2011), it is alarming how little is done to reintegrate these people into the system. This evidence suggests a lack of awareness and a lack of a sense of urgency of the severity of the unemployment matter (DBSA, 2011).

From the literature, it is evident that employment services are often neglected in labour market interventions (Bertrand et al., 2013; Kluve, 2014). In this study, it was found that 19.6% of elements of programmes comprise either workplace readiness, job-search assistance and/or soft skills development. A hindsight discovery is that many of these programmes (particularly those implemented by the CSOs) mainly consist of providing the unemployed with basic life skills, such as youth recreation, HIV and family reproduction services, with few programmes focussing on employment services. Although it was known from the outset that, compared to expertise and entrepreneurship development, employment services are a neglected component in labour market inventions, finding that even less than 19.6% truly contribute to providing these services is a concern.

In a study conducted by Van der Vaart et al. (2018), it was found that 68% of unemployed people in the sample were classified as either 'desperate' or 'discouraged', indicating that they felt unmotivated and hopeless. Granting the impact of all the previously mentioned programmes, when considering the consequences of being unemployed, programmes focussing on skills such as being resilient, effective coping mechanisms and problem-solving seem crucial in helping the jobless deal with unemployment. In an experimental study conducted by Campos et al. (2017), microenterprise owners (N = 1500) were assigned to either a business or personal initiative training programme or a control group. Participants assigned to the personal initiative training programme managed to increase their firm's profits by 30% over a 2-year span, compared to 11% achieved by their counterparts (Campos et al., 2017). As suggested by the current study, it seems that the absence of psychosocial-driven programmes may be a much-neglected approach to solving unemployment (Patel et al., 2004).

Finally, some informative qualitative findings are worth mentioning to enhance our understanding of the context of the unemployed, particularly in Orange Farm and Emfuleni. The most time-consuming tasks of this study were to find documents containing relevant information, and to get hold of available stakeholders who are knowledgeable about the topic. Firstly, in the process of searching for relevant documents, it was evident that information regarding programmes was not readily accessible. It was challenging to find this information online, in hard copy or in correspondence with stakeholders, as responses to enquiries about information regarding employment programmes and government expenditure on these programmes indicated that not much information was available. Secondly, getting hold of stakeholders was a major barrier in the study. The average response rate, calculating all stakeholders and different approaches used to make contact, was less than 30%, and the majority could not provide any relevant information.

Findings also suggest that, in most cases, stakeholders themselves had limited knowledge of employment programmes, indicating that, even for them, information is not widely distributed. Role players' inability to provide this information is particularly concerning, as the mere purpose of their programmes is to assist those who need this information most. In order to conduct this research, ample resources (phone lines, vehicle, unlimited internet, research funding and a research assistant who was familiar with these communities) were available, and yet it was a daunting task. Considering the severe lack of resources and the circumstances of the unemployed, an obstacle such as the absence of information makes an already challenging undertaking nearly impossible. Although substantial efforts to implement employment programmes cannot be doubted, without proper documentation and dissemination of information to stakeholders and beneficiaries, achieving the desired effects will remain difficult.

Limitations and recommendations for future research

The first limitation, and perhaps the most important, is that although the present study aimed to provide a comprehensive, broad representation of employment programmes in two communities, the list is not exhaustive. Relevant information was often unavailable, which automatically excluded some programmes.

Likewise, another limitation may be that the study was conducted only in two geographical areas in the Gauteng Province. As a result, findings cannot be generalised to other South African communities. The selected role players were limited to the government, CSOs and the private sector. These results may not be applicable to other organisations such as trade unions, banks, economic development agencies, universities and research entities. Given that a meaningful way to solve unemployment is an integrated, multi-sectoral, and multi-stakeholder approach, it is unfortunate that the study did not include other role players. It is therefore suggested that future studies broaden the scope and include a wider variety of role players.

In a similar vein, convenience sampling was used to collect data. Consequently, participants and documents included were based on their availability. Owing to the lack of response from participants and the unavailability of documents, collecting relevant and necessary information was quite a challenging endeavour. Because a response rate of less than 30% was obtained (although supplemented with documentation), an accurate reflection of what was intended to be reviewed may not have been achieved. Findings may, as a result, give a false representation of employment interventions, as well as role player involvement, again impacting on the generalisability of the results.

Information regarding evaluations and cost-effectiveness of programmes was exceptionally difficult to access. Therefore, some interesting avenues that future research could consider may be to explore evaluation approaches of the employment programmes. Information regarding the number of programmes that implement evaluative measures, the financial costs involved in implementing the programme and the impact of the programme may lead to some valuable findings in the effectiveness and success of employment interventions.

In conclusion, the findings provide evidence that the intended objectives of the study have been achieved. Even though some limitations have been identified, the outcomes of this study hold practical implications for role players involved in addressing unemployment, and for future studies.

 

Conclusion

Although many programmes exist to assist the unemployed, these programmes are uncoordinated. Consequently, neither the involved role players nor beneficiaries are aware of the numerous available programmes. The compilation of an inventory of employment programmes may be valuable as it will assist in identifying the most prominent needs to the South African labour market (for the role players). Once the employment constraints have been recognised, interventions to assist the desired population to overcome those barriers can be identified and implemented (Cunningham et al., 2010). Such a comprehensive document not only promotes concerted action but also encourages and empowers stakeholders and possible policymakers to learn from one another, make informed decisions regarding further initiatives and reform misaligned strategies. As a means of addressing this gap, this article explored existing unemployment programmes, projects and interventions implemented in two Gauteng Province townships: Orange Farm and Emfuleni.

It was clear that there is a lack of programmes focussed on the psycosocial aspects of being unemployed. Finally, the findings suggest a lack of not only cooperation between role players but also communication and structures providing resources and information to the supposed beneficiaries, the unemployed. It seems that efforts need to be directed to creating systems where role players, and the unemployed, can be informed of the existing programmes.

 

Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful for the support of the Flemish Interuniversity Council, University Development Cooperation (VLIR-UOS), for awarding funding that enabled the research, authorship and publication of this article.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships which may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

Author's contributions

R.P. wrote the literature review and interpreted the results. S.R., H.d.W. and A.v.d.B. guided and edited the manuscript.

 

References

Altman, M., & Potgieter-Gqubule, F. (2009). The state of youth: Labour market status and policy challenges. Pretoria: Centre for Poverty, Employment and Growth, Human Sciences Research Council.         [ Links ]

Bertrand, M., Crépon, B., Chuan, A., Haget, R., Mahoney, M., Murphy, D., & Takavarasha, K. (2013). J-PAL youth initiative review paper. Cambridge, MA: Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab.         [ Links ]

Betcherman, G., Godfrey, M., Puerto, S., Rother, F., & Stavreska, A. (2007). A review of interventions to support young workers: Findings of the youth employment inventory (Social Protection Discussion Paper, 715). Washington, DC: World Bank Publications.         [ Links ]

Bhorat, H., Goga, S., & Tseng, D. (2013). Unemployment Insurance in South Africa: A descriptive overview of claimants and claims (Working Paper No. 8). Washington, DC: Africa Growth Initiative, Brookings Institution.         [ Links ]

Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77-101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa        [ Links ]

Burchell, B., Coutts, A., Hall, E., & Pye, N. (2015). Self-employment programmes for young people: A review of the context, policies and evidence (Working Paper No. 198). Geneva: International Labour Organization.         [ Links ]

Campos, F., Frese, M., Goldstein, M., Iacovone, L., Johnson, H. C., McKenzie, D., & Mensmann, M. (2017). Teaching personal initiative beats traditional training in boosting small business in West Africa. Science, 357(6357), 1287-1290. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aan5329        [ Links ]

Centre for Development and Enterprise (CDE). (2008b). Immigrants in Johannesburg: Estimating numbers and assessing impacts. Johannesburg: Centre for Development and Enterprise.         [ Links ]

Centre for Development and Enterprise (CDE). (2008a). South Africa's 'Door Knockers': Young people and unemployment in metropolitan South Africa. Johannesburg: Centre for Development and Enterprise.         [ Links ]

Centre for Development and Enterprise (CDE). (2016). Youth unemployment: An agenda for action. Johannesburg: Centre for Development and Enterprise.         [ Links ]

Chitiga-Mabugu, M., Nhemachena, C., Karuaihe, S., Motala, S., Tsoanamatsie, N., & Mashile, L. (2013). Civil society participation in income generating activities in South Africa. Johannesburg: National Development Agency.         [ Links ]

Cho, Y., & Honorati, M. (2014). Entrepreneurship programs in developing countries: A meta- regression analysis. Labour Economics, 28, 110-130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2014.03.011        [ Links ]

Cloete, F., & De Coning, C. (2011). Improving public policy. Pretoria: Van Schaik.         [ Links ]

Cunningham, W., Sanchez-Puerta, M. L., & Wuermli, A. (2010). Active labor market programs: A framework to guide youth employment interventions (World Bank Employment Policy Primer, 7). Washington, DC: World Bank Publications.         [ Links ]

Dar, A., & Tzannatos, Z. (1999). Active labor market programs: A review of the evidence from evaluations. (Discussion Paper No. 9901). Washington, DC: World Bank Publications.         [ Links ]

Department of Cooperative Governance. (2011). Communities at work: Community work programme 2010/2011. Tshwane: TIPS (Trade and Industrial Policy Strategies).         [ Links ]

Department of Public Works. (2009). Expanded public works programme five-year report 2004/05-2008/09: Reaching the one million target. Tshwane: Department of Public Works.         [ Links ]

Development Bank of Southern Africa (DBSA). (2011). Youth employment strategies for South Africa: Development conversations. Johannesburg: Development Planning Division Development Bank of Southern Africa.         [ Links ]

Dieltiens, V. (2015b). A foot in the door: Are NGOs effective as workplace intermediaries in the youth labour market? Retrieved from http://www.econ3x3.org/article/foot-door-are-ngos-effective-workplace-intermediaries-youth-labour-market.         [ Links ]

Dieltiens, V. (2015a). A foot in the door: NGOs as workplace intermediaries in the South African youth labour market (Working Paper No. 11). Cape Town: REDI3x3.         [ Links ]

Economic of Regions Learning Network. (2015). Toolkit: Addressing youth unemployment. Gauteng: Government Technical Advisory Centre.         [ Links ]

Ernst, C., & Berg, J. (2009). The role of employment and labour markets in the fight against poverty. Paris: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development.         [ Links ]

Feather, N. (2018). Historical background to research on job loss, unemployment, and job search. In U. Klehe & E. A. J. Van Hooft (Eds.), Oxford handbook of job loss and job search (pp. 9-29). Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.         [ Links ]

Godfrey, M. (2003). Youth employment policy in developing and transition countries: Prevention as well as cure (Discussion Paper No. 0320). Washington, DC: World Bank Publications.         [ Links ]

Goldin, N., Hobson, M., Glick, P., Lundberg, M., & Puerto, S. (2015). Toward solutions for youth employment: A 2015 baseline report. Washington, DC: Solutions for Youth Employment.         [ Links ]

Government. (2017). Oxford Dictionary. Retrieved from https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/government.         [ Links ]

Graham, L., Patel, L., Chowa, G., Masa, R., Khan, Z., & Williams, L. (2016). Youth assets for employability: An evaluation of youth employability interventions (Baseline report). Johannesburg: Centre for Social Development in Africa, University of Johannesburg.         [ Links ]

Grimm, M. (2016). What interventions create jobs? A review of the evidence. Policy Brief prepared for the 2016 Brookings Blum Roundtable. Retrieved from https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/global_20160720_blum_grimm_v2.pdf.         [ Links ]

Grimm, M., & Paffhausen, A. L. (2014). Interventions for employment creation in micro, small and medium-sized enterprises in low- and middle-income countries: A systematic review. Passau: University of Passau.         [ Links ]

Holden. (2013). Youth employment programmes: What can be learnt from international experience with youth employment programmes? London, United Kingdom: Economic and Private Sector: Professional Evidence and Applied Knowledge Services (EPS: PEAKS).         [ Links ]

Independent Evaluation Group (IEG). (2013). Youth employment programs: An evaluation of World Bank and International Finance Corporation support. Washington, DC: World Bank Publications.         [ Links ]

International Labour Organisation (ILO). (2010). Labour market policies and institutions: A synthesis report. The case of Algeria, Jordan, Morocco, Syria and Turkey (Working Paper No. 64). Geneva, Switzerland: International Labour Organisation.         [ Links ]

International Labour Organisation (ILO). (2011). Global jobs pact country scan: South Africa. Geneva, Switzerland: International Labour Organisation.         [ Links ]

International Labour Organisation (ILO). (2012). Youth employment interventions in Africa: A mapping report of the employment and labour sub-cluster of the regional coordination mechanism for Africa. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: International Labour Organisation.         [ Links ]

Jahoda, M. (1982). Employment and unemployment: A social-psychological analysis. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.         [ Links ]

Klehe, U. C., & Van Hooft, E. A. J. (Eds.). (2018). The Oxford handbook of job loss and job search. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.         [ Links ]

Kluve, J. (2014). Youth labor market interventions (Discussion Paper 106). Bonn: IZA World of Labor.         [ Links ]

Kluve, J., Lehmann, H., & Schmidt, C. M. (2008). Disentangling treatment effects of active labor market policies: The role of labor force status sequences. Labour Economics, 15(6), 1270-1295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2007.12.002        [ Links ]

Kluve, J., Puerto, S., Robalino, D., Romero, J. M., Rother, F., Stöterau, J., … Witte, M. (2016). Do youth employment programs improve labor market outcomes? A systematic review (Discussion Paper No. 10263). Bonn: IZA World of Labor.         [ Links ]

Kluve, J., Puerto, S., Stoeterau, J., Weidenkaff, F., Witte, M., Robalino, D., … Romero, J. M. (2014). Protocol: Interventions to improve labour market outcomes of youth: A systematic review of active labour market programmes. Oslo, Norway: The Campbell Collaboration.         [ Links ]

Levinsohn, J., Rankin, N., Roberts, G., & Schöer, V. (2014). Wage subsidies and youth employment in South Africa: Evidence from a randomised control trial (Working Paper, No. 2/14). Stellenbosch: Department of Economics, University of Stellenbosch.         [ Links ]

Mayer, M., Gordhan, S., Manxeba, R., Hughes, C., Foley, P., Maroc, C., … Nell, M. (2011). Towards a youth employment strategy for South Africa (Working Paper No. 28). Gauteng: Development Bank of Southern Africa.         [ Links ]

National Planning Commission. (2011). National Development Plan 2030: Executive Summary. Pretoria: National Planning Commission.         [ Links ]

National Treasury. (2011). Confronting youth unemployment: Policy options for South Africa (Discussion Paper). Pretoria: National Treasury.         [ Links ]

Nieuwenhuis, J. (2010). Introducing qualitative research. In K. Maree (Ed.), First steps in research (pp. 47-66). Pretoria: Van Schaik.         [ Links ]

Non-Profit Organisations Act. (1997). (No. 71 of 1997). Retrieved from http://www.usig.org/countryinfo/laws/South%20Africa/South%20Africa%20Non%20Profit%20O rganizations%20Act%20of%201997%2012.pdf.         [ Links ]

Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), & United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). (2014). Making Development Cooperation More Effective (Progress Report). Paris: OECD.         [ Links ]

Patel, L., Noyoo, N., & Loffell, J. (2004). The human development situation of the youth in Johannesburg. Johannesburg: Centre for Social Development in Africa, Department of Social Work, University of Johannesburg.         [ Links ]

Payne, G., & Payne, J. (2004). Key concepts in social research. London, United Kingdom: SAGE Publications.         [ Links ]

Perrini, F., Russo, A., & Tencati, A. (2007). Corporate social responsibility strategies of small and medium enterprises and large firms. Evidence from Italy. Journal of Business Ethics, 74(3), 285-300. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-006-9235-x        [ Links ]

Private sector. (2017). Merriam-Webster. Retrieved from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/private%20sector.         [ Links ]

Puerto, S. (2007). International experience on youth employment interventions: The youth employment inventory. Washington, DC: World Bank Publications.         [ Links ]

Ramaphosa, C. (2018). State of the Nation Address of the President of South Africa, Cyril Ramaphosa. Cape Town: Houses of Parliament. Retrieved from https://www.gov.za/state-nation-address.         [ Links ]

Republic of South Africa (RSA). (1996). The constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 (Act No 108 of 1996). Cape Town: Government Printer.         [ Links ]

Skills Development Act. (1998). (No. 97 of 1998). Retrieved from http://www.saqa.org.za/docs/legislation/2010/act97.pdf.         [ Links ]

South African Companies Act. (1073). (No. 61 of 1973). Retrieved from http://www.cipro.co.za/legislation%20forms/companies/Companies%20Act.pdf.         [ Links ]

Statistics South Africa (Stats SA). (2012). Census 2011 statistical release. Pretoria: Statistics South Africa.         [ Links ]

Statistics South Africa (Stats SA). (2016). Quarterly labour force survey: Quarter 1, 2016. Retrieved from www.statssa.gov.za/publications/P0211/P02111stQuarter2017.pdf.         [ Links ]

Struwig, M., Struwig, F. W., & Stead, G. B. (2001). Planning, reporting & designing research. Cape Town: Pearson.         [ Links ]

Van Den Hof, R. A. (2015). Self-esteem, self-efficacy and employability among disadvantaged youth in Orange Farm, Johannesburg (Master's thesis). University of Johannesburg.         [ Links ]

Van Der Vaart, L., De Witte, H., Van den Broeck, A., & Rothmann, S. (2018). A psychosocial typology of the unemployed in South Africa. South African Journal of Psychology, 48(2), 179-192. https://doi.org/10.1177/0081246317721600.         [ Links ]

Venter, E. (2015). Promoting integrated, aligned and country-driven results frameworks to support the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (Policy Brief No. 11). Tshwane: United Nations Development Programme.         [ Links ]

Zagotta, R., & Robinson, D. (2002). Keys to successful strategy execution. Journal of Business Strategy, 23(1), 30-34. https://doi.org/10.1108/eb040221        [ Links ]

 

 

Correspondence:
Sebastiaan Rothmann
ian@ianrothmann.com

Received: 13 Oct. 2018
Accepted: 27 Feb. 2019
Published: 27 May 2019

 

 

Appendix 1

Interview protocol

Name of programme: ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Inclusion criteria:

 

 

1. What is the goal of the programme?

 

 

2. Description of programme (in case of an overlap in question 1).

3. Who are the involved stakeholders?

 

 

4. In what year was the programme implemented/registered?

5. Who are the beneficiaries of this programme (age and gender)?

6. How do you recruit these participants?

7. Is this programme aligned with specific government policies? If yes, can you elaborate?

8. Do you by any means measure the effectiveness or any possible impact of the programme? If yes, can you elaborate?

9. Do you by any means measure the costs involved in obtaining employment for participants? (General information on costs of the intervention, specific information on costs to society, specific information on costs to beneficiaries) If yes, can you elaborate?

10. As you most probably know, such a project has various phases, such as planning, development, implementation, and evaluation. Did you experience any problems during the planning phase of the programme? How did you address these problems/how would you suggest solving these problems?

11. What were the positive aspects during the planning phase of the programme?

12. Did you experience any problems during the development phase of the programme? How did you address these problems/how would you suggest solving these problems?

13. What were the positive aspects during the development phase of the programme?

14. Did you experience any problems during the implementation phase of the programme (either with content of the programme, or with the procedure in setting up and guiding unemployed through the process and reaching targets)? How did you address these problems/how would you suggest solving these problems?

15. What were the positive aspects during the implementation phase of the programme?

16. (Determine if applicable). Did you experience any problems during the evaluation phase of the programme? How did you address these problems/how would you suggest solving these problems?

17. What were the positive aspects during the evaluation phase of the programme?

18. Contact number:

19. Email address:

20. Organisation website:

21. Physical address:

22. Are you aware of any other programmes in Emfuleni or Orange Farm that is focussed on assisting the unemployed? If yes, can you elaborate?

^rND^sBraun^nV.^rND^sClarke^nV.^rND^sCampos^nF.^rND^sFrese^nM.^rND^sGoldstein^nM.^rND^sIacovone^nL.^rND^sJohnson^nH. C.^rND^sMcKenzie^nD.^rND^sMensmann^nM.^rND^sCho^nY.^rND^sHonorati^nM.^rND^sFeather^nN.^rND^sKluve^nJ.^rND^sLehmann^nH.^rND^sSchmidt^nC. M.^rND^sNieuwenhuis^nJ.^rND^sPerrini^nF.^rND^sRusso^nA.^rND^sTencati^nA.^rND^sVan Der Vaart^nL.^rND^sDe Witte^nH.^rND^sVan den Broeck^nA.^rND^sRothmann^nS.^rND^sZagotta^nR.^rND^sRobinson^nD.^rND^1A01^nEileen^sKoekemoer^rND^1A01^nAnne^sCrafford^rND^1A01^nEileen^sKoekemoer^rND^1A01^nAnne^sCrafford^rND^1A01^nEileen^sKoekemoer^rND^1A01^nAnne^sCrafford

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Exploring subjective career success using the Kaleidoscope Career Model

 

 

Eileen Koekemoer; Anne Crafford

Department of Human Resource Management, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

---

ABSTRACT

ORIENTATION: Currently, the workplace consists of four different generations of employees, of which the youngest, Generation Y (Gen Y), will become more prevalent in the next few years. Therefore, attracting and retaining employees of this generation are essential for organisations
RESEARCH PURPOSE: The aim of the present study was to investigate how Gen Y IT employees experience career success by using the Kaleidoscope Career Model (KCM) as an interpretive lens
MOTIVATION FOR THE STUDY: Generation Y remains an understudied cohort with regard to perceptions of career success. Motivated by the potential value of constructing contexts, which promote career success among Gen Y, the KCM was used as a framework for exploring meanings associated with career success among this cohort.
RESEARCH APPROACH/DESIGN AND METHOD: Semi-structured interviews were conducted with a purposive voluntary sample of 24 Gen Y IT employees. Data were analysed in a two-step process by, firstly, identifying elements associated with the central parameters of the KCM and, secondly, collating these to identify various sub-dimensions of each parameter, to identify associated meanings for subjective career success.
MAIN FINDINGS: The findings describe more richly the needs for authenticity (i.e. making a difference or work as an enabler of lifestyle), balance (within time and over time) and challenge (i.e. career success implies growth/turning problems into opportunities or goal attainment as signifier of success) as means to experience career success, specifically expanding the description of balance, where employees try to maintain a work-life balance not only within but also over time (synchronic vs. diachronic balance
PRACTICAL/MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS: The findings have value for management and human resource practitioners with regard to the implementation of employment practices that will enhance perceptions of career success among Gen Y IT employees and the development of a supportive culture which underpin the latter.
CONTRIBUTION/VALUE-ADD: This study adds to our knowledge of Gen Y's perceptions of career success with particular emphasis on authenticity, balance and challenge. It furthermore contributes to career success literature by adding a career development lens to the latter.

Keywords: Generation Y; kaleidoscope career model; subjective career success; qualitative approach; work-life balance.

---

 

 

Introduction

Orientation

In present-day societies, where organisations are faced with global competition, companies can only remain competitive if they are able to attract and retain talented employees (Eversole, Venneberg, & Crowder, 2012). Currently, many workplaces typically consist of four generations of employees - all with different opinions and expectations of their work environment (Ng, Schweitzer, & Lyons, 2010). Generation Y (Gen Y) is fast becoming the prime-age workforce, with their numbers and roles increasing rapidly (Eversole et al., 2012). The literature suggests that Gen Y employees tend to be attracted to companies with forward-looking approaches to business as well as to those companies that will provide them with job variety (Ng et al., 2010; Terjesen, Vinnicombe, & Freeman, 2007), education and training opportunities to advance their careers (Luscombe, Lewis, & Biggs, 2013) and a substantial salary (Terjesen et al., 2007). Also, Gen Y employees have an interest in developing their overall value in the labour market, instead of relying on a single organisation to provide them with long-term employment (Kultalahti & Viitala, 2015). They are more likely to keep their career options open or to seek alternative employment, which can make it difficult to retain them in organisations (Suleman & Nelson, 2011). According to Ng et al. (2010), Gen Y employees seem to hold 'values, attitudes, and expectations that are significantly different from those of the generations of workers that preceded them' (Ng et al., 2010, p. 281). Not only do they seek rapid advancement, but they seem to have a need for a meaningful and satisfying life outside of work (Ng et al., 2010). As Gen Y employees consider quality of life a major priority, they have high expectations of their employers and of themselves (Suleman & Nelson, 2011) and demand more time for activities outside of work (Kultalahti & Viitala, 2015). In addition, Lyons and Kuron (2013) indicate in their review of generational theory research that employees are increasingly seeking personal fulfilment in their work, and leaders and employers who can satisfy their individualistic growth needs will have a competitive advantage in attracting and retaining talent. This amplifies the urgency of attracting and retaining employees from Gen Y.

While there has been a considerable increase in research on generations (especially Gen Y) over the past few years (see the overview of Lyons & Kuron, 2013), there has been little discussion on Gen Ys' view of career success and their specific needs regarding contemporary careers. Mainstream publications on Gen Y either focus on Gen Y as the foci sample (Luscombe et al., 2013, Ng et al., 2010; Papavasileiou & Lyons, 2015) or investigate the work values, career preferences, work expectations and characteristics of the different generations in comparative generational samples (Meriac, Woehr, & Banister, 2010; Twenge, 2010). According to Hall, Lee, Kossek and Heras (2012), there is a gap in knowledge about how individuals adapt to changing demands to sustain both their careers and their personal lives psychologically and physically. Greenhaus and Kossek (2014) believe that the current career landscape, which is characterised by flatter and leaner organisational structures that provide fewer opportunities for hierarchical advancement, influences the achievement of career success. Consequently, employees have to develop their own idiosyncratic views of what constitutes a successful career. This resonates strongly with the newer conceptualisations of subjective career success, which implies a subjective judgement or evaluation by the individual (Abele & Spurk, 2009; Dries, Pepermans, & De Kerpel, 2008; Ng, Eby, Sorensen, & Feldman, 2005).

Heslin (2005) argues that despite the extensive literature available and focal change in objective towards more subjective facets, career success has been defined too narrowly in the past. He adds that scholars should focus on a broader range of criteria to explore subjective career success. According to the self-determination theory (SDT), the social context in which people live and work should satisfy their basic psychological needs. In such a case, the context should provide the appropriate developmental lattice for improved human achievement and enhanced well-being, and by implication, people's perception of success (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Thus, it can be argued that to achieve subjective career success, people's career-related needs should be met.

One of the more contemporary developmental models used to investigate contemporary careers is the Kaleidoscope Career Model (KCM). This model was developed originally to explain how women shift their career patterns by rotating different aspects of their lives to arrange roles and relationships in non-traditional ways, in response to their unique needs (Mainiero & Sullivan, 2005; Sullivan & Mainiero, 2008). In the process, three central parameters of career decision-making emerged, namely, the need for authenticity, balance and challenge. Authenticity represents individuals' need to be true to themselves and their values; balance refers to individuals' wish to enjoy quality experiences in both work and family domains; challenge refers to an individual's need to participate in intrinsically motivating work (Sullivan & Mainiero, 2008).

According to this model, employees evaluate the choices and options available through the lens of the kaleidoscope to determine the best fit among their multiple relationships, work constraints and opportunities. In light of the discussion above, the KCM's focus on career-related needs provides a valuable theoretical lens to understand how employees construct subjective interpretations of success in response to unfolding career experiences (Heslin, 2005) as well as the extent to which these experiences allow their career needs to be met. As far as the researchers could determine, no previous research has been conducted to date on career success using the framework of the KCM.

Research purpose and objectives and motivation for the study

This study was motivated by a gap in the generational and career literature regarding the conceptualisation of subjective career success for Gen Y employees in contemporary careers. The goal was to investigate how Gen Y employees experience subjective career success using the Kaleidoscope Model as an interpretive lens. More specifically, the study set out to identify what subjective career success means to them, with regard to their needs for authenticity, challenge and balance. This study was based on the following research question: How do Gen Y employees conceptualise subjective career success within the framework of the KCM?

Literature review

Generation Y

While in some quarters there is some scepticism about the concept of generations as a meaningful focus of study, it has a sound basis in both psychology (Laufer & Bengston, 1974; Pilcher, 1994) and sociology (Parry & Urwin, 2011). The value of the concept lies in its ability to capture diversity across time frames. Turner (1998) defined a generation as:

… a cohort of person's passing through time who come to share a common habitus and lifestyle….[and] has a strategic temporal location to a set of resources and exclusionary practices of social closure. (Parry & Urwin, 2011, p. 81)

Viewing a generation as a cohort allows one to identify relatively homogenous categories of people, who are likely to have meaningful commonalities based on the dominant societal and work contexts in which they function (Ryder, 1965). Understanding the differences between these cohorts can have significant benefits for managers in adapting organisational practices to best suit a generational cohort.

Subjective career success

The concept of career success has been well defined in the literature over the past few decades. Initially, career success explanations described how an employee progresses in the hierarchy of an organisation; therefore, individuals receiving higher wages are generally regarded as being successful in their careers (Judge, Cable, Boudreau, & Bretz, 1995). However, recent conceptualisations moved towards distinguishing between objective and subjective career success. Objective career success is judged by external people based on visible criteria such as job level, income, status, salary and occupation (Ng et al., 2005). Subjective career success is based on the internal components that involve individual employees' personal inner interpretations, perspectives and evaluations of their career achievements (Arthur, Khapova, & Wilderom, 2005). Thus, subjective career success can be understood as a subjective construct representing individual employees' interpretation of success. According to Gunz and Heslin (2005), it is possible to develop general patterns of understanding by identifying themes that are important to individuals who share social contexts, as may be the case for Gen Y employees. Some recent studies of subjective career success have been conducted in specific contexts or on particular groups. These include managers (Grimland, Vigoda-Gadot, & Baruch, 2011; Visagie & Koekemoer, 2014), academics (Beigi, Shirmohammadi, & Arthur, 2018) and blue-collar workers (Koekemoer, Fourie, & Jorgenson, 2018).

Motivation for the use of the Kaleidoscope Career Model

Although the KCM was originally developed to explain the career development of women, the initial developers of the model, Sullivan and Mainiero (2008), argue the applicability of this model in the contemporary career landscape well. They postulate that the KCM is one of the few contemporary models that is grounded in the literature and can be used in contemporary career research. This is especially given the rapid environmental changes, including increased globalisation, an increasingly diverse workforce, technological advances and the growth in the conceptualisation of non-traditional careers. The KCM offers a means for studying processes within non-traditional careers or non-traditional career concepts such as subjective career success. In previous research on the KCM, the focus was primarily on gender differences; however, Sullivan and Baruch (2009) have noted generational differences in the need for authenticity, balance and challenge. They have shown that members of Generation X have higher needs for authenticity and balance than the so-called baby boomers, but their study did not include employees from Gen Y. Various studies have already suggested that generations might use kaleidoscope thinking when making career decision or when shifting career patterns (Lyons, Schweiszer, Ng, & Kuron, 2012; Sullivan, Forret, Carraher, & Mainiero, 2009), thus making the use of the KCM principles relevant to studies focusing on generations (in this case, the study of Gen Y employees).

Motivation for linking subjective career success with the Kaleidoscope Career Model

When considering the parameters of the KCM and subjective career success, possible associations can be made. For instance, the challenge parameter of the KCM (which is an individual's need for stimulating work and career advancement) is similar to views of subjective career success (Visagie & Koekemoer, 2014). Recently, Mayrhofer et al. (2016) specifically explored the meanings of career success in their 5C Project (Cross-Cultural Collaboration on Contemporary Careers) and divided career success into four overarching themes: material concerns (i.e. financial security and financial achievement), learning (i.e. learning and development), social relations (i.e. work-life balance, positive impact and positive relationships) and pursuing one's own project (i.e. entrepreneurship). When considering these contemporary notions of career success, the social relations theme (i.e. positive impact and work-life balance) resonates strongly with the authenticity and balance parameters of the KCM. Therefore, it stands to reason that career success might be more closely viewed through the lens of the KCM as Ballout (2008, p. 440) points out: 'Individuals view their career success as a function of their own internal standards and perceptions of satisfaction and success in social networks of relationships with others'. Furthermore, the KCM posits that needs for authenticity, balance and challenge over the course of a career will be present, but may vary in intensity over an individual's life span (Mainiero & Gibson, 2017). Thus:

… over the course of the life span, as a person searches for the best fit that matches the character and context of his or her life, the kaleidoscope's parameters shift in response. (Sullivan et al., 2009, p. 291)

This is similar to the view that the concept of subjective career success is based on the understanding of a career as the 'evolving sequence of work experience over time' (Arthur, Hall, & Lawrence, 1989). This is also in line with Visagie and Koekemoer (2014), who posit that a subjective career is seen as a journey of progression, where subjective career success is an ongoing process of progress towards achieving goals and a life-long journey.

Given the above-mentioned discussion, the findings of the study are expected to provide a better understanding of subjective career success, which could be useful to individuals, employers, educators and policymakers as they help to situate the views of Gen Y on modern careers within a KCM perspective.

 

Research design

Research approach and strategy

The research was conducted from an interpretive perspective, which implies an in-depth understanding of a phenomenon in context, in this instance, subjective career success (Crotty, 1998). Using the dimensions of the KCM (authenticity, balance and challenge) as a lens, the aim was to explore the meanings Gen Y IT employees attach to subjective career success (Babbie & Mouton, 2001) by means of a qualitative survey (Fink, 2003; Jansen, 2010).

Research method

Research setting

A purposive voluntary sample of Gen Y employees was drawn from the South African division of a global IT organisation, '¹ TechCo'. The interview data and company website both suggest a challenging environment characterised by constant innovation and cutting-edge technological developments and consequently a strong focus on learning and development. TechCo requires local employees to work with people from other countries and cultures as well as across time zones. This implies long working hours, tight deadlines and employees being available after hours, elements that may influence work-life balance. The company is, however, considered family-friendly and employees have the option of working flexible hours, as highlighted in both interview data and company documentation. Because of the nature of the environment and the large number of Gen Y's who comprise the employee-base, TechCo provided an ideal context to explore the basic tenets of the KCM model in relation to the subjective career success of Gen Y's.

Entrée and establishing researcher roles

The data were gathered by a Gen Y fieldworker employed by the company, and analysed by the current authors. The fieldworker was trained in interviewing skills by one of the current authors. Having a familiar fieldworker from the same cohort meant that participants were able to easily relate to her in sharing their experiences. Consent was obtained from the target organisation to collect the data as well as from individual research participants who volunteered to be part of the study. The anonymity and confidentiality of participants were ensured through the allocation of participant numbers to the interviewees (Babbie & Mouton, 2001).

Research participants and sampling methods

Based on the generation categorisation of Parry and Urwin (2011), a purposive voluntary sample of 24 employees, born between 1982 and 2002, was interviewed. The study sample included eight female participants (33%). The majority of participants were born between 1982 and 1987 (with a mean age of 31) and 58% of the participants had eight or more years of work experience. The majority of the sample (96%) had a tertiary qualification. Twelve employees were in possession of higher education diplomas, while five others had postgraduate qualifications. Only one participant had a grade 12 or lower qualification. Regarding the relationship status of participants, 11 were married, eight were engaged or in a relationship, four were single and one was divorced. Five participants had children at the time of the study. Employees were drawn from all areas of the organisation, including software development and testing, business analysis, server support and various management roles, and were on job level 1 or 2.

Data collection methods

A total of 24² face-to-face semi-structured interviews were conducted that enabled data saturation to be attained (Onwuegbuzie & Leech, 2007). Guided by the interpretivist approach, which emphasises individual constructions of meaning, a few broad questions were constructed to elicit the meanings Gen Ys attach to the concept of career success. Examples were the following: 'Tell me about your understanding or view of career success'; 'What are the things that are important to you in your career?' and 'What do you need in order to view yourself as being successful in your career?' In addition, the interviewer also used probing questions and other communication techniques such as paraphrasing, reflection, clarifying and summarising to elicit more information from the participants.

Data recording

All interviews were tape recorded and transcribed verbatim. To ensure confidentiality, participants were assigned numbers that form the basis of the reporting here.

Strategies employed to ensure data quality and integrity

Guided by strategies suggested by Miles and Huberman (1994), the following steps were taken to ensure the quality of the data. To ensure dependability, data were generated by one interviewer and the analysis guided by clear analytical constructs, as described in the KCM theory and its operationalisation (Sullivan et al., 2009). To enhance authenticity and credibility, the researchers sought to provide context-rich and meaningful descriptions of the setting and findings (space permitting). In addition to data from interviews, the company website was studied to form a sense of the 'public face' of the company providing more details regarding the organisational context. Transferability of the findings was ensured by providing a detailed description of the setting and sample.

Data analysis

Our first step was to conceptualise the parameters of the KCM, namely, authenticity, balance and challenge, as these have been outlined in the literature so as to recognise similar or related elements in the Gen Y cohort. To do so, we conducted a careful reading of KCM research paying particular attention to the descriptions of the parameters as operationalised in the authenticity, balance and challenge scales, as described by Sullivan et al. (2009). Examples of these include 'If I could follow my dream right now, I would' (authenticity); 'I constantly arrange my work around my family needs' (balance) and 'I continually look for new challenges in everything I do' (challenge). The second step was to analyse the interview data to identify and code elements related to authenticity, balance and challenge (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Extracts of the data relating to each of these parameters were then collated and subjected to second-order coding to identify the sub-themes within each parameter, as they pertain to the Gen Y sample. The final description of each parameter rested on the researchers' interpretations and unique constructions of the data set (Crotty, 1998).

Reporting style

The authors are reporting this study as a confessional tale so as to do justice to the participants and their multiple voices (Sparkes, 2002).

 

Ethical consideration

This article was part of a master's study for which ethical clearance was obtained from the Department of Human resource management (HRM) at the institution.

 

Results

In making sense of the findings presented below, the reader is advised to bear in mind the description of the organisational context as described as part of the research setting (Miles & Huberman, 1994).

The results are presented, as they were analysed, within the dimensions of the KCM, namely, authenticity, balance and challenge. In Table 1, we present a summary of the dimensions of the KCM and the sub-themes extracted from the data that form part of each. It also includes s description of the implication of each sub-theme for subjective career success based on the data.

 

 

Each of these will now be discussed in more detail.

Sub-themes related to authenticity

Because the Gen Ys in the sample spend long hours at work, they want to enjoy what they are doing and ensure it is meaningful. Participants emphasised that career success should be defined by personal choices rather than others' expectations (Ballout, 2008).

You need to judge yourself and your career success on what you have set for yourself, not based on what your friend is achieving, or what your family or other people expect you to achieve (P3, female, software testing).

Participants linked authenticity to 'making a difference' and 'work as an enabler for lifestyle'. The first sub-theme is similar to the dimensions of authenticity that relate to purpose and having an impact, as described in Sullivan et al. (2009). The second sub-theme describes non-work-related dreams and goals, which provide meaning and a sense of purpose; however, because of financial constraints, these cannot be pursued full time. Working, thus, enables from financial perspective, the fulfilment of goals and dreams, which provide a sense of authenticity. Both sub-themes are discussed subsequently.

Making a difference

The Gen Ys from the sample defined career success primarily in terms of 'making a difference' (P6, P10, P13, P21, P25³) or 'adding value' (P2) to the greater good. This meant taking the basic job requirements and making a unique contribution in ways that improved its value:

'… anyone that fits the job profile would have come in and done just the bare minimum, I'm looking to go and explore that role, see what value I can bring in personally.' (P24, male, project manager)

At times, making a difference was referred to in task-related terms, for example, developing a piece of new software. However, most often it implied relational impact, envisaged in two inter-related ways. Firstly, the role of mentoring and coaching to help others becomes more proficient, achieve their work-related goals and thus be more successful in their work:

'I would be in a position that I could mentor other people and help them to become more proficient in their job and more successful.' (P11, male, database administrator)

The second role was being a role model to others, enabling them to learn from their own journey and provide opportunities for growth:

'I want to make a difference in a lot of lives of people who work here, grow them, give them job security, give them options … get people to learn from my journey, my mistakes.' (P25, male, IT management)

One of the participants suggested that making a difference could be achieved on a day-to-day basis solving immediate problems, but should also be measured in terms of having worked towards a strategic goal - described as:

'… taking a chip off a big block.' (P10, male, management)

Several participants also highlighted the perceived importance of organisational rank or level in making a difference:

'I find a lot of self-value if I can see other people grow - and being in executive management… you can influence a lot of the bigger organisational wide decisions to see that change comes through at several levels, not just one.' (P23, male, management)

This suggests a link between the need for authenticity and more objective measures of success, such as moving up the organisational hierarchy. This has implications for our views of subjective and objective as distinct measures, and implies a more nuanced view of success in which certain practices or outcomes can provide both objective and subjective consequences for success.

Making a difference meant changing circumstances and improving people lives, but this was dependent on being given the freedom to do so and was enabled or constrained by organisational culture. Referring to this issue, participant 21 commented that where the company culture is dominated by red tape, a Gen Y would be constrained with:

'… no freedom to sort of stretch your wings and be an individual and make a difference.' (P21, male, business analyst)

Work as an enabler for lifestyle

This category represents the perspective of a smaller group of Gen Ys within our sample. For these participants, success was defined in financial terms, but not necessarily as mere accumulation of wealth, rather as a means to support their lifestyle and its associated hobbies and activities. Participant 7 was an avid sportsman and viewed work as one element of his life only, and an enabler for other, more exciting aspects:

'I do feel that a job should be an enabler, I don't think it should be central to, to what you do in your life. It's looking back […] Ahh no, I have been a project manager, that is kind of what I have done; no, I don't like that. I would rather tell stories of conquests and adventures.' (P7, male, project management)

When asked about career success, participant 21 immediately answered - money but quickly went on to explain that the reason for this was that it enabled him to do the things he loved. He explained that coming from a background where his parents lived from 'cheque to cheque' meant there was little stability and he longed for financial wealth to enable him to do the things he loved:

'Okay, so I mean obviously if I personally had a choice between what I am doing now, if I had a, if I had unlimited financial resources, I would probably be in another skillset, I would probably be off cooking or sailing or something like that so, um I guess part of my movement and my aim at studying and working is to increase my sort of financial wealth, in such a way so that I can actually do some of the other things that I love.' (P21, male, business analyst)

Sub-themes related to balance

When considering the balance parameter, the Gen Ys in the sample gave various perspectives of ways in which balance contributes to their view of career success. Some participants suggested they should be able to separate work and life, thus achieving a comfortable balance. Others were satisfied with blurred edges in which work and personal life co-existed comfortably, or less comfortably. Overall, the research identified two distinct ways in which participants attempted to achieve balance: 'balance within time' or synchronic balance, and 'balance across time' or diachronic balance. Synchronic, in this regard, entails balancing work and personal commitments within a given shorter time frame. Conversely, diachronic refers to a pattern of balancing work and personal life over an extended period during which varying amounts of time and energy are given to each domain, depending on the need at a given moment.

Given the age range of the Gen Y cohort, most of the sample were in the process of establishing themselves in their line of work and were not yet financially secure. For this reason, many of them were prepared to spend very long hours at work to establish themselves in their careers and develop a basis for financial security. In many instances, this seemed a deliberate choice with the understanding that once they were more established in their careers, they would have earned the right to more personal and family time.

The mentioned balancing act differed among the participants and was influenced by the nature of their specific job and its flexibility as well as their unique personal circumstances. Other factors were their financial situation, spousal and family support, personal drive and ambition, and personal preferences. Several participants pointed out the importance of company culture and its emphasis on flexibility in the quest for balance:

'TechCo has that culture, that flexibility culture … we have a flexible environment where you can do other things, other than work but make sure you still have your work, that you get your work done, so personally I can still train, I can still run errands during working hours and make up the time.' (P13, male, software testing)

While several participants mentioned the flexibility, one at least suggested this was dependent on a person's direct line manager and there seemed to be some differentiation here.

Balance within time (synchronic)

Participants referred to various ways in which they could balance their commitments within time. Firstly, several highlighted balancing their work and personal lives in physical terms, and suggested they would feel successful when able to live out a '… work-hard, play-hard philosophy' (P9). Participants stressed the value of having a healthy lifestyle to work more productively and perform at a higher level. Training during lunch hours was mentioned specifically, as the company has gym facilities. Participant 13 summed this up:

'… if you are not healthy, I don't think that you will perform well, so if I was not allowed to train during the day, I think I would be a frustrated man … if I go and run in lunch time I come back a better person, so I can focus and work around solutions.' (P13, male, software testing)

This solution focus is central to the challenge parameter, and further reinforces the possible relationships among the three parameters. This also provides a more personal view of balance - one in which employees are able to balance their own personal (e.g. training) and work needs. This is a variation on the way balance is conceptualised in Sullivan et al. (2009), who focus clearly on the work-family balance.

The second area contributing to participants' perception of success concerned emotional spillover from home to work, and vice versa, where they indicated how extremely difficult it was to separate these two domains from an emotional perspective:

'… I said career success and personal life are two separate things but when you are - I think - happy in your career, your career plays such a huge role in your life, I think it does translate into your personal life.' (P6, female, talent branding)

While this reflects a positive spillover, participants cited several examples of emotional pressure that influenced their mood and ability to cope, thus affecting their functionality in other domains such as their work or family. Examples are the following: anxiety about the safety of a spouse, worrying about relatives who are ill, their job satisfaction, financial pressures and the responsibility to provide for their family.

Thirdly, relationships at home and at work were important to the participants, but made separating their work and personal life particularly challenging:

'But I think personal life, at least the way I do it, is just as much here at work as at home … I say, "Ahh guys, I'm going overseas and my car is going to cost me nine grand. I'm devastated" … I know we are all professional, but in a way you get a little work family.' (P21, male, business analyst)

Thus, work relationships provide a valuable source of emotional support and function to simulate family relationships. Relationships at home were also considered a means of vital support. In this regard, many participants referred to the value of spousal support both emotionally (being a 'cheerleader') and practically ('pulling their weight' in household responsibilities) as critical to career success.

Finally, the area of the task was assumed to be the easiest level at which work-life balance could be achieved. Nevertheless, given the nature of the work environment, the ideal of separating the two domains was not always possible as suggested by participant 20:

'I have this thing where, six o' clock I walk out the door, I can detach, uhm, I can go home and not think about work, unless it's like something really important that needs to be done, uhm, or someone calls me and says you know what, we have this issue, can you have a look at it?' (P20, male, software testing)

Matters that were attended to at home were found to be emails, doing standby work from home, work-related studies and spending time focusing on solutions for which there were no time at work. Some participants were unable to separate the two domains as they worked on standby:

'… okay, so for me work impacts my social life quite badly uhm… I work support 24/7 which means I get called any day any time, uhm, I mean a good example is Easter, Easter Friday I didn't do much, I worked from eight on Friday morning and I finished off at six on Saturday morning.' (P10, male, management)

Participants justified these intrusions into their home domain by viewing it as temporary. Thus, they were willing to make a reasonable sacrifice for what they perceived as rewards they could reap at a later stage. The notion of deferred benefits relates to balance over time, which is expounded below.

Balance over time (diachronic)

Balance over time means conceptualising work-life balance as a give-and-take relationship between the employees and their work, over an extended period of time, linked to various life stages. At times the Gen Y employees would be able to 'give' more, and other times they would need to 'take' more:

'… like when you are single you know you have more time on your hands to give overtime, but later on, you know when you have kids and you are married and you have a family, uhm, you have less time - you know, some weeks might be less than nine to five.' (P19, male, software testing)

The age parameters associated with Gen Ys imply that they are in the early establishment phase (25-44 years) of their career (Super, 1980). Therefore, they are still developing work experience, building skills and beginning to stabilise their careers. Several young, single participants were comfortable about thinking ahead with the belief that they were establishing themselves and needed the knowledge, skills and experience as investment in their future:

'Right now it's not balanced, it's more of a work life, I work a lot, I work long hours … so for me it's over the next three years I want to be in that management position where I can align everything and then obviously look at starting a family.' (P10, male, management)

Thus, this cohort of Gen Ys were content to make the sacrifices and invest in the extended hours as part of their development. They believed that when they had reached a particular level of seniority (broadly referred to as 'management') and maturity, they would have greater flexibility and the capacity to say No. Based on this sub-theme, it seems that balance over the short term was, thus, sacrificed on behalf of the longer term. Nevertheless, we had questions regarding how viable this belief actually was. The reason was that a number of our participants had already attained management positions, but were still struggling to balance their work and personal lives. Evidently, this area warrants further exploration.

Sub-themes related to challenge

Given the context in which the sample of Gen Y functions, 'challenge' was expected and confirmed to be a significant driver in employees' views of career success. Participants mentioned an element of challenge as a central feature for such success:

'I wanna say that it is human nature to be challenged; uhm, people do tend to stagnate […] so that challenge I don't know keeps the mind fresh, keeps the spirit fresh.' (P7, male, project management)

'A lack of challenge was viewed as 'the complete opposite of what we describe as career success.' (P19, male, software testing)

Central to the idea of challenge in this group of Gen Ys was the value of growth and development as contributing to career success. This notion is consistent with the literature on Gen Ys, though not included explicitly in the conceptualisation of 'challenge' by Sullivan et al. (2009).

Success implies growth

Participants posited a close relationship between career success and growth with participant 3, suggesting that success was authentic only if accompanied by growth. The reason was that they did not view success as a final static destination, rather a journey involving successive phases of growth:

'One can never say that there is complete success … there is always room for growth or always new things that you can learn.' (P3, female, software testing)

'I could feel proficient in something today and in a year's time, not be proficient anymore because they have added a whole lot of things to it. So that is also what drives me to learn.' (P11, male, database administrator)

Because the context in which they function is constantly evolving, they too are required to develop, staying abreast of the developments in their field. The dynamic, fast-paced technological environment requires of Gen Ys to constantly learn and grow, thus providing a constant source of challenge. The emphasis on growth may attributable to the degree of change experienced in this particular industry but given the nature of the globalised world is likely to apply in other contexts as well.

Turning problems into opportunities

Coupled with the emphasis on growth was the ability to turn work problems into opportunities for development - consistent with findings by Sullivan et al. (2009). Participant 25 shared an experience - which he suggested was common in the company - of Gen Ys being promoted to managerial level at an extremely early age because of their technical competence. Such a promotion has two unintended consequences.

Firstly, the Gen Ys were no longer able to rely on the sense of achievement from being technically strong, which led to ambivalence about their career choices. Secondly, they found themselves in a position of being inexperienced in managerial competence and ill-equipped to hold their own against older and more experienced colleagues:

'You go in and you get totally steamrolled or out-snookered or out debated. I always take it quite personally, but to actually go and say, 'Well hang on a second, what have you learnt on that?' Because you might get beaten thirty times, but you will win that thirty first and the thirty second, so you use that in going forward.' (P25, male, IT management)

The importance of the above-mentioned insight into challenge for Gen Ys is two-fold. Firstly, it demonstrates participants' ability to make sense of these difficult moments, by choosing to focus on potential benefits and demonstrating tenacity in the face of adversity. Secondly, even though participants were initially outperformed by their more senior colleagues, they were able to learn from these situations and develop their own skills, applying what they had learnt to their own advantage.

Goal attainment as signifier of success

Closely related to growth, career success was also viewed as a process of setting and achieving goals:

'Career success, in my understanding is achieving your goals.' (P20, male, software testing)

However, this must not be considered as a once-off event, but rather a continual cycle of goal setting and achievement. Growth is attained by setting these 'realistic milestones' as mentioned by Participant 18, (a female project management), achieving these and then setting new, more challenging goals, allowing one to grow and develop further.

This meant that participants viewed career success not so much as a destination but rather a continual journey of milestones that provided feedback on progress and reassured the participants that they were continually successful:

'I felt like I have already reached my goal, but now I need to set higher goals and just raise that ladder … there is always room for growth and there is always ladders to raise and there is always goals to set.' (P26, female, project management)

'I would say there is never an end goal of career success; there is always room to grow to the next level, get better at another area.' (P8, male, software development)

Inherent in the process of goal setting is the aim of career advancement, and part of the means by which this is achieved. The Gen Ys in the sample believed that career success would mean advancing through the hierarchy in the organisation; several mentioned moving to the next level, drawing on the metaphor of the ladder. The emphasis was, however, on advancement as means to grow and develop, and goal setting as the way to achieve this result. Once again, objective and subjective means of career success are interlinked, with subjective means of success, namely, growth and development, dependent on objective means, such advancing through the organisational hierarchy.

 

Discussion

Outline of the results

The present study used the KCM as a framework to extract the meanings of subjective career success. The findings showed how fulfilling the needs for authenticity, balance and challenge may lead to feelings of career success. Thus, by providing an in-depth exploration of Gen Y's perceptions of subjective career success, the study contributes to a contextual understanding of this concept within an IT environment.

Firstly, the sample expressed the importance of making a difference, which is similar to a dimension of authenticity in the KCM scale by Sullivan et al. (2009). According to the participants, making a difference has both a task and relational dimension, focusing on being a role model as well as mentoring and coaching those around them. It could be argued that this may be attributed to the strong developmental focus of the company, often required within an IT environment. However, generational literature also highlights the need of Gen Ys for meaningful work through which they can make a difference (Blain, 2008). Thus, making a difference is a notion of authenticity that could be explored further.

Although Sullivan et al. (2009) focus on living a dream, the participants described work as an enabler for other equally important facets of their personal lives such as participation in sport. This is consistent with the literature on Gen Y that highlights this cohort's need and time for meaningful and satisfying activities outside of work (Kultalahti & Viitala, 2015; Ng et al., 2010). The participants clearly related the mentioned needs to their perception of career success.

Secondly, balance, as conceptualised by Sullivan et al. (2009), differed considerably from the way the sample sought ways to juggle both work and personal considerations. In the first instance, balance was conceptualised more broadly to encompass work and personal life. For the sample, the non-work domain did not only include family, but also reflected the various aspects of their personal lives. Several participants had significant personal projects outside of work, which were not family-related (e.g. exercise, sport or hobbies such as blogging and travelling), but which drove them to maintain a balance. This is in line with more contemporary work-family research (Keeney, Boyd, Sinha, Westring, & Ryan, 2013). Although the concept of work-life balance (also known as work-family balance) is a popular concept in work-family literature and known as a prominent facet that employees seek in the new career area (Epstein & Hershatter, 2014; Ng et al., 2010), Wayne, Butts, Casper and Allen (2017) argue the need for scholars to develop a more comprehensive theory of balance and build a cohesive body of research, conceptual elaboration and empirical examination of the existing approaches to work-family balance. In this regard, the current study adds to this conceptual understanding of balance within the KCM framework and the different time frames according to which balance is conceptualised. In the work-family literature, the seminal definition provided by Greenhaus and Allen (2011) defines work-family balance as 'the overall appraisal of the extent to which individuals' effectiveness and satisfaction in work and family roles are consistent with their life values at a given point in time'. In this explanation, work-family balance is viewed or described as a synchronic balance, where individuals attempt to obtain balance in their current situation or time. As mentioned previously, participants in this sample explained that they seek to achieve balance both within a given timeframe and over longer periods of time. This led to an explanation of how balance is viewed in the current time frame, as well as a strong emphasis on the future and how balance should be reflected over time to attain feelings of career success. These elements are new contributions in the work-family and KCM literature.

Thirdly, the sample furthermore described how elements of challenge led to feelings of career success. Given the qualitative nature of the present study, the researchers expanded on descriptions of challenge by Sullivan et al. (2009). Participants in the present study emphasised the need for growth and explained how work problems were turned into opportunities for development, which ultimately led to feelings of career success. According to the participants, success is never 'achieved' in a final form because the opportunity for growth is continuous. Closely related to growth, and a mechanism to achieve it, is goal setting. As was found, the latter is also viewed as cyclical, which reinforces the nature of 'milestones of success' (the researchers' phrasing) rather than a fixed point or destination. This is in line with previous research, which suggests that career success can be viewed as a life-long journey and an ongoing process of progression (Visagie & Koekemoer, 2014).

In light of the discussion above, it was suggested that the KCM provides a suitable lens through which to view the career success of Gen Ys in an IT environment. The initial development of this model to meet the flexibility requirements of women resonates well with the need for fluidity described by the Gen Y sample taken from an IT environment.

Limitations and recommendations

Firstly, the sample included primarily highly educated people working in an IT environment. In this context, certain limitations must be factored in. Firstly, conceptualisation of career success would only be transferable to IT and similar environments, which are characterised by extended working hours, fast-paced and demanding work schedules, a culture of flexibility and a work-family awareness. Although these findings may not represent the views of career success for all Gen Ys, they provide a starting point to explore career success among this generation group by applying the KCM.

Secondly, participants' views were gathered at a single point in time, and apart from the company website, the research relied heavily on interview data, which provided limited opportunity to verify these perspectives (Brown, 2010).

Practical implications

Based on the findings, the parameters of the KCM provide a useful framework that can be applied to attract and retain Gen Y employees. Regarding authenticity, participants emphasised making a difference in either task-related or relational terms. The postulation is that should Gen Ys be given the opportunity to lead through example (e.g. through formal performance agreements), they may experience feelings of career success. Specific opportunities could include mentoring and coaching, hierarchical reporting lines or informal career discussions among peers. However, such opportunities should give employees a genuine chance to 'make a difference', otherwise they will miss the challenge associated with such an opportunity. For instance, opportunities to solve problems, by setting either challenging short-term goals or strategic goals, may make them feel that they add value to the organisation and that this personal contribution is recognised as invaluable. Yet, as suggested by the data, such a management style depends on the organisational culture. Therefore, organisations should become more cognisant of formal policies and procedures that may inhibit Gen Ys' autonomy and initiatives.

The research findings indicate that organisations operating within an IT setting could retain their Gen Ys better if the latter perceive their work environment as supporting their preferred lifestyle and if they experience a measure of work-life balance (Ryan & Deci, 2000). It is suggested that this aspect should be monitored more closely to ensure consistent use across the organisation. Furthermore, from a career development point of view, these findings could assist counsellors when counselling employees from this cohort who may struggle with issues of balance, as the study has provided greater understanding of balance within time frames as well as across time frames. Various types of balance within a time frame are also highlighted that may guide more focussed interventions in this regard. During counselling sessions, these aspects can be explored more. Organisations (by implication managers) should also take note of these findings, as they should be cognisant of the way in which employees attempt to balance their work and family demands. They could support employees by rethinking the demands they make on their employees, as they sometimes are willing to give more to their careers, and at other times their family is prioritised. A further inference from the findings is the importance of setting goals that describe the career, tasks or strategies for Gen Ys. The reason is that goal setting seems to be linked closely to their growth and development as well as their career success. In the whole, the present study adds valuable insights into authenticity, balance and challenge as parameters of the KCM, which can be applied in a strategy to retain Gen Y employees in contemporary IT careers.

It is recommended that similar studies be conducted in Gen Y cohorts in other contexts quite different from the current one to see whether similar perspectives exist, thus providing a comprehensive understanding of this very important cohort.

 

Acknowledgements

This research is based on work supported by the National Research Foundation (NRF) under the reference number TTK14051567368. Thank you to the National Research Foundation provided funding for this research. The authors also acknowledge that opinions, findings and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this publication generated by the NRF supported research is that of the authors and that the NRF accepts no liability whatsoever in this regard. They would also like to acknowledge and thank Emari Erxleben for conducting the interviews.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article. The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and are not necessarily attributed to the National Research Foundation.

Authors' contributions

E.K. was responsible for the main conceptualisation of the study, writing of the article and analysis of the data. A.C. focussed on analysis of the data and writing of results and methodology section.

 

References

Abele, A. E., & Spurk, D. (2009). The longitudinal impact of self-efficacy and career goals on objective and subjective career success. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 74(1), 53-62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2008.10.005        [ Links ]

Arthur, M. B., Hall, D. T., & Lawrence, B. S. (1989). Handbook of career theory (p. 68). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.         [ Links ]

Arthur, M. B., Khapova, S. N., & Wilderom, C. P. M. (2005). Career success in a boundaryless career world. Journal of Organizational Behaviour, 26(2), 177-202. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.290        [ Links ]

Babbie, E., & Mouton, J. (2001). The practice of social research. Cape Town: Oxford University Press.         [ Links ]

Ballout, H. I. (2008). Work-family conflict and career success: The effects of domain-specific determinants. Journal of Management Development, 27(5), 437-466. https://doi.org/10.1108/02621710810871781        [ Links ]

Beigi, M., Shirmohammadi, M., & Arthur, M. (2018). Intelligent career success: The case of distinguished academics. Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 107, 261-275. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2018.05.007        [ Links ]

Blain, A. (2008). The millennial tidal wave: Five elements that will change the workplace of tomorrow. Journal of the Quality Assurance Institute, 22(2), 11-13.         [ Links ]

Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77-101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa        [ Links ]

Brown, A. P. (2010). Qualitative method and compromise in applied social research. Qualitative Research, 10, 229-248.         [ Links ]

Crotty, M. (1998). The foundations of social research: Meaning and perspective in the research process. Los Angeles, CA: Sage.         [ Links ]

Dries, N., Pepermans, R., & De Kerpel, E. (2008). Exploring four generations' beliefs about career: Is 'satisfied' the new 'successful'? Journal of Managerial Psychology, 23(8), 907-928. https://doi.org/10.1108/02683940810904394        [ Links ]

Epstein, M., & Hershatter, A. (2014). Millennials and the world of work: An organization and management perspective. Journal of Business and Psychology, 25(2), 211-223. https://doi.org/10.1007/sl0869-010-9160-y        [ Links ]

Eversole, B. A. W., Venneberg, D. L., & Crowder, C. L. (2012). Creating a flexible organizational culture to attract and retain talented workers across generations. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 14(4), 607-625. https://doi.org/10.1177/1523422312455612        [ Links ]

Fink, A. (2003). The survey handbook. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412986281        [ Links ]

Greenhaus, J. H., & Allen, T. (2011). Work-family balance: A review and extension of the literature. In L. Tetrick & J. C. Quick (Eds.), Handbook of occupational health psychology (2nd edn., pp. 165-183). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.         [ Links ]

Greenhaus, J. H., & Kossek, E. E. (2014). The contemporary career: A work-home perspective. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 1, 361-388. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-031413-091324        [ Links ]

Grimland, S., Vigoda-Gadot, E., & Baruch, Y. (2011). Career attitudes and success of managers: The impact of chance event, protean, and traditional careers. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 23(6), 1074-1094. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2011.560884        [ Links ]

Gunz, H. P., & Heslin, P. A. (2005). Reconceptualizing career success. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 26(2), 105-111. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.300        [ Links ]

Hall, D. T., Lee, M. D., Kossek, E. E., & Heras, M. L. (2012). Pursuing career success while sustaining personal and family well-being: A study of reduced-load professionals over time. Journal of Social Issues, 68(4), 742-766. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.2012.01774.x        [ Links ]

Heslin, P. A. (2005). Conceptualizing and evaluating career success. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 26, 113-136. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.270        [ Links ]

Jansen, H. (2010). The logic of qualitative survey research and its position in the field of social research methods [63 paragraphs]. Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung/Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 11(2), Art. 11. Available from: http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0114-fqs1002110.         [ Links ]

Judge, T. A., Cable, D. M., Boudreau, J. W., & Bretz, R. D. (1995). An empirical investigation of the predictors of executive career success. Personnel Psychology, 48(3), 485-519. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.1995.tb01767.x        [ Links ]

Keeney, J., Boyd, E. M., Sinha, R., Westring, A. F., & Ryan, A. M. (2013). From 'work-family' to 'work-life': Broadening our conceptualization and measurement. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 82(3), 221-237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2013.01.005        [ Links ]

Koekemoer, E., Fourie, H., & Jorgensen, L. (2018). Exploring subjective career success among blue-collar workers: Motivators that matter. Journal of Career Development. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894845318763942        [ Links ]

Kultalahti, S., & LiisaViitala, R. (2015). Generation Y - Challenging clients for HRM. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 30(1), 101-114.         [ Links ]

Laufer, R. S., & Bengtson, V. L. (1974). Generations, aging, and social stratification: On the development of generational units. Journal of Social Issues, 30, 181-205. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1974.tb00733.x        [ Links ]

Luscombe, J., Lewis, I., & Biggs, H. C. (2013). Essential elements for recruitment and retention: Generation Y. Education and Training, 55(3), 272-290. https://doi.org/10.1108/00400911311309323        [ Links ]

Lyons, S., & Kuron, L. (2013). Generational difference in the workplace: A review of the evidence and directions for future research. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 35, 139-157. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.1913        [ Links ]

Lyons, S. T., Schweitzer, L., Ng, E. S. W., & Kuron, L. K. J. (2012). Comparing apples to apples: A qualitative investigation of career mobility patterns across four generations. Career Development International, 17(4), 333-357. https://doi.org/10.1108/13620431211255824        [ Links ]

Mainiero, L. A., & Gibson, D. E. (2017). The Kaleidoscope Career Model revisited: How midcareer men and women diverge on authenticity, balance, and challenge. Journal of Career Development. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894845317698223        [ Links ]

Mainiero, L. A., & Sullivan, S. E. (2005). Kaleidoscope careers: An alternate explanation for the 'opt-out' revolution. Academy of Management Perspectives, 19(1), 106-123. https://doi.org/10.5465/AME.2005.15841962        [ Links ]

Mayrhofer, W., Briscoe, J., Hall, D. T., Dickmann, M., Dries, N., Kaše, A. D. R., … Unite, J. (2016). Career success across the globe: Insights from the 5C project. Organizational Dynamics, 45(2), 1-25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orgdyn.2016.07.005        [ Links ]

Meriac, J. P., Woehr, D. J., & Banister, C. (2010). Generational differences in work ethic: An examination of measurement equivalence across three cohorts. Journal of Business and Psychology, 25(2), 315-324. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-010-9164-7        [ Links ]

Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). An expanded sourcebook: Qualitative data analysis (2nd edn.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.         [ Links ]

Ng, E. S. W., Schweitzer, L., & Lyons, S. T. (2010). New generation, great expectations: A field study of the Millennial generation. Journal of Business and Psychology, 25(2), 281-292. https://doi.org/10.1007/sl0869-010-9159-4        [ Links ]

Ng, T. W. H., Eby, L. T., Sorensen, K. L., & Feldman, D. C. (2005). Predictors of objective and subjective career success: A meta-analysis. Personnel Psychology, 58(2), 367-408. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2005.00515.x        [ Links ]

Onwuegbuzie, A. J., & Leech, N. L. (2007). Sampling designs in qualitative research: Making the sampling process more public. The Qualitative Report, 22(2), 19-20. Available from: http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR12-2/onwuegbuzie1.pdf.         [ Links ]

Papavasileiou, E. F., & Lyons, S. T. (2015). A comparative analysis of the work values of Greece's 'Millennial' generation. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 26(17), 2166-2186. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2014.985325        [ Links ]

Parry, E., & Urwin, P. (2011). Generational differences in work values: A review of theory and evidence. International Journal of Management Reviews, 23(1), 79-96. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2370.2010.00285        [ Links ]

Pilcher, J. (1994). Mannheim's sociology of generations: An undervalued legacy. British Journal of Sociology, 45(3), 481-495. https://doi.org/10.2307/591659        [ Links ]

Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 51(1), 68-78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68        [ Links ]

Ryder, N. B. (1965). The cohort as a concept in the study of social change. American Sociological Review, 30, 843-861. https://doi.org/10.2307/2090964        [ Links ]

Sparkes, A. C. (2002). Telling tales in sport and physical activity: A qualitative journey. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.         [ Links ]

Suleman, R., & Nelson, B. (2011). Motivating the millennials: Tapping into the potential of the youngest generation. Leader to Leader, 62, 39-44. https://doi.org/10.1002/ltl.491        [ Links ]

Sullivan, S. E., & Baruch, Y. (2009). Advances in career theory and research: A critical review and agenda for future exploration. Journal of Management, 35(6), 1542-1571. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206309350082        [ Links ]

Sullivan, S. E., Forret, M. L., Carraher, S. M., & Mainiero, L. A. (2009). Using the kaleidoscope career model to examine generational differences in work attitudes. Career Development International, 14(3), 284-302. https://doi.org/10.1108/13620430910966442        [ Links ]

Sullivan, S. E., & Mainiero, L. (2008). Using the Kaleidoscope Career Model to understand the changing patterns of women's careers: Designing HRD programs that attract and retain women. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 10(1), 32-49. https://doi.org/10.1177/1523422307310110        [ Links ]

Super, D. E. (1980). A life-span, life-space approach to career development. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 16(3), 282-298. https://doi.org/10.1016/0001-8791(80)90056-1        [ Links ]

Terjesen, S., Vinnicombe, S., & Freeman, C. (2007). Attracting generation Y graduates: Organisational attributes, likelihood to apply and sex differences. Career Development International, 12(6), 504-522. https://doi.org/10.1108/13620430710821994        [ Links ]

Twenge, J. M. (2010). A review of the empirical evidence on generational differences in work attitudes. Journal of Business and Psychology, 25(2), 201-210. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-010-9165-6        [ Links ]

Visagie, S., & Koekemoer, E. (2014). What it means to succeed: Personal perceptions of career success held by senior managers. SA Journal of Business Management, 45(1), 43-54. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajbm.v45i1.116        [ Links ]

Wayne, J. H., Butts, M. M., Casper, W. J., & Allen, T. D. (2017). In search of balance: A conceptual and empirical integration of multiple meanings of work-family balance. Personnel Psychology, 70(1), 167-210. https://doi.org/10.1111/peps.12132        [ Links ]

 

 

Correspondence:
Eileen Koekemoer
eileen.koekemoer@up.ac.za

Received: 25 Jan. 2019
Accepted: 01 Apr. 2019
Published: 10 June 2019

 

 

1 . 'TechCo' is a pseudonym representing Technology Company
2 . A total of 26 interviews were conducted, of which 24 formed the basis of the final analysis.
3 . As indicated a total of 26 interviews were conducted, of which 24 formed the basis of the final analysis.

^rND^sAbele^nA. E.^rND^sSpurk^nD.^rND^sArthur^nM. B.^rND^sKhapova^nS. N.^rND^sWilderom^nC. P. M.^rND^sBallout^nH. I.^rND^sBeigi^nM.^rND^sShirmohammadi^nM.^rND^sArthur^nM.^rND^sBlain^nA.^rND^sBraun^nV.^rND^sClarke^nV.^rND^sBrown^nA. P.^rND^sDries^nN.^rND^sPepermans^nR.^rND^sDe Kerpel^nE.^rND^sEpstein^nM.^rND^sHershatter^nA.^rND^sEversole^nB. A. W.^rND^sVenneberg^nD. L.^rND^sCrowder^nC. L.^rND^sGreenhaus^nJ. H.^rND^sAllen^nT.^rND^sGreenhaus^nJ. H.^rND^sKossek^nE. E.^rND^sGrimland^nS.^rND^sVigoda-Gadot^nE.^rND^sBaruch^nY.^rND^sGunz^nH. P.^rND^sHeslin^nP. A.^rND^sHall^nD. T.^rND^sLee^nM. D.^rND^sKossek^nE. E.^rND^sHeras^nM. L.^rND^sHeslin^nP. A.^rND^sJansen^nH.^rND^sJudge^nT. A.^rND^sCable^nD. M.^rND^sBoudreau^nJ. W.^rND^sBretz^nR. D.^rND^sKeeney^nJ.^rND^sBoyd^nE. M.^rND^sSinha^nR.^rND^sWestring^nA. F.^rND^sRyan^nA. M.^rND^sKoekemoer^nE.^rND^sFourie^nH.^rND^sJorgensen^nL.^rND^sKultalahti^nS.^rND^sLiisaViitala^nR.^rND^sLaufer^nR. S.^rND^sBengtson^nV. L.^rND^sLuscombe^nJ.^rND^sLewis^nI.^rND^sBiggs^nH. C.^rND^sLyons^nS.^rND^sKuron^nL.^rND^sLyons^nS. T.^rND^sSchweitzer^nL.^rND^sNg^nE. S. W.^rND^sKuron^nL. K. J.^rND^sMainiero^nL. A.^rND^sGibson^nD. E.^rND^sMainiero^nL. A.^rND^sSullivan^nS. E.^rND^sMayrhofer^nW.^rND^sBriscoe^nJ.^rND^sHall^nD. T.^rND^sDickmann^nM.^rND^sDries^nN.^rND^sKaše^nA. D. R^rND^sUnite^nJ.^rND^sMeriac^nJ. P.^rND^sWoehr^nD. J.^rND^sBanister^nC.^rND^sNg^nE. S. W.^rND^sSchweitzer^nL.^rND^sLyons^nS. T.^rND^sNg^nT. W. H.^rND^sEby^nL. T.^rND^sSorensen^nK. L^rND^sFeldman^nD. C.^rND^sOnwuegbuzie^nA. J.^rND^sLeech^nN. L.^rND^sPapavasileiou^nE. F.^rND^sLyons^nS. T.^rND^sParry^nE.^rND^sUrwin^nP.^rND^sPilcher^nJ.^rND^sRyan^nR. M.^rND^sDeci^nE. L.^rND^sRyder^nN. B.^rND^sSuleman^nR.^rND^sNelson^nB.^rND^sSullivan^nS. E.^rND^sBaruch^nY.^rND^sSullivan^nS. E.^rND^sForret^nM. L.^rND^sCarraher^nS. M.^rND^sMainiero^nL. A.^rND^sSullivan^nS. E.^rND^sMainiero^nL.^rND^sSuper^nD. E.^rND^sTerjesen^nS.^rND^sVinnicombe^nS.^rND^sFreeman^nC.^rND^sTwenge^nJ. M.^rND^sVisagie^nS.^rND^sKoekemoer^nE.^rND^sWayne^nJ. H.^rND^sButts^nM. M.^rND^sCasper^nW. J.^rND^sAllen^nT. D.^rND^1A01^nNelesh^sDhanpat^rND^1A01^nRoslyn^sde Braine^rND^1A01^nMadelyn^sGeldenhuys^rND^1A01^nNelesh^sDhanpat^rND^1A01^nRoslyn^sde Braine^rND^1A01^nMadelyn^sGeldenhuys^rND^1A01^nNelesh^sDhanpat^rND^1A01^nRoslyn^sde Braine^rND^1A01^nMadelyn^sGeldenhuys

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Preliminary development of the Higher Education Hindrance Demands Scale amongst academics in the South African context

 

 

Nelesh Dhanpat; Roslyn de Braine; Madelyn Geldenhuys

Department of Industrial Psychology and People Management, College of Business and Economics, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

---

ABSTRACT

ORIENTATION: Over the past two decades, since the advent of democracy in South Africa, the country has undergone transformation in virtually all sectors of society. Education is no exception, with higher education institutions (HEIs) also experiencing change. The transformation of HEIs has brought about many new challenges, demands and stresses that may hinder the work performance of academics
RESEARCH PURPOSE: This study seeks to determine the 'hindrance demands' unique to the South African context by developing and validating the Higher Education Hindrance Demands Scale (HEHDS). This scale includes a set of demands placed on academics' experiences in this context
RESEARCH APPROACH, DESIGN AND METHOD: Data were collected from 184 academic staff members from HEIs based on a quantitative research design using a cross-sectional survey. Data were analysed through exploratory factor analysis (EFA), while the reliability of the scale was obtained through Cronbach's coefficient alpha.
MAIN FINDINGS: The results produced, as anticipated, a six-factor model consisting of: (1) workload, (2) higher education unrest, (3) change management, (4) decolonisation, (5) online teaching and learning and (6) psychological safety. The findings indicated excellent reliability, ranging between 0.74 and 0.90
PRACTICAL AND MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS: Taking into consideration the context in which HEIs operate in South Africa, it is noteworthy that the recommendations in this article will assist in identifying the hindrance demands placed on academic staff. Researchers in the field are therefore called to validate the instrument developed through the use of confirmatory factor analysis.
CONTRIBUTIONS OR VALUE-ADD: This study adds to the limited research on hindrance demands placed on staff in HEIs.

Keywords: Hindrance demands; higher education institutions; academic work; job demands; exploratory factor analysis; test construction.

---

 

 

Introduction

There is an increase in the demand for higher education and this seems to be a worldwide phenomenon (Altbach, Resiburg, & Rumbley, 2010; Guruz, 2011; Schofer & Meyer, 2005). Since the transition of apartheid to democracy, higher education institutions (HEIs) in South Africa have undergone significant transformation (Herbst & Conradie, 2011) and remain in the process of being reformed and restructured (Badat, 2010; King, Margison, & Naidoo, 2011). Change that occurs in higher education brings about the perception that overall improvement is taking place (Van Niekerk & Geertsema, 2009); however, this places greater levels of stress on HEI staff and, specifically, academics.

South African HEIs were impacted by structural changes, which resulted from the mergers of technikons and universities. This led to an increase in bureaucracy (Debowski, 2007), which has impacted institutions and employees (Arnold, Stofile, & Lillah, 2013; Pienaar & Bester, 2006). These changes have placed various demands on academics in South Africa. Such changes are likely to impact employees' work as they experience specific career dilemmas, namely, increased levels of job dissatisfaction (Phillips & Connell, 2003), intention to leave, breach of psychological contracts, break in employee-employer relationships, decline in commitment and job security, and increased workload (Theron & Dodd, 2011).

In order for HEIs to be effective, the successful functioning and sustainability of any institution is significantly influenced by the careers of academic staff and their retention (Ng'ethe, Amusonge, & Iravo, 2012). Academic work is characterised as being self-managed, intrinsically motivating and highly individualised. Such work requires high levels of personal commitment (Bellamy Morley, & Watty, 2003; Langford, Ref; Lyons & Ingersoll, 2010; Oshagbemi, 2000; Van Theron, Barkhuizen, & Du Plessis, 2014).

Academics have experienced an increase in their workload due to the high volume of students, demands from other academic staff and the pressure to produce increased research output (Barkhuizen, Rothmann, & Van De Vijver, 2014; Kenny & Fluck, 2014), which may prove to be counter-productive for some academics (Munro, O'Meara, & Kenny, 2016). Employees in an academic setting may therefore experience a unique set of challenges and thus be exposed to varying pressures compared to their non-academic counterparts (for instance, employees within the corporate sector).

It is evident that today's academia presents a stressful environment (Kinman & Jones, 2003; Mostert, Rothmann, Mostert, & Nell, 2008; Rothmann & Jordaan, 2006). The unique context of transformation in South Africa places additional stress on academics, which is likely to lead to burnout (Rothmann & Barkhuizen, 2008) and psychological ill health (Jackson, Rothmann, & Van De Vijver, 2006; Mahomed & Naudé, 2006).

In terms of the South African context, various studies exist, which focus on HEIs with regard to job demands and job resources (Barkhuizen, Roodt, & Schutte, 2014), work engagement of academics (Bezuidenhout & Cilliers, 2010; Pienaar & Bester, 2006; Rothmann & Jordaan, 2006), work-related well-being (Jackson et al., 2006) and occupational stress experienced by academics (Barkhuizen & Rothmann, 2008; Coetzee & Rothmann, 2005). However, none of these studies have documented the effects of the hindrance demands on academics, hence the rationale for the current study. With the development of the 'hindrance demands' scale, the study aims to measure more specific demands placed on academics. The value of such a scale will be its ability to provide insights into these challenges and the way in which they are perceived. The study therefore sets out to identify specific hindrance demands specific to the South African academia context, such as workload, higher education unrest, change management, decolonisation, online teaching and learning and psychological safety. Hence, there is the need to develop and validate the hindrance demands scale for higher education.

 

Study objectives

The objectives of the study can be formulated as follows:

• to theoretically discuss demands placed on staff in higher education within a South African context.

• to evaluate the construct validity of the Higher Education Hindrance Demands Scale (HEHDS) through exploratory factor analysis.

Hindrance demands

Hindrance demands are a set of demands that can be framed within the Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) model. According to Bakker and Demerouti (2007), demands within this model are considered as stressors. The concept of hindrance demands relates to negative demands that are likely to impact personal growth and trigger negative emotions, leading to distress (LePine, Podsakoff, & LePine, 2005).

The JD-R model is a theoretical framework that integrates two independent research traditions: stress and motivation research (Demerouti & Bakker, 2011). It was developed by Demerouti, Bakker, Nachreiner, and Schaufeli (2001). This model postulates that every occupation (or organisation) is likely to have its own work characteristics associated with well-being. The model integrates and elaborates upon previously developed job characteristics models such as the Demand Control Model (Karasek, 1979) and the Effort Reward Imbalance Model (Siegrist, 1996).

A growing interest exists to understand the positive experiences of employees, which include their optimal functioning (Luthans, 2002; Seligman & Csikzenthmihalyi, 2000). However, in the context of this study, it is apparent that there is a need to determine the aspects of work that may hinder optimal functioning of academics in HEIs. Stressors in the workplace can reduce optimal functioning of employees. However, it should be noted that even though stressors exist in an occupation, they may not always present harmful reactions. According to Podsakoff, LePine, and LePine (2007), some stressors may potentially spur personal growth and achievement. These are referred to as challenge stressors and can be differentiated from the stressors that employees consider as constraining their personal development or work accomplishment.

Hindrance stressors influence employee turnover intention, employee loyalty, job attitudes and satisfaction (Boswell, Olson-Buchanan, & Lepine, 2004; Podsakoff et al., 2007) as well as task performance and withdrawal behaviour (Lepine et al., 2005; Podsakoff et al., 2007). Challenge stressors consist of job or role demands, quantitative and subjective workload, time pressures and pressure to complete tasks, job scope and responsibility. Hindrance stressors consist of situational constraints, hassles, organisational politics, resource inadequacies, role ambiguity, role conflict, role overload and concerns about job security (Cavanaugh, Boswell, Roehling, & Boudreau, 2000; Lepine et al., 2005; Podsakoff et al., 2007).

It must be acknowledged that job demands may act as hindrance or challenge demands (Bakker & Sanz-Vergel, 2013). The JD-R model postulates that there are job demands which may hinder employees by draining their energy. According to Tims, Bakker, and Derks (2013), prolonged exposure to work that has high job demands will deplete employees' levels of well-being. Certain demands can cause negative emotions and inhibit employees' work goals and well-being. In such instances, hindrance demands act as a barrier, preventing employees from achieving their goals (Siu, 2013).

Higher Education Hindrance Demand Scale

This study is based on the premise that hindrance demands exist and affect the work performed by academic staff. It goes beyond simply measuring whether academic staff experience work overload and goes on to include the various types of demands that cause stress. This brings to the fore the need for such an instrument to be developed and validated within a South African context.

Ideally, this measure contributes to the most recent occurrences at universities and current events in South African HEIs. The scale consists of 29 items of which 7 items capture workload, 4 items capture higher education unrest and 5 items capture each of the following: change management, decolonisation and online teaching and learning. The last dimension, psychological safety, is captured through three items. All items in the scale were measured on a seven-response format. This response format is in line with methodological recommendations and is regularly used in studies (Weijters, Cabooter, & Schillewaert, 2010). A seven-point scale contains a mid-point, which ensures measurement quality (Nowlis, Kahn, & Dhar, 2002). According to Weijters et al. (2010), a seven-response format is less problematic as it provides more categories and is best used for populations who rank high on cognitive ability.

In terms of scale development, a series of steps were followed:

• Application of a theoretical base: the parameters (variables) of the study were identified. Furthermore, Conversations, themes and forums that were common within South African institutions were discussed and decided upon to assist in the generation of items. A small group meeting led by international scholars Arnold Bakker and Eva Demerouti initiated discussion on the items of hindrance demands to be included in the scale.

• Item generation: statements were generated through inductive and deductive approaches. The deductive approach followed the review of literature (Hinkin, 1995). The inductive approach involved reviewing qualitative information on the construct through exploratory research methodologies (Kapuścinski & Masters, 2010).

• Measurement format and item development: experts were approached to comment on the appropriateness, relevance and suitability of the questions. This allowed suggestions to be made on the structure of the questionnaire (Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill, 2009). The aim of pre-testing was to determine the strengths and weaknesses (format, wording and order of questions) of the questionnaire before using it for data collection.

• Conduct an item analysis to eliminate inadequate items: an expert panel of 10 academics reviewed the scale and were asked to rate the items in terms of adequacy, relevance and structure, to provide feedback on the language with regard to confusing wording or items and to suggest recommendations.

• Design and conducting developmental study: the retained items were administered to the appropriate sample with the objective of examining how well those items confirmed expectations regarding the psychometric properties (Hinkin, Tracey, & Enz, 1997). The survey was thus administered to academics in HEIs in South Africa.

In this study, the following dimensions can be considered as a hindrance demand and have been delineated as items measured on the HEHDS.

The scales were developed based on the unique nature of HEIs in South Africa and its associated challenges faced at the time of development of the scale. Notably, there are dimensions from existing scales which were adapted from the JD-R scale, namely, workload. Although the JD-R scale exists, the dimensions are not unique to higher education. The intention of developing such a scale was not to create many items or even a lengthy questionnaire. The HEHDS is seen as a brief measure and we acknowledge that brief measures have certain psychometric limitations (Widaman, Liitle, Preacher, & Sawalani, 2011). The nature of the scale is meant to be narrow. We acknowledge that there are a few items in the scale, however, where there is a possibility that higher order factors could exist.

Work overload

In terms of occupational stress, the concept of workload relates to job demands that may result in or contribute to the development of stress or injury. This is characterised as a psychosocial hazard (MacDonald, 2003). It is noted that the job demands of academic staff are ascribed to various factors, one of which is work overload (Barkhuizen & Rothmann, 2008). Working long hours and the intensification of work have become a common factor in the modern-day workplace (Sang, Powell, Finkel, & Richards, 2015). A frequent occurrence amongst academic staff is the blurring of boundaries between work and home (Wright, Williamson, Schauder, & Stockfeld, 2003). Similar patterns of work have been observed internationally (Bagilhole & White, 2013). The work environment of universities has changed over the last decade and the work performed by academics has been altered from secure and autonomous to insecure and invisible (May, Strachan, & Peetz, 2013). This has resulted in significant changes in the working conditions of academia (Rainnie, Goods, Barns, & Burgess, 2013). Hence, it is critical to assume that workload has the likelihood to hinder academic work.

Workload was measured by seven items on a seven-response format, which ranged from 1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree, and 1 = never to 7 = always. An example of an item in this dimension is 'I work under time pressure'. The items in this dimension were adapted from the workload scale of Rothmann and Jordaan (2006), which scored an acceptable alpha of 0.76, and the workload dimension of Roberts, Lapidus, and Chonko (1997), which scored an acceptable alpha of 0.82.

Higher education unrest

Several manifestations of student protests have occurred over recent years, particularly from 2015 to 2017. These acted as a mechanism for students to have their voices and concerns raised on decisions made by their institutions (Kamsteeg, 2016). South African HEIs were marred by multiple student protests, such as the 'Rhodes Must Fall' campaign and the 'Fees Must Fall' campaign (Dell, 2015; Rantao, 2015). Such unrest caused major damage to institutions, namely, disruption of the academic calendar and revision of exam dates (Pijoos, 2016), damage to buildings and disruption of examinations (Petersen, 2016). Public HEIs across South Africa were subjected to unrest and violence (Hall, 2016), where artwork, statues and buildings were damaged. Hall (2016) further states that this brought about brutal clashes and confrontations between the police and student factions.

In light of the 'Fees must fall' campaign, tuition fee increases had significant implications for higher education access. At the increases of fees, students protested, at times violently, arguing that high fees make education inaccessible to poor students (Wangenge-Ouma, 2012). In light of these incidents, it is likely that university employees, their work and entrance into the institution were impacted. Based on the aforementioned literature, it was deemed necessary to measure unrest in HEIs in South Africa. In terms of the measurement, unrest pertains to any disruption that takes place at HEIs, as we live in a time fuelled with unrest.

Higher education unrest was measured with four items on a seven-response format, which ranged from 1 = never to 7 = always. An example of an item in this dimension is 'Due to student protests, my work was negatively affected'.

Change management

The concept of change affects all facets of society, bringing about uncertainty and creating new possibilities of how to manage changes (Bowin, 2001). Similarly, organisations function in environments that are continuously changing, which presents both risks and opportunities. It could be argued that the introduction of certain changes is essential for the survival of an organisation. However, there are instances in which change, if not managed effectively, will result in the failure of an organisation (Govender & Rampersad, 2016).

South African HEIs were reconfigured in 2001, resulting in institutional restructuring to meet the needs of a developing democracy and paving the way for a new higher education landscape. In this regard, HEI systems were challenged by policy issues (Badat, 2009), mergers of technikons and universities, equity, access and quality (Le Grange, 2011).

According to Vandeyar (2010), HEIs are inherently resistant to change because of global pressures and international competitiveness. In light of the changes that occur within tertiary institutions, changes such as mergers can result in flagging staff morale, job insecurity and redeployment (Seijts & Farrell, 2003). In addition, Seijts and Farrell (2003) suggest that if change is not perceived as a means of creating positive outcomes, employees are likely to resist such initiatives. In terms of higher education literature, the work duties of an academic have been transformed in terms of work tasks and conditions of employment (Enders & Teichler, 1997; Schuster & Finkelstein, 2008).

Higher education institutions are prone to increased levels of uncertainty from societal change because of the production of knowledge (Barnett, 2000). In addition, academics have come to work under a 'managerial paradigm' which affects the way they work and in which they are managed (Barnett, 2012). Gill (2014) notes that essential changes in work at HEIs fail to sufficiently document the experiences of employees. Notably, changes that take place are likely to affect the way in which academics perform their work.

Change management was measured through seven items on a seven-response format, which ranged from 1 = never to 7 = always. An example of an item in this dimension is 'There are continuous changes in processes and procedures which impact my job'.

Decolonisation

A series of protest campaigns to 'decolonise' academia commenced around 2015 at universities throughout South Africa (Wamai, 2016). Decolonisation refers to addressing the colonial legacy (knowledge, violence and thought) (Pillay, 2015), which is still entrenched within education in South African HEIs (Heleta, 2016), and is perceived as a response to first- and second-generation colonialism (Le Grange, 2016).

Critical changes to the curricula in HEIs have not taken place for nearly a century, and they remain significantly unchanged despite the monumental shifts in the political landscape (Ramrathan, 2016). Such changes include moving away from colonial influences (Heleta, 2016). In terms of transformation, HEIs should include changes in the curriculum and epistemology as well as teaching and learning (Du Preez, Simmonds, & Verhoef, 2016). According to McKaiser (2016), HEIs in South Africa remain entrenched in a colonial outpost mentality and the few changes that have occurred have been superficial and were initiated through the response of policies, namely, professional bodies, qualification frameworks and curriculum frameworks (Ramrathan, 2016). Moreover, Mbembe (2016) indicates that syllabi are designed in a manner to meet the needs of colonialism; hence, it is important to bring about significant epistemological changes in HEIs. Although universities have developed policies and frameworks on change, transformation, equality and equity, they have still not progressively changed (Heleta, 2016).

The debate around the decolonisation of the curriculum is positioned within the context of universities that are strained from various quarters, notably, lack of government funding, increased running costs and increased student access, which makes time-intensive learning processes all the more expensive and unwelcome from a managerial perspective (Kamanzi, 2016). In order for the scholarship of academia and the curriculum to become decolonised, HEIs need to address matters by finding leaders, academics and administrators who possess knowledge of and passion for African content. Because of the past political landscape, white academics were out of touch with such knowledge (Mkhize, 2015). The recent initiation of decolonisation in HEIs may have an impact on academics and their work. With its continuation and universities prioritising decolonising imperatives, it is essential to see the way in which it is being perceived by academics.

Decolonisation was measured by five items on a seven-response format, which ranged from 1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree. An example of an item on this dimension is 'Decolonisation of higher education will bring about changes in the way in which I approach my work'.

Online teaching and learning

Fundamental changes in higher education have shifted the role of academics as they become increasingly involved in the changing nature of teaching, namely, online education (Bennett & Lockyer, 2004). The reform of teaching and learning has occurred through the use of technology which has highlighted change and transformation (Strobel & Tillberg-Webb, 2008). The proliferation of online technologies in higher education has resulted in transformation for students and teachers (Collis, 1996; Palloff & Pratt, 1999). The vast differences between traditional teaching and online teaching bring about advantages and disadvantages (Oliver & Herrington, 2001).

According to Allen and Seaman (2013), faculty staff members are increasingly prone to resisting online learning. They resist online teaching and learning as they perceive that educational values and culture are being threatened (Bennett & Lockyer, 2004). Concerns that arise from online teaching and learning include an increase in workload, lack of resources and technological skills and training as well as pedagogical concerns (Bennett & Lockyer, 2004; Hunt et al., 2014; Johnson, Wisniewski, Kuhlemeyer, Isaacs, & Krzykowski, 2012; Power & Gould-Morven, 2011). These concerns are also heightened amongst faculty members who have little or no experience with online teaching (Herman, 2012). Such academics cite fear and resist change to online learning. Some senior academics prefer to hold on to traditional face-to-face teaching (Goolnik, 2012). Academics may perceive that they are being challenged and are inadequately skilled to utilise technologically based teaching and learning tools. With online teaching and learning becoming a reality in HEIs, it is essential to establish whether it is considered a hindrance.

Online teaching and learning was measured by five items on a seven-response format, which ranged from 1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree. An example of an item on this dimension is 'The drive towards online teaching and learning in my department is progressing well'.

Psychological safety

Early research by Kahn (1990) refers to psychological safety as one's ability to apply and show the fear of consequences towards one's career, self-image and status. In more recent research, Edmondson and Lei (2014) explain that psychological safety refers to the feeling of safety whereby people are able to perform effectively in a rapidly changing world under the circumstances of growing and learning. Psychological safety assists people in overcoming barriers to change and learning and work environments that are interpersonally challenging (Edmondson, Higgins, Singer, & Weiner, 2016).

Edmondson, Bohmer, and Pisano (2001) assert that psychological safety is particularly important in environments that are characterised by complexity, high stakes and essential human interactions. There is a likelihood that individuals feel safe in environments where they are able to express themselves without fear of reprisal, being victimised or penalised. When conditions are perceived by individuals as unpredictable and ambiguous, a lack of psychological safety may be experienced (Chikoko, Buitendach, & Kanengoni, 2014).

Psychological safety influences the way in which an individual engages with his or her work. Factors that affect psychological safety are behavioural norms, supervisory relations and relationships between co-workers (Kahn, 1990). Edmondson (1999) notes that psychological safety varies amongst organisations and workgroups.

Academic staff in HEIs face challenges in their daily work that may lesson their sense of psychological safety. A climate may exist within the organisation, which may impact the psychological safety of staff members. The concept of psychological safety asserts itself with elements that allow for consistent social systems that are non-threatening and predictable to be created. This allows social situations to prevail and, hence, allows for engagement (Kahn, 1990). Therefore, it is imperative to assess the psychological safety of academics.

Psychological safety was drawn from Kahn (1990) and included three items on a seven-response format, where 7 = strongly agree, and 1 = never and 7 = always. An example of an item on this dimension is 'I am afraid to be myself at work'. Olivier and Rothmann (2007) reported an acceptable Cronbach's alpha coefficient of 0.71.

 

Method

Research design, setting and respondents

A non-probability sampling method was utilised and through a convenience sample data were collected from academics across universities in South Africa. Questionnaires were completed online; in total, 184 responses were received from academic staff. The size of a sample is deemed essential for factor analysis and varying guidelines exist in this regard (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007; Williams, Onsman, & Brown, 2010). Hair, Anderson, Tatham, and Black (1995) and Comrey (1973) suggest that a sample size of 100 participants is considered sufficient and fair. It is noted that the sample size is small for factor analysis. This, however, does not invalidate the results and, hence, should be interpreted with caution.

The majority of the sample comprised women (56%) and men accounted for 44%. The participants comprised academic staff, with the majority of them employed as lecturers (40.8%), followed by senior lecturers (27.2%), associate professors and professors (19.6%), heads of departments/schools (5.4%), junior lecturers (2.2%), other (3.8%) and researchers (1.1%). The white race group (52.3%) was the most represented in the sample. The majority of the population had a master's degree (31%). A high proportion of employees were permanently employed (90.8%) by their institutions in comparison to staff members who held temporary positions (2.2%). In terms of tenure, staff members had been employed at the HEIs for 0-5 years (28.8%), followed by 6-10 years (24.5%), 11-20 years (21.7%) and greater than 20 years (12.5%). The average age of employees was 43 years (SD = 10.48 years), and ranged between 23 and 67 years. It must be noted that 91.8% of the population was representative of the Faculty of Commerce.

Data analyses

Statistical analysis was carried out using R Studio 3.2.0 (R Development Core Team, 2015). Descriptive statistics were obtained for all factors on the hindrance demands scale and the data were analysed in terms of mean, standard deviation, skewness, kurtosis and Cronbach's alpha coefficient of each item. The current study utilised exploratory factor analysis to examine construct validity of the HEHDS. To determine the suitability of the factor structure, the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy and Bartlett's test of sphericity (Burton & Mazerolle, 2011; Pallant, 2011) were analysed. With this analysis, the bootstrap function was conducted with 1000 iterations. This function allows for the construction of confidence intervals (Kim, Kim, & Schmidt, 2007). It is valuable in estimating biases and variances and constructs confidence intervals in complex data sets (Ichikawa & Konishi, 1995).

In terms of KMO, the index ranged from 0 to 1, and a recommended value of 0.6 and above is considered suitable (Pallant, 2011). Items that are grouped into a set of interpretable factors can efficiently explain the constructs under investigation (Burton & Mazerolle, 2011). Bartlett's test of sphericity provides a chi-square output which should be significant at <0.05 as recommended by Pallant (2011).

The study used unweighted least-squares method (minimum residual - MinRes) as the factor extraction method. To determine model fit, absolute and incremental fit indices were determined. The absolute fit indices for this study were the following: chi-square (χ²), fit statistic, the standardised root mean residual (SRMR) and the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA). The assessment of incremental fit indices included the Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) (Hair, Black, Babin, Andersen, & Tatham, 2010). The study utilised the rule of thumb whereby an RMSEA ≤ 0.05 indicates close approximate fit, values between 0.05 and 0.08 indicate reasonable error of approximation and an RMSEA ≥ 0.10 suggests a poor fit (Kline, 2005). In terms of the indices, if the TLI value is greater than roughly 0.90, this may suggest a reasonably good fit of the model, whereas values less than 0.10 are considered favourable. Consequently, the model with the largest TLI as well as the lowest RMSEA and SRMR is considered the best fit. The TLI can substantially improve models with an overall fit of less than 0.90 (Bentler & Bonett, 1980). The comparative fit index, namely, Bayesian information criterion (BIC), is indicative of model parsimony (Kline, 2011).

Results

The initial examination of the HEHDS used Kaiser-Guttman's criterion, while Cartell's scree plot was used to determine the number of factors to be extracted. The KMO measure of sampling adequacy for the hindrance demands scale, which contained 29 items in the first iteration, was 0.8. This exceeded the recommended value of 0.6 (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). It is notable that normality and homoscedasticity preconditions for the study were fulfilled. The scree plot indicated that the five factors should be retained; however, the parallel analysis suggested six factors and six components. Hence, both models were tested to determine the number of factors to be extracted and to determine model fits. In this analysis, the bootstrap function was conducted with 100 iterations. The bootstrap function allows for the construction of confidence intervals (Kim et al., 2007).

The fits of the five- and six-factor models were then compared (see Table 1). Model 1 represents the five-factor solution with items loading freely on the five factors, while Model 2 is the six-factor solution with items loading freely on the six factors (as hypothesised). The fit indices of both models were satisfactory.

 

 

From the examination of the chi-square fit statistics for Model 1 (p < 0.000) and Model 2 (p < 0.000), it was inferred that Model 2 had a better fit. The TLI values were regarded as satisfactory for both the five-factor (0.755) and the six-factor (0.848) models. Reasonable error of approximation was indicated with regard to RMSEA for Model 1 (0.0790) and Model 2 (.062). Based on the squared mean square residual (SMSR), both models provided favourable results (Model 1 = 0.05 and Model 2 = 0.04), which were lower than the suggested cut-off point of < 0.10. The BIC value suggested that the five-factor model (-829.350) has a better fit than the six-factor model (-865.17) and, hence, allowed for differentiation between the competing models. In addition, 90% intervals were reported. Based on the aforementioned results, Model 2 has a suitable fit and factor structure.

The 29 items of the six-factor model of the HEHDS were subjected to a factor analysis using unweighted least square method (minimum residual - MinRes) and a direct oblimin rotation. Upon inspection of the analysis, the factor loadings that remained were undefined and unstructured. Hence, an uncorrelated factor solution was tested and the results indicated that the data best fitted an uncorrelated factor solution

Factor solutions

Based on the statistical fit presented in Table 1, it was suggested that the six-factor analysis should be further inspected to facilitate the interpretation of the models and, hence, the respective factor solutions were examined. Solutions that presented two or more factors could have different factor structures and hence explain the data equally well. Factor loadings that were below the cut-off point of 0.30 were interpreted as non-significant (Diekhoff, 1992) and were not considered during the examination of the factor matrix. The standardised factor loadings for the six-factor solution indicated that the items DECO2, DECO1, OTL1 and OTL4 were to be removed as they did not load against any factors and were considered non-interpretative, which also scored low communalities between 0.14 and 0.23 (see Table 2). In addition, the items CHMAN 1, CHMAN5 and CHMAN4 loaded on more than one factor. These were considered problematic and were hence removed.

 

 

The remaining factor loadings for this solution ranged between 0.36 and 0.88, which is indicative of fairly strong to very strong factor loadings. The communalities ranged between 0.20 and 0.80. Evidently, the majority of the values fell above the cut-off point of >0.40. Furthermore, the solution provided six clearly defined sub-clusters, thus providing significant support for the six-factor model.

A second iteration of factor analysis was conducted using the unweighted least-squares method (MinRes). All items loaded accordingly on six factors and the factor loadings ranged from 0.31 to 0.89, with communalities ranging between 0.19 and 0.88. The item CHMAN1 loaded on more than one factor and hence it was decided to remove the factor and conduct the third iteration of the factor analysis.

The third iteration of the factor analysis was conducted (see Table 3) using the unweighted least-squares method (MinRes) and the respective solutions were examined. The factor solutions presented different factor structures and explained the data well. The second iteration data, CHMAN1, were removed. The standardised pattern matrix containing the factor loadings for the revised six-factor solution is indicated in Table 4. All of the factor loadings fell above the suggested cut-off point of 0.30 and ranged from 0.35 to 0.90, which is indicative of fairly strong to very high factor loadings. Communalities for the final structure ranged between 0.19 and 0.88, with the majority of the values falling above the cut-off point of >0.40. The solution indicated six clearly defined sub-clusters, thus providing significant support for the six-factor model. The proportion of variance explained by the six factors was examined. Factor 1 accounted for 10% of the variance, while Factor 2 accounted for 20%. Factors 3 and 4 of the six-factor model explained 33% and 42% of the variance, respectively. Fifty per cent of the variance was explained by Factor 5, while 57% was explained by Factor 6.

 

 

 

 

All the factors achieved acceptable Cronbach's alpha coefficients, ranging from 0.77 (lowest) to 0.90 (highest). Hence, the scale satisfied the requirements of internal consistency.

 

Discussion

The primary aim of this study was to develop the HEHDS within the South African context. The primary focus was to develop a scale to measure hindrance demands. The scale design was based on the hindrance demands apparent within the South African higher education context. The study set out to achieve a six-factor scale, which was achieved through exploratory factor analysis.

The reliability of the HEHDS was assessed using Cronbach's alpha coefficient. The overall reliability derived from the instrument was acceptable, as all alphas were above the cut-off point of 0.70 (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994). This is indicative of good reliability and internal consistency of the instrument. Table 3 depicts the mean, standard deviation, skewness and kurtosis for each of the final 22 items of the HEHDS. According to the descriptive statistics, there were no problematic items present with regard to skewness and kurtosis and hence the scale can be considered as normally distributed, based on the cut-off points for skewness (< 2) and kurtosis (< 4). The mean values for items ranged from 2.891 (PSAF3) to 5.641 (WL5). Normality and homoscedasticity preconditions for the study were fulfilled as the KMO was 0.80 and Bartlett's test of sphericity reached statistical significance. This indicates that the correlation matrix of the HEHDS was acceptable and supported factorability.

Determining the factor structure

Upon inspection of the parallel analysis and scree plot, it was suggested that a five-factor and a six-factor structure should be considered. Consequently, both structures were tested. However, based on the fit statistics, the six-factor structure fitted the data best and was also in line with the overall hypothesis of this study, namely, higher education unrest, workload, psychological safety, decolonisation, online teaching and learning and change management. It is not uncommon for academic work to be affected by numerous job demands, such as work overload, job insecurity, and lack of growth opportunities, which affect people in the workplace (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007), and more specifically, different types of job demands, such as emotional demands and physical demands (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007). Previous research further supports an expanded model of job demands and job resources which can affect stress at work (Barkhuizen, 2005; Bakker & Demerouti, 2007; Demerouti & Bakker, 2011).

Factor rotation

The solutions of the exploratory factor analysis for a five-factor and a six-factor model were evaluated and compared. The goodness of fit indices and the model parameters were examined. The goodness of fit indices for both the five-factor model (TLI = 0.755; RMSEA = 0.079; report root-mean-square residuals [RMSR] = 0.05) and the six-factor model (TLI = 0.848; RMSR = 0.062; RMSR = 0.04) solutions were satisfactory. However, the five-factor model produced a lower BIC value (-829.35) than the six-factor model (-865.17). Hence, the six-factor model was deemed more suitable.

Following this, the proposed six-factor model containing the 29 items was subjected to a further iteration of exploratory factor analysis with an uncorrelated factor solution.

Item fit

The inspection of the results from the first iteration analysis of the six-factor model suggested that problematic items were present. Such items loaded on more than one factor. CHMAN5 (Changes in the leadership in my work environment make me feel unsettled about the university's future), CHMAN1 (I feel insecure about my job due to changes in my work environment) and CHMAN4 (Changes within my work environment make me feel anxious about my job) loaded on the factors 'change management' and 'psychological safety'. It is likely that the way in which the item of change management was expressed is similar to that of psychological safety or bears resemblance to items measured under psychological safety. The overlapping factors are likely to suggest that the respective items do not provide adequate distinction or clarification for the factor upon which the double loading exists, except for CHMAN1, which loaded adequately on psychological safety. Hence, those items were considered problematic and discarded.

In addition, items DECO2 (Decolonisation of higher education makes me feel unsettled about my work) and DECO1 (Decolonisation of higher education will bring about changes in the way in which I approach my work) did not load on any factor. The concept of decolonisation is fairly new and refers to colonial legacy (knowledge, violence and thought) (Pillay, 2015) within academia in South African HEIs (Heleta, 2016). It is likely that the concept could be defined differently or perceived differently by academics and hence could possibly influence how it is measured.

OTL4 (My involvement in online teaching and learning initiatives has left me feeling anxious about my work) and OTL1 (The drive towards online teaching and learning in my department is progressing well) did not present any factor loadings and hence were discarded. It is possible that online teaching and learning may not have had a presence in the department or institution and may therefore not have been interpreted well.

The remainder of the 22 items, with the removal of items DECO2, CHMAN5, CHMAN4, DECO1, OTL5 and OTL1, attained factor loadings that ranged from 0.36 to 0.88, while communalities ranged between 0.20 and 0.80. This provided an insight that a further iteration of factor analysis was required and, hence, a third iteration was conducted to include 22 items to determine a finalised structure.

The fit statistics of the final 22-item scale indicated good fit and showed improvement from the original 29-item scale, which was done in the first iteration, and is indicative of a suitable structure. Hence, it can be confirmed as the final factor structure of the HEHDS which includes 22 items, still defined under the following six factors: (1) higher education unrest, (2) work load, (3) change management, (4) decolonisation, (5) online teaching and learning and (6) psychological safety.

Limitations and recommendations for future research

It should be noted that scientific research is rarely without limitations. This study has several limitations which need to be addressed. Limitations included that the data were based on a convenience sample and did not utilise probability sampling. The study was conducted on a limited number of HEIs in South Africa because of accessibility and convenience. A number of other universities in South Africa could be considered for future research.

A subsequent limitation of the study was the number of participants. A larger sample size could yield more robust results. We acknowledge that the sample size was small and thus the results of the study should be interpreted with caution. A final limitation regarding the sample was that the majority of participants were from the Faculty of Commerce. It is possible that other disciplines within HEIs could experience hindrances differently. Future research could use the scale and consider validating it through the use of confirmatory factor analysis (CFA).

The items may seem narrow, and it is duly recommended that future studies build upon these items. Future studies can use the scale as a base and as development continues, add to it. It is acknowledged that more items can be added to the scale in the future.

There is a need for further research to be conducted on the challenges that exist within HEIs (Mouton, Louw, & Strijdom, 2012). Such studies could establish which of the demands in the present study could be differentiated as either a challenge or a hindrance demand, and could possibly add to the demands that are experienced by academic staff that are unique to the institution. The study contributed towards literature by investigating the perceived demands that challenge work within a specific occupational group, namely, academics.

 

Conclusion

The study developed a scale to measure hindrance demands within HEIs in a South African context. The study assessed the relationship between the six dimensions of the HEHDS which was established as reliable and valid for the South African context. In addition, the study contributed to the limited body of knowledge on hindrance demands within a higher education setting.

Furthermore, the study expanded the JD-R theory by integrating it with the hindrance stressor framework (Cavanaugh et al., 2000; LePine et al., 2005). Hindrance demands are likely to place strain on employee work; however, they do not necessarily increase strain and may be considered as a challenge demand. The scale developed in this study will be useful to researchers in higher education, heads of department and executive deans to better understand the demands placed upon academic staff. Although there is literature on the JD-R model, there is only limited information on the hindrance demands of academics within a higher education setting. Exposure to such demands is likely to leave employees feeling unsettled, and it may alter their engagement levels and diminish the meaning they find in their work. It is recommended that human resource practitioners establish strategies to mitigate the feelings caused by hindrance demands and that such demands remain on high alert on the agenda of academics who are within the management echelons of HEIs.

This study makes a unique contribution to the literature by integrating the hindrance stressor framework of academics based on the JD-R model and revealing the different hindrance demands affecting academics within the unique South African landscape. The HEHDS builds upon the notion that it may serve as a good first step in stimulating research on hindrance or even challenge demands of academics in South Africa.

 

Acknowledgements

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationship(s) which may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

Author's contributions

N.D., R.D.B. and M.G. co-designed the research study. N.D. conducted the research and was the main writer of the manuscript. R.D.B. and M.G. assisted with data analysis and contributed to the writing of the manuscript.

 

References

Allen, I. E., & Seaman, J. (2013). Changing course: Ten years of tracking online education in the United States. Newburyport: Sloan Consortium.         [ Links ]

Altbach, P. G., Reisberg, L., & Rumbley, L. E. (2010). Tracking a global academic revolution: Change. The Magazine of Higher Learning, 42(2), 30-39. https://doi.org/10.1080/00091381003590845        [ Links ]

Anderson, D., Richard, J., & Saha, L. (2002). Changes in academic work: implications for universities of the changing age distribution and work roles of academic staff. Canberra: Department of Education, Science and Training.         [ Links ]

Arnold, C. A., Stofile, R. N., & Lillah, R. (2013). Assessing the outcomes of the higher education mergers in South Africa: Implications for strategic management, Acta Commercii, 13(1), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.4102/ac.v13i1.175        [ Links ]

Badat, S. (2009). Theorising institutional change: Post-1994 South African higher education. Studies in Higher Education, 34(4), 455-467. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075070902772026        [ Links ]

Badat, S. (2010). The challenges of transformation in higher education and training institutions in South Africa. Development Bank of Southern Africa, 8, 1-37.         [ Links ]

Bagilhole, B., & White, K. (Eds.). (2013). Generation and gender in academia. New York: Springer.         [ Links ]

Bakker, A. B., & Demerouti, E. (2007). The job demands-resources model: State of the art. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 22(3), 309-328. https://doi.org/10.1108/02683940710733115        [ Links ]

Bakker, A. B., & Sanz-Vergel, A. I. (2013). Weekly work engagement and flourishing: The role of hindrance and challenge job demands. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 83(3), 397-409. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2013.06.008        [ Links ]

Barkhuizen, E. N. (2005). Work wellness of academic staff in South African higher education institutions. Retrieved from http://nrfnexus.nrf.ac.za/handle/20.500.11892/42.         [ Links ]

Barkhuizen, E. N., Roodt, E., & Schutte, N. (2014). Talent management of academics: Balancing job demands and job resources. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 5(20), 2033. https://doi.org/10.5901/mjss.2014.v5n20p2033        [ Links ]

Barkhuizen, E. N., & Rothmann, S. (2008). Occupational stress of academic staff in South African higher education institutions. South African Journal of Psychology, 38(2), 321-336. https://doi.org/10.1177/008124630803800205        [ Links ]

Barkhuizen, E. N., Rothmann, S., & Van de Vijver, F. J. (2014). Burnout and work engagement of academics in higher education institutions: Effects of dispositional optimism. Stress and Health, 30(4), 322-332. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2520        [ Links ]

Barnett, R. (2000). Supercomplexity and the curriculum. Studies in Higher Education, 25(3), 255-265. https://doi.org/10.1080/713696156        [ Links ]

Barnett, R. (2012). Learning for an unknown future. Higher Education Research & Development, 31(1), 65-77. https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2012.642841        [ Links ]

Bellamy, S., Morley, C., & Watty, K. (2003). Why business academics remain in Australian universities despite deteriorating working conditions and reduced job satisfaction: An intellectual puzzle. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 25(1), 13-28. https://doi.org/10.1080/13600800305740        [ Links ]

Bennett, S., & Lockyer, L. (2004). Becoming an online teacher: Adapting to a changed environment for teaching and learning in higher education. Educational Media International, 41(3), 231-248. https://doi.org/10.1080/09523980410001680842        [ Links ]

Bentler, P. M., & Bonett, D. G. (1980). Significance tests and goodness of fit in the analysis of covariance structures. Psychological Bulletin, 88(3), 588. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.88.3.588        [ Links ]

Bezuidenhout, A., & Cilliers, F. V. (2010). Burnout, work engagement and sense of coherence in female academics in higher-education institutions in South Africa. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 36(1), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v36i1.872        [ Links ]

Boswell, W. R., Olson-Buchanan, J. B., & LePine, M. A. (2004). Relations between stress and work outcomes: The role of felt challenge, job control and psychological strain. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 64(1), 165-181. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0001-8791(03)00049-6        [ Links ]

Bowin, R. B. (2001). Human resource management: An experiential approach (2nd edn.) Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.         [ Links ]

Burton, L. J., & Mazerolle, S. M. (2011). Survey instrument validity part I: Principles of survey instrument development and validation in athletic training education research. Athletic Training Education Journal, 6(1), 27-35.         [ Links ]

Cavanaugh, M. A., Boswell, W. R., Roehling, M. V., & Boudreau, J. W. (2000). An empirical examination of self-reported work stress among US managers. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85(1), 65. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.85.1.65        [ Links ]

Chikoko, G. L., Buitendach, J. H., & Kanengoni, H. (2014). The psychological conditions that predict work engagement among tertiary education employees. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 24(6), 469-474. https://doi.org/10.1080/14330237.2014.997026        [ Links ]

Coetzee, S. E., & Rothmann, S. (2005). Work engagement of employees at a higher education institution in South Africa. Southern African Business Review, 9(3), 23-34.         [ Links ]

Collis, B. (1996). The Internet as an educational innovation: Lessons from experience with computer implementation. Educational Technology, 36(6), 21-30.         [ Links ]

Comrey, A. L. (1973). A first course in factor analysis. New York: Academic Press.         [ Links ]

Debowski, S. 2007. Challenges and dilemmas for Australian academics. HERDSA News, 29(3), 21.         [ Links ]

Dell, S. (2015). Government freezes fees as student protests mount. University World News. Retrieved from http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=2015102511561443        [ Links ]

Demerouti, E., & Bakker, A. B., 2011. The job demands-resources model: Challenges for future research. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 37(2), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.86.3.499        [ Links ]

Demerouti, E., Bakker, A. B., Nachreiner, F., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2001). The job demands-resources model of burnout. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(3), 499-512.         [ Links ]

Diekhoff, G. (1992). Statistics for the social and behavioral sciences. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown.         [ Links ]

Du Preez, P., Simmonds, S., & Verhoef, A. H. (2016). Rethinking and researching transformation in higher education: A meta-study of South African trends. Transformation in Higher Education, 1(1), 1-7. https://doi.org/10.4102/the.v1i1.2        [ Links ]

Edmondson, A. C. (1999). Psychological safety and learning behavior in work teams. Administrative Science Quarterly, 44(2), 350-383. https://doi.org/10.2307/2666999        [ Links ]

Edmondson, A. C., Bohmer, R. M., & Pisano, G. P. (2001). Disrupted routines: Team learning and new technology implementation in hospitals. Administrative Science Quarterly, 46(4), 685-716. https://doi.org/10.2307/3094828        [ Links ]

Edmondson, A. C., Higgins, M., Singer, S., & Weiner, J. (2016). Understanding psychological safety in health care and education organizations: A comparative perspective. Research in Human Development, 13(1), 65-83. https://doi.org/10.1080/15427609.2016.1141280        [ Links ]

Edmondson, A. C., & Lei, Z. (2014). Psychological safety: The history, renaissance and future of an interpersonal construct. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 1(1), 23-43. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-031413-091305        [ Links ]

Enders, J., & Teichler, U. (1997). A victim of their own success? Employment and working conditions of academic staff in comparative perspective. Higher Education, 34(3), 347-372. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1003023923056        [ Links ]

Garson, G. D. (2013). Factor analysis (statistical associates blue book series). Asheboro, NC: Statistical Publishing Associates.         [ Links ]

Gill, R. (2014). Academics, cultural workers and critical labour studies. Journal of Cultural Economy, 7(1), 12-30.         [ Links ]

Goolnik, G. (2012). Change management strategies when undertaking e-learning initiatives in higher education. Journal of Organizational Learning & Leadership, 10(2), 16-28.         [ Links ]

Govender, V., & Rampersad, R. (2016). Change management in the higher education landscape: A case of the transition process at a South African University. Journal Risk Governance & Control: Financial Markets & Institutions, 6(1), 43-51. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v31i1.186        [ Links ]

Guruz, K. (2011). Higher education and international student mobility in the global knowledge economy. Revised and updated 2nd edition. New York: SUNY Press.         [ Links ]

Hair, Jr. J. F., Anderson, R. E., Tatham, R. L., & Black, W. C. (1995). Multivariate data analyses with readings. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.         [ Links ]

Hair, Jr, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., Anderson, R. E., & Tatham, R. L. (2010). SEM: An introduction. Multivariate data analysis: A global perspective. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.         [ Links ]

Hall, M. (2016). South Africa's student protests have lessons for all universities. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/higher-education-network/2016/mar/03/south-africas-student-protests-have-lessons-for-all-universities.         [ Links ]

Heleta, S. (2016). Decolonisation of higher education: Dismantling epistemic violence and Eurocentrism in South Africa. Transformation in Higher Education, 1(1), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.4102/the.v1i1.9        [ Links ]

Herbst, T. H., & Conradie, P. D. (2011). Leadership effectiveness in higher education: Managerial self-perceptions versus perceptions of others. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 37(1), 01-14. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v37i1.867        [ Links ]

Herman, J. H. (2012). Faculty development programs: The frequency and variety of professional development programs available to online instructors. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 16(5), 87-106. https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v16i5.282        [ Links ]

Hinkin, T. R. (1995). A review of scale development practices in the study of organizations. Journal of Management, 21(5), 967-988.         [ Links ]

Hinkin, T. R., Tracey, J. B., & Enz, C. A. (1997). Scale construction: Developing reliable and valid measurement instruments. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 21(1), 100-120. https://doi.org/10.1177/109634809702100108        [ Links ]

Hunt, H. D., Davies, K., Richardson, D., Hammock, G., Akins, M., & Russ, L. (2014). It is (more) about the students: Faculty motivations and concerns regarding teaching online. Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, 17(2), 62-71.         [ Links ]

Ichikawa, M., & Konishi, S. (1995). Application of the bootstrap methods in factor analysis. Psychometrika, 60(1), 77-93. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02294430        [ Links ]

Jackson, L. T., Rothmann, S., & Van de Vijver, F. J. (2006). A model of work-related wellbeing for educators in South Africa. Stress and Health: Journal of the International Society for the Investigation of Stress, 22(4), 263-274.         [ Links ]

Johnson, T., Wiśniewski, M. A., Kuhlemeyer, G., Isaacs, G., & Krzykowski, J. (2012). Technology adoption in higher education: Overcoming anxiety through faculty bootcamp. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 16(2), 63-72. https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v16i2.240        [ Links ]

Kahn, W. A. (1990). Psychological conditions of personal engagement and disengagement at work. Academy of Management Journal, 33(4), 692-724.         [ Links ]

Kamanzi, B. (2016). Decolonising the curriculum: The silent war for tomorrow. Retrieved from http://www.che.ac.za/sites/default/files/publications/BrieflySpeaking%20%283% 29%20Curriculum%20decolonisation.pdf        [ Links ]

Kamsteeg, F. (2016). Transformation and self-identity: Student narratives in post-apartheid South Africa. Transformation in Higher Education, 1(1), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.4102/the.v1i1.10        [ Links ]

Kapuścinski, A. N., & Masters, K. S. (2010). The current status of measures of spirituality: A critical review of scale development. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 2(4), 191. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020498        [ Links ]

Karasek, Jr, R. A. (1979). Job demands, job decision latitude and mental strain: Implications for job redesign. Administrative Science Quarterly, 24, 285-308. https://doi.org/10.2307/2392498        [ Links ]

Kenny, J. D., & Fluck, A. E. (2014). The effectiveness of academic workload models in an institution: A staff perspective. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 36(6), 585-602. https://doi.org/10.1080/1360080X.2014.957889        [ Links ]

Kim, M., Kim, Y., & Schmidt, P. (2007). On the accuracy of bootstrap confidence intervals for efficiency levels in stochastic frontier models with panel data. Journal of Productivity Analysis, 28(3), 165-181. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11123-007-0058-2        [ Links ]

King, R., Marginson, S., & Naidoo, R. (Eds.). (2011). Handbook on globalization and higher education. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing.         [ Links ]

Kinman, G., & Jones, F. (2003). 'Running up the down escalator': Stressors and strains in UK academics. Quality in Higher Education, 9(1), 21-38.         [ Links ]

Kinman, G., Jones, F., & Kinman, R. (2006). The well-being of the UK academy, 1998-2004. Quality in Higher Education, 12(1), 15-27.         [ Links ]

Kline, B. (2011). The Bayesian and frequentist approaches to testing a one-sided hypothesis about a multivariate mean. Journal of Statistical Planning and Inference, 141(9), 3131-3141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jspi.2011.03.034        [ Links ]

Kline, R. B. (2005). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (2nd edn.). New York: The Guilford Press.         [ Links ]

Knight, J. (2004). Internationalization remodeled: Definition, approaches, and rationales. Journal of Studies in International Education, 8(1), 5-31. https://doi.org/10.1177/1028315303260832        [ Links ]

Langford, P. H. (2010). Benchmarking work practices and outcomes in Australian universities using an employee survey. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 32(1), 41-53. https://doi.org/10.1080/13600800903440543        [ Links ]

Le Grange, L. L. L. (2011). Sustainability and higher education: From arborescent to rhizomatic thinking. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 43(7), 742-754. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-5812.2008.00503.x        [ Links ]

Le Grange, L. L. L. (2016). Decolonising the university curriculum. South African Journal of Higher Education, 30(2), 1-12.         [ Links ]

LePine, J. A., Podsakoff, N. P., & LePine, M. A. (2005). A meta-analytic test of the challenge stressor-hindrance stressor framework: An explanation for inconsistent relationships among stressors and performance. Academy of Management Journal, 48(5), 764-775. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2005.18803921        [ Links ]

Luthans, F. (2002). Positive organizational behavior: Developing and managing psychological strengths. Academy of Management Perspectives, 16(1), 57-72. https://doi.org/10.5465/ame.2002.6640181        [ Links ]

Lyons, M., & Ingersoll, L. (2010). Regulated autonomy or autonomous regulation? Collective bargaining and academic workloads in Australian universities. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 32(2), 137-148. https://doi.org/10.1080/13600800903440592        [ Links ]

MacDonald, W. (2003). The impact of job demands and workload on stress and fatigue. Australian Psychologist, 38(2), 102-117. https://doi.org/10.1080/00050060310001707107        [ Links ]

Mahomed, F. E., & Naude, J. L. P. (2006). Occupational stress and strain of support staff at a higher education institution in the North West Province. South African Journal of Higher Education, 20(1), 89-102. https://doi.org/10.4314/sajhe.v20i1.25560        [ Links ]

May, R., Strachan, G., & Peetz, D. (2013). Workforce Development and Renewal in Australian Universities and the Management of Casual Academic Staff. Journal of University Teaching and Learning Practice, 10(3), 1-24.         [ Links ]

Mbembe, J. A. (2016). Decolonizing the university: New directions. Arts and Humanities in Higher Education, 15(1), 29-45. https://doi.org/10.1177/1474022215618513        [ Links ]

McKaiser, E. (2016). It's time to decolonise Afrikaans. IOL News. Retrieved from https://www.iol.co.za/news/its-time-to-decolonise-afrikaans-2033764.         [ Links ]

Mkhize, N., 2015, 'Anger over Rhodes vindicates Mamdani', Business Day, Retrieved from http://www.bdlive.co.za/opinion/columnists/2015/04/07/anger-over-rhodes-vindicates-mamdani.         [ Links ]

Mostert, F. F., Rothmann, S., Mostert, K., & Nell, K. (2008). Outcomes of occupational stress in a higher education institution. Southern African Business Review, 12(3), 102-127.         [ Links ]

Mouton, N., Louw, G. P., & Strydom, G. L. (2012). A historical analysis of the post-apartheid dispensation education in South Africa (1994-2011). The International Business & Economics Research Journal (Online), 11(11), 1211. https://doi.org/10.19030/iber.v11i11.7369        [ Links ]

Munro, G., O'Meara, P., & Kenny, A. (2016). Paramedic transition into an academic role in universities: A demographic and qualification survey of paramedic academics in Australia and New Zealand. Irish Journal of Paramedicine, 1(2), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.32378/ijp.v1i2.17        [ Links ]

Ng'ethe, J. M., Namusonge, G. S., & Iravo, M. A. (2012). Influence of leadership style on academic staff retention in public universities in Kenya. International Journal of Business and Social Science, 3(21), 297-302.         [ Links ]

Nowlis, S. M., Kahn, B. E., & Dhar, R. (2002). Coping with ambivalence: The effect of removing a neutral option on consumer attitude and preference judgments. Journal of Consumer Research, 29(3), 319-334. https://doi.org/10.1086/344431        [ Links ]

Nunnally, J. C., & Bernstein, I. H. (1994). Psychometric theory (McGraw-Hill Series in Psychology). New York: McGraw-Hill.         [ Links ]

Oliver, R., & Herrington, J. (2001). Teaching and learning online: A beginner's guide to e-learning and e-teaching in higher education. Perth, WA: Centre for Research in Information Technology and Communications.         [ Links ]

Olivier, A. L., & Rothmann, S. (2007). Antecedents of work engagement in a multinational company. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 33(3), 49-56. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v33i3.396        [ Links ]

Oshagbemi, T. (2000). Gender differences in the job satisfaction of university teachers. Women in Management Review, 15(7), 331-343. https://doi.org/10.1108/09649420010378133        [ Links ]

Pallant, J. (2011). SPSS Survival manual: A step by step guide to data analysis using SPSS. Sydney, NSW: Allen & Unwin.         [ Links ]

Palloff, R. M., & Pratt, K. (2015). Building learning communities in cyberspace. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.         [ Links ]

Petersen, T. (2016). Protestors attempt Stellies exam disruption. News 24, 10 August 2017. https://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/protesters-attempt-stellies-exam-disruption-20161102.         [ Links ]

Phillips, J. J., & Connell, A. O. (2003). Managing employee retention: A strategic accountability approach. Burlington: Franklin Covey.         [ Links ]

Pienaar, C., & Bester, C. (2006). Topical career dilemmas of academic staff during the early career phase within a changing South African higher education institution. South African Journal of Education, 26(4), 581-594.         [ Links ]

Pijoos, I. (2016). CR Swart statue has fallen. News24, 18 January 2018. http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/cr-swart-statue-has-fallen-20160223.         [ Links ]

Pillay, S. (2015). Decolonising the university, Africa is a Country. Retrieved from http://africasacountry.com/2015/06/decolonizing-the-university/.         [ Links ]

Podsakoff, N. P., LePine, J. A., & LePine, M. A. (2007). Differential challenge stressor-hindrance stressor relationships with job attitudes, turnover intentions, turnover, and withdrawal behavior: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92(2), 438. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.92.2.438        [ Links ]

Power, T. M., & Morven-Gould, A. (2011). Head of gold, feet of clay: The online learning paradox. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 12(2), 19-39. https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v12i2.916        [ Links ]

Rainnie, A, Goods, C., Barns, S., & Burgess, J. (2013) The challenges of working in Australian academia: An introduction. Labour & Industry: A Journal of the Social and Economic Relations of Work, 23(3), 191-199. https://doi.org/10.1080/10301763.2013.839080        [ Links ]

Ramrathan, L. (2016). Beyond counting the numbers: Shifting higher education transformation into curriculum spaces. Transformation in Higher Education, 1(1), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.4102/the.v1i1.6        [ Links ]

Rantao, K. (2015). #FeesMustFall - Demanding an affordable Bill of Rights. Retrieved from https://www.news24.com/Tags/Topics/university_protests.         [ Links ]

Roberts, J. A., Lapidus, R. S., & Chonko, L. B. (1997). Salespeople and stress: The moderating role of locus of control on work stressors and felt stress. Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, 5(3), 93-108. https://doi.org/10.1080/10696679.1997.11501773        [ Links ]

Rothmann, S., & Barkhuizen, N. (2008). Burnout of academic staff in South African higher education institutions. South African Journal of Higher Education, 22(2), 439-456. https://doi.org/10.4314/sajhe.v22i2.25796        [ Links ]

Rothmann, S., & Jordaan, G. M. E. (2006). Job demands, job resources and work engagement of academic staff in South African higher education institutions. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 32(4), 87-96. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v32i4.247        [ Links ]

Sang, K., Powell, A., Finkel, R., & Richards, J. (2015). Being an academic is not a 9-5 job: Long working hours and the 'ideal worker' in UK academia. Labour & Industry: A Journal of the Social and Economic Relations of Work, 25(3), 235-249.         [ Links ]

Saunders, M., Lewis, P., & Thornhill, A. (2009). Research methods for business students. Harlow: Pearson Education.         [ Links ]

Schofer, E., & Meyer, J. W. (2005). The worldwide expansion of higher education in the twentieth century. American Sociological Review, 70(6), 898-920. https://doi.org/10.1177/000312240507000602        [ Links ]

Schuster, H. J., & Finklestein, J. M. (2008). The American faculty: The restructuring of academic work and careers. VA: Johns Hopkins University Press.         [ Links ]

Seijts, G. H., & O'Farrell, G. (2003). Engage the heart: Appealing to the emotions facilitates change. Ivey Business Journal, 67(3), 1-5.         [ Links ]

Seligman, M. E., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology: An introduction. American Psychological Association, 55(1), 5.         [ Links ]

Siegrist, J. (1996). Adverse health effects of high-effort/low-reward conditions. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 1(1), 27-41. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.1.1.27        [ Links ]

Siu, C. N. (2013). Extending job demands-resources model: The roles of energy management strategy and recovery experiences in facing differentiated job demands. Retrieved from http://commons.ln.edu.hk/soc_etd/34/.         [ Links ]

Strobel, J., & Tillberg-Webb, H. (2009). Applying a critical and humanizing framework of instructional technologies to educational practice. Boston, MA: Springer.         [ Links ]

Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using multivariate statistics. Boston, MA: Pearson Education.         [ Links ]

Theron, A. V. S., & Dodd, N. M. (2011). Organisational commitment in a post-merger situation. South African Journal of Economic and Management Sciences, 14(3), 333-345. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajems.v14i3.100        [ Links ]

Tims, M., Bakker, A. B., & Derks, D. (2013). The impact of job crafting on job demands, job resources and well-being. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 18(2), 230-240. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032141        [ Links ]

Van Niekerk, F., & Geertsema, J. C. (2009). Strategies for university improvement: The research profile change at a South African non-research-intensive university. South African Journal of Higher Education, 23(5), 912-934.         [ Links ]

Van Theron, M., Barkhuizen, N., & Du Plessis, Y. (2014). Managing the academic talent void: Investigating factors in academic turnover and retention in South Africa. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 40(1), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v40i1.1117        [ Links ]

Vandeyar, S. (2010). Shifting selves: Constructing and negotiating academic identities. South African Journal of Higher Education, 24(6), 914-934.         [ Links ]

Wamai, N. (2016). Decolonizing the academy: Towards a global movement? University World News Global Edition. Retrieved from http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20160524135416842.         [ Links ]

Wangenge-Ouma, G. (2012). Tuition fees and the challenge of making higher education a popular commodity in South Africa. Higher Education, 64(6), 831-844. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-012-9531-6        [ Links ]

Weijters, B., Cabooter, E., & Schillewaert, N. (2010). The effect of rating scale format on response styles: The number of response categories and response category labels. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 27(3), 236-247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.2010.02.004        [ Links ]

Widaman, K. F., Little, T. D., Preacher, K. J., & Sawalani, G. M. (2011). On creating and using short forms of scales in secondary research. In K. H. Trzesniewski, M. B. Donnellan, & R. E. Lucas (Eds.), Secondary data analysis: An introduction for psychologists (pp. 39-62). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.         [ Links ]

Williams, B., Onsman, A., & Brown, T. (2010). Exploratory factor analysis: A five-step guide for novices. Australasian Journal of Paramedicine, 8(3), 794-799. https://doi.org/10.33151/ajp.8.3.93        [ Links ]

Wright, S., Williamson, K., Schauder, D., & Stockfeld, L. (2003). Choice and constraint in academic work on campus and at home. Labour & Industry: A Journal of the Social and Economic Relations of Work, 13(3), 19-35.         [ Links ]

 

 

Correspondence:
Nelesh Dhanpat
neleshd@uj.ac.za

Received: 12 Oct. 2018
Accepted: 29 Mar. 2019
Published: 18 June 2019

^rND^sAltbach^nP. G.^rND^sReisberg^nL.^rND^sRumbley^nL. E.^rND^sArnold^nC. A.^rND^sStofile^nR. N.^rND^sLillah^nR.^rND^sBadat^nS.^rND^sBadat^nS.^rND^sBakker^nA. B.^rND^sDemerouti^nE.^rND^sBakker^nA. B.^rND^sSanz-Vergel^nA. I.^rND^sBarkhuizen^nE. N.^rND^sRoodt^nE.^rND^sSchutte^nN.^rND^sBarkhuizen^nE. N.^rND^sRothmann^nS.^rND^sBarkhuizen^nE. N.^rND^sRothmann^nS.^rND^sVan de Vijver^nF. J.^rND^sBarnett^nR.^rND^sBarnett^nR.^rND^sBellamy^nS.^rND^sMorley^nC.^rND^sWatty^nK.^rND^sBennett^nS.^rND^sLockyer^nL.^rND^sBentler^nP. M.^rND^sBonett^nD. G.^rND^sBezuidenhout^nA.^rND^sCilliers^nF. V.^rND^sBoswell^nW. R.^rND^sOlson-Buchanan^nJ. B.^rND^sLePine^nM. A.^rND^sBurton^nL. J.^rND^sMazerolle^nS. M.^rND^sCavanaugh^nM. A.^rND^sBoswell^nW. R.^rND^sRoehling^nM. V.^rND^sBoudreau^nJ. W.^rND^sChikoko^nG. L.^rND^sBuitendach^nJ. H.^rND^sKanengoni^nH.^rND^sCoetzee^nS. E.^rND^sRothmann^nS.^rND^sCollis^nB.^rND^sDebowski^nS.^rND^sDemerouti^nE.^rND^sBakker^nA. B.^rND^sDemerouti^nE^rND^sBakker^nA. B.^rND^sNachreiner^nF.^rND^sSchaufeli^nW. B.^rND^sDu Preez^nP.^rND^sSimmonds^nS.^rND^sVerhoef^nA. H.^rND^sEdmondson^nA. C.^rND^sEdmondson^nA. C.^rND^sBohmer^nR. M.^rND^sPisano^nG. P.^rND^sEdmondson^nA. C.^rND^sHiggins^nM.^rND^sSinger^nS.^rND^sWeiner^nJ.^rND^sEdmondson^nA. C.^rND^sLei^nZ.^rND^sEnders^nJ.^rND^sTeichler^nU.^rND^sGill^nR.^rND^sGoolnik^nG.^rND^sGovender^nV.^rND^sRampersad^nR.^rND^sHeleta^nS.^rND^sHerbst^nT. H.^rND^sConradie^nP. D.^rND^sHerman^nJ. H.^rND^sHinkin^nT. R.^rND^sHinkin^nT. R.^rND^sTracey^nJ. B.^rND^sEnz^nC. A.^rND^sHunt^nH. D.^rND^sDavies^nK.^rND^sRichardson^nD.^rND^sHammock^nG.^rND^sAkins^nM.^rND^sRuss^nL.^rND^sIchikawa^nM.^rND^sKonishi^nS.^rND^sJackson^nL. T.^rND^sRothmann^nS.^rND^sVan de Vijver^nF. J.^rND^sJohnson^nT.^rND^sWiśniewski^nM. A^rND^sKuhlemeyer^nG.^rND^sIsaacs^nG.^rND^sKrzykowski^nJ.^rND^sKahn^nW. A.^rND^sKamsteeg^nF.^rND^sKapuścinski^nA. N.^rND^sMasters^nK. S.^rND^sKarasek^nJr, R. A.^rND^sKenny^nJ. D.^rND^sFluck^nA. E.^rND^sKim^nM.^rND^sKim^nY.^rND^sSchmidt^nP.^rND^sKinman^nG.^rND^sJones^nF.^rND^sKinman^nG.^rND^sJones^nF.^rND^sKinman^nR.^rND^sKline^nB.^rND^sKnight^nJ.^rND^sLangford^nP. H.^rND^sLe Grange^nL. L. L.^rND^sLe Grange^nL. L. L.^rND^sLePine^nJ. A.^rND^sPodsakoff^nN. P.^rND^sLePine^nM. A.^rND^sLuthans^nF.^rND^sLyons^nM.^rND^sIngersoll^nL.^rND^sMacDonald^nW.^rND^sMahomed^nF. E.^rND^sNaude^nJ. L. P.^rND^sMay^nR.^rND^sStrachan^nG.^rND^sPeetz^nD.^rND^sMbembe^nJ. A.^rND^sMcKaiser^nE.^rND^sMkhize^nN.^rND^sMostert^nF. F.^rND^sRothmann^nS.^rND^sMostert^nK.^rND^sNell^nK.^rND^sMouton^nN.^rND^sLouw^nG. P.^rND^sStrydom^nG. L.^rND^sMunro^nG.^rND^sO'Meara^nP.^rND^sKenny^nA.^rND^sNg'ethe^nJ. M.^rND^sNamusonge^nG. S.^rND^sIravo^nM. A.^rND^sNowlis^nS. M.^rND^sKahn^nB. E.^rND^sDhar^nR.^rND^sOlivier^nA. L.^rND^sRothmann^nS.^rND^sOshagbemi^nT.^rND^sPetersen^nT.^rND^sPienaar^nC.^rND^sBester^nC.^rND^sPijoos^nI.^rND^sPodsakoff^nN. P.^rND^sLePine^nJ. A.^rND^sLePine^nM. A.^rND^sPower^nT. M.^rND^sMorven-Gould^nA.^rND^sRainnie^nA,^rND^sGoods^nC.^rND^sBarns^nS.^rND^sBurgess^nJ.^rND^sRamrathan^nL.^rND^sRoberts^nJ. A.^rND^sLapidus^nR. S.^rND^sChonko^nL. B.^rND^sRothmann^nS.^rND^sBarkhuizen^nN.^rND^sRothmann^nS.^rND^sJordaan^nG. M. E.^rND^sSang^nK.^rND^sPowell^nA.^rND^sFinkel^nR.^rND^sRichards^nJ.^rND^sSchofer^nE.^rND^sMeyer^nJ. W.^rND^sSeijts^nG. H.^rND^sO'Farrell^nG.^rND^sSeligman^nM. E.^rND^sCsikszentmihalyi^nM.^rND^sSiegrist^nJ.^rND^sTheron^nA. V. S.^rND^sDodd^nN. M.^rND^sTims^nM.^rND^sBakker^nA. B.^rND^sDerks^nD.^rND^sVan Niekerk^nF.^rND^sGeertsema^nJ. C.^rND^sVan Theron^nM.^rND^sBarkhuizen^nN.^rND^sDu Plessis^nY.^rND^sVandeyar^nS.^rND^sWangenge-Ouma^nG.^rND^sWeijters^nB.^rND^sCabooter^nE.^rND^sSchillewaert^nN.^rND^sWidaman^nK. F.^rND^sLittle^nT. D.^rND^sPreacher^nK. J.^rND^sSawalani^nG. M.^rND^sWilliams^nB.^rND^sOnsman^nA.^rND^sBrown^nT.^rND^sWright^nS.^rND^sWilliamson^nK.^rND^sSchauder^nD.^rND^sStockfeld^nL.^rND^1A01^nSean^sMcCallaghan^rND^1A02^nLeon^sJackson^rND^1A03^nMarita^sHeyns^rND^1A01^nSean^sMcCallaghan^rND^1A02^nLeon^sJackson^rND^1A03^nMarita^sHeyns^rND^1A01^nSean^sMcCallaghan^rND^1A02^nLeon^sJackson^rND^1A03^nMarita^sHeyns

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Exploring organisational diversity climate with associated antecedents and employee outcomes

 

 

Sean McCallaghan^I; Leon Jackson^II; Marita Heyns^III

^IBusiness School, North-West University, Vanderbijlpark, South Africa
^IIWorkWell Research Unit, Business School, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
^IIIOptentia Research Focus Area, North-West University, Vanderbijlpark, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

---

ABSTRACT

ORIENTATION: Organisations are consistently changing and diversifying; therefore, researchers and practitioners are viewing diversity as an essential part of organisational behaviour literature and practice
RESEARCH PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to investigate a simple mediation model, with the diversity climate as the proposed mediator, transformational leadership as the model antecedent and organisational commitment as the outcome
Motivation for the study: The South African diversity climate research is limited, including mediation investigations. Increased organisational diversification requires constant and relevant information with regard to diversity management.
RESEARCH APPROACH/DESIGN AND METHOD: A quantitative approach using a cross-sectional design collected 230 responses from a convenience sample. Transformational leadership was considered through six key behaviours associated with transformational leadership. Organisational commitment was considered as per the Psycones questionnaire and the organisational diversity climate was determined using a single-dimension diversity climate instrument. Statistical analysis included descriptive statistics, correlation analysis and a simple mediation model.
MAIN FINDINGS: Correlation results revealed that both transformational leadership and a diversity climate demonstrated practical effects with organisational commitment. Results from a standardised regression coefficient confirmed that transformational leadership predicts the diversity climate significantly. Both transformational leadership and diversity climate predicted commitment. The simple mediation model revealed that the diversity climate can be considered a mediator in the relationship between transformational leadership and employee commitment.
PRACTICAL/MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS: Organisations would benefit from leadership assessments for current and future employees, especially organisations that would like to prioritise a constructive diversity climate and employee commitment.
CONTRIBUTION/VALUE-ADD: Contributions are made towards limited diversity climate investigations by providing empirical evidence of the mediating role of a diversity climate.

Keywords: Transformational leadership; diversity climate; organisational commitment; South Africa; mediation.

---

 

 

Introduction

Diversity climate is a developing area of research that concentrates on how employees form perceptions regarding policies and practices related to diversity and inclusivity (Ziegert & Hanges, 2005). Our organisational landscapes are consistently changing because of globalisation and diversification. It is therefore not surprising that researchers are viewing diversity as an essential new part of organisational behaviour literature. The noticeable attention to diversity has elicited a general consensus among organisations that the effective management of diversity is compulsory for organisations striving towards optimally utilising their available talent from a diverse workforce (Jackson & Joshi, 2011). Researchers have also spent a considerable amount of time on finding means and ways to fully utilise the potential advantages of diversity (McKay & Avery, 2015). This is not unexpected because of the well-documented advantages of diverse organisations over homogeneous organisations (Cox & Blake, 1991), such as improved creativity and problem solving (Richard, Roh, & Pieper, 2013), an improved organisational image (Cox, 1993) and a noticeable increase in organisational performance (Richard, Barriet, Dwyer, & Chadwick, 2004). While the constructive benefits of a diverse organisation have intrigued researchers, the negative associations and counterproductive effects, in some cases, have also not gone unnoticed (Joshi & Roh, 2009; Van Dijk, Van Engen, & Van Kippenberg, 2012). Researchers have found that increased diversity from an organisational perspective can also be associated with complications, such as dissatisfaction and conflict (Jayne & Dipboye, 2004), and subtle discrimination (Ogbonna & Harris, 2006).

What could then be considered as a solution for organisations to realise the full potential of diversity? The answer could perhaps be found in leadership. Leadership has been described as a fundamental contributor towards enhancing diversity outcomes (Gotsis & Grimani, 2016). Leadership has also been proven as a substantial predictor of the emerged benefits related to diversity (Wieland, 2004). From a South African perspective, researchers have also called on organisations to improve leadership development and to specifically include diversity, especially because of South Africa's unique history (Denton & Vloeberghs, 2003). Therefore, because of our increased workforce diversification and globalisation, our current thinking pertaining to leadership in these diverse workforces will also need to change (Chin, Desormeaux, & Sawyer, 2016).

Our interest for the present study was neither in the well-researched direct relationship between leadership and employee outcomes, nor the confirmed direct relationship between a constructive diversity climate and employee outcomes. We were more intrigued by the indirect effect of a conducive diversified environment on the leadership style and employee outcome relationship. Unfortunately, the mediating role of a diversity climate has not received much research attention (McKay & Avery, 2015).

The primary aim of this study was to investigate a proposed simple mediation model in which the diversity climate mediates the relationship between transformational leadership and organisational commitment. The next section will be dedicated towards formulating a clear understanding on the proposed model antecedent, the proposed model outcome - employee commitment - and the mediating characteristics of a diversity climate. The literature review also investigates any prior conceptualised and confirmed relationships between these variables. Figure 1 illustrates the proposed model of this study.

 

 

Literature review

Proposed model antecedent - Transformational leadership

It has been well documented that transformational leaders are the representatives of change, energising and directing employees towards 'a new set of corporate values and behaviours' (McShane & Von Glinow, 2015, p. 371). We are of the opinion that the suggested new set of corporate values and behaviours can also assume the form of inclusivity and an appreciation of diversity. Colquitt, Lepine and Wesson (2011) further described transformational leadership as the ability to inspire followers to commit towards a shared vision that provides meaning to any employee's daily work. Odemure and Ifeanyi (2013) maintained that a transformational leader pays attention to the progressive needs of the individual; they change the consciousness of their followers and support them in looking at problems from a new perspective. Transformational leaders further serve as role models, supporting their followers towards developing their own potential and viewing problems from new perspectives (Colquitt et al., 2011).

Transformational leadership is regarded as multidimensional and comprising six key behaviours (Podsakoff, Mackenzie, Moorman, & Fetter, 1990). These key behaviours include identifying and articulating a clear vision, being considered an appropriate role model, nurturing the acceptance of team or organisational goals, sustaining high-performing expectations, providing individual support and intellectual stimulation (Podsakoff et al., 1990). According to Sashkin (2004), creating and communicating a vision and creating empowering opportunities are the most common characteristics of leadership behaviour shared by the different usages of transformational leadership. A typical transformational leader is an individual who is able to extend the interest of followers through a process of common stimulation and appeals to followers and is also able to express and communicate an attractive vision and supports followers to go beyond their self-interests in attaining this vision (Bass & Riggio, 2006).

Proposed mediation model: Diversity climate

The relatively new field of diversity climate investigates the shared perceptions of the policies and practices directing the extent to which an organisation is committed towards eliminating discrimination and valuing diversity (Pugh, Dietz, Brief, & Wiley, 2008). Diversity climate is also considered as a typical climate that demonstrates openness towards and appreciation of individual differences (Hofhuis, Van der Rijt, & Vlug, 2016). According to Luijters, Zee and Otten (2008), there are two components that constitute the diversity climate of an organisation: openness and appreciation of diversity. Openness of diversity refers to a situation where employees can choose their own work style, while simultaneously maintaining cultural habits. Appreciation of diversity is considered as the value employees and decision-makers place on diversity (Luijters et al., 2008). Therefore, the study considered a diversity climate as shared employee perspectives on organisational commitment towards diversity and the creation of an inclusive employee environment free of preconceptions.

The direct consequences associated with a constructive diversity climate have been confirmed in several studies. These advantages include improved employee and organisational performance (McKay & Avery, 2015). While the direct effects have been well researched, investigation regarding the mediating role of a organisational diversity climate is limited (McKay & Avery, 2015). We could also not find a similar South African study that has investigated diversity climate as mediating transformational leadership. However, from previous research conducted by Volpone, Avery and McKay (2012), Chrobot-Mason and Asomovich (2013) and Taylor (2015), we were able to find evidence that an organisational diversity climate demonstrates promising mediating characteristics. Volpone et al. (2012) demonstrated that diversity climate mediates the relationship between employees' appraisal reactions and employee engagement. Similarly, Chrobot-Mason and Asamovich (2013) found results to confirm the mediating effects of a diversity climate on turnover intentions through organisational identification, climate for innovation, empowerment and identity freedom. In addition, Taylor (2015) was able to confirm that transformational leadership had a significant indirect effect on creative performance through diversity climate.

Employee outcome: Commitment

An employee is considered a candidate for commitment when demonstrating emotional attachment to, identification with and involvement in a particular organisation (McShane & Von Glinow, 2015). Colquitt et al. (2011) stated that organisational commitment is an employee's desire to remain a member of the organisation; the particular employee would usually portray a strong feeling towards a specific aspect of the organisation. Organisational commitment has also been considered as an employee's acceptance of organisational goals and his or her willingness to exert effort on behalf of the organisation (Miller & Lee, 2001). Organisational commitment has also been at the centre of several human resource studies, especially because of the associated advantages and contribution towards organisational performance (Mendes & Jesus, 2018).

Organisational commitment can assume three distinctive forms: continuance, normative or affective commitment (Meyer & Allen, 1991). Among all the forms of organisational commitment, affective commitment has seen the most interest among researchers (Albrecht, Bakker, Gruman, Macey, & Saks, 2015). Employees who demonstrate high levels of affective organisational commitment will stay with the organisation because of a personal intention not to part with the organisation. Employees who are affectively committed towards an organisation demonstrate a sense of belonging and identification that increases their involvement in organisational activities (Meyer & Allen, 1991). Continuance commitment is regarded as a situation where an employee stays with the current employer because of high costs related to changing employment. Employees might also not have any alternative or similar choices of employment and would then remain with their current employer (Meyer & Allen, 1991). Normative commitment refers to employees demonstrating internal loyalty towards the organisation. They also believe that their departure from the organisation would be disastrous for both the organisation and fellow employees (Meyer & Allen, 1991). For the purpose of this study, we considered commitment as a single variable where an employee demonstrates attachment and strong positive feeling towards the current employment.

Commitment, diversity climate and transformational leadership

It is expected that organisational diversity would further increase in future (Fullerton & Toosi, 2001); therefore, the importance of transformational leadership as a means of unlocking potential would also increase. However, it is still important for organisations with the future in mind to 'recognize transformational leadership as a strategy that can be specifically tailored to the challenge of managing diversity' (Kearney & Gebert, 2009, p. 87).

With limited research on diversity climates themselves, it is not surprising that investigations into a relationship between the organisational diversity climate and transformational leadership are also limited. However, the matter has seen research interest in that investigations had been focused on the type and nature of the relationship between 'diversity management interventions' or 'diversity practices' and leadership styles. Research findings suggest that a recorded constructive observation of 'diversity practices' is strongly associated with the presence of transformational leadership (Ng & Sears, 2011). The findings by Ng and Sears (2011, p. 49) are particularly relevant to a diversity climate theme, as these 'diversity practices' were described as 'diversity-related practices in the areas of diversity policies, recruitment, training and development, compensation and accountability', which is no different from confirmed antecedents of an organisational diversity climate). Further research also found that a transformational leadership style is influential in helping cultural minorities' social integration and creative problem-solving within organisations (Malik & Singh, 2017). In support of Ng and Sears (2011), research by Gotsis and Grimani (2016) also indicated that effective leadership will be associated with an environment that values and supports diversity.

Theoretically, the advantages associated with a diversity climate were some of the earliest findings on the matter (McKay & Avery, 2015). Some of these favourable attitudes and behaviours can therefore be directly associated with reduced employee withdrawal, which includes turnover and absenteeism (McKay & Avery, 2015). Groundbreaking research that placed an emphasis on the significance of a diversity climate was conducted in seminal research by Cox (1994), who specifically found proofs that a diversity climate has effects on staff attendance, turnover, productivity and work quality. From a South African qualitative perspective, research has demonstrated that organisational benefits associated with managing diversity, effectively included increased productivity, achieved organisational goals, increased creativity, client-focused service and an interesting work environment, while on an employee (individual) level, advantages included employees' transferred knowledge, improved communication, increased trust and teamwork, and decreased stereotypes and discrimination (Joubert, 2017).

While literature suggests that the presence of transformational leadership in organisations will also be associated with a constructive organisational diversity climate, it would be imperative to look into how transformational leadership has been associated with our investigated employee outcome, namely, commitment. Transformational leaders assist as 'role models who help followers develop their own potential', changing their outlook on traditional problems (Colquitt et al., 2011, p. 496). Consequently, it is not surprising that transformational leadership has not only demonstrated the ability to prevent employees from harbouring propensity-to-leave thoughts, but also to 'cultivate a collaborative culture' (Sun & Wang, 2017, p. 1137). It would therefore seem natural for transformational leadership to also contribute towards a general observation of employee commitment (Walumbwa & Lawler, 2003).

General positive consequences associated with organisational commitment include job satisfaction (Chughtai & Zafar, 2006), motivation (Mathieu & Zajac, 1990) and organisational performance in the form of financial results (Abdul Rashid, Sambasivan, & Johari, 2003). Managers who would like to encourage more employee commitment, should carefully direct their attention towards the fairness of the organisation's diversity climate and organisational procedures (Buttner & Lowe, 2010).

 

Primary and secondary objectives

Taking into consideration the established direct independent relationships between transformational leadership, the organisational diversity climate and organisational employee outcomes, coupled with the promising mediating characteristics of diversity climates in limited studies, we propose the possibility of the diversity climate mediating the relationship between transformational leadership and organisational commitment. As a result, the main objective of this study was to investigate the mediating role of a diversity climate in the relationship between transformational leadership and employee commitment. The secondary objective was to examine the direct effects between transformational leadership and a diversity climate; transformational leadership and employee commitment; and, finally, a diversity climate and employee commitment.

Research design and method

This study followed a quantitative approach with a cross-sectional design. The cross-sectional design was considered most suitable for this study because the assessment of the relationships between transformational leadership, the diversity climate and employee commitment was measured at a specific point in time, without any planned intervention. Questionnaires were considered the most appropriate method of data collection. A final research proposal was sent for consideration to the ethics committee of the institution and to obtain permission to collect data for the purpose of the study. The study obtained a minimal risk classification.

Permission was obtained from all participating organisations and the surveys were distributed via human resource managers, heads of departments and team leaders. The anonymous nature of the study was thoroughly explained to the participants, indicating clearly that no personal information was required. Adequate time was allowed for participants to complete the questionnaire and completed questionnaires were collected at arranged central points.

Participants, data collection and sample characteristics

A non-probability convenience sample was used to collect data from South African companies situated in Gauteng province. A total of 230 responses were received from 820 distributed questionnaires, resulting in a 28% response rate. Unfortunately, it is presently quite common for researchers to obtain low response rates. Lower frequencies could be a sign of our busy lifestyles (Carley-Baxter et al., 2009). The sample characteristics are presented in Table 1.

 

 

Measuring instruments

The measuring instrument comprised a combination of four main sections. The first section focused on obtaining demographic information from the sample group. The remaining three sections collected data on transformational leadership, diversity climate and organisational commitment.

• The demographic section collected information on participants' date of birth, gender, ethnicity, tenure and an option in which respondents had to indicate where they had spent the majority of their young lives - in an urban or rural area.

• Transformational leadership comprised six key behaviours for transformational leadership as described by Podsakoff et al. (1990), which include identifying and articulating a vision, providing an appropriate model, fostering the acceptance of group goals, high-performance expectations, providing individualised support and intellectual stimulation. Research by Engelen, Gupta, Strenger and Brettel (2015) and Jackson (2017) applied the same six key behaviours when determining transformational leadership. The instrument measuring transformational leadership used a seven-point Likert scale, where 1 = disagree strongly and 7 = agree strongly. A typical item is 'my manager has a clear understanding of where we are going'. The original research by Podsakoff et al. (1990) reported a Cronbach's alpha of 0.87 for the combined leadership variable. A South African application of the transformational leadership scale by Podsakoff et al. (1990) reported Cronbach's alpha scores ranging from 0.75 to 0.94 for the six key behaviours (Jackson, 2017).

• The diversity climate variable was determined through a diversity climate measuring instrument developed by McKay et al. (2007). This instrument comprises nine scale items and captures employees' perceptions on how an organisation is able to meet their expectations regarding eliminating discrimination and creating an environment of inclusiveness (McKay et al., 2007). The instrument is considered as a 'snapshot' of the organisational diversity climate, although it requires individuals to respond. The diversity climate measuring instrument uses a five-point Likert scale, with 1 denoting 'well below expectations' and five denoting 'well above expectations'. A sample item in the measuring instrument by McKay et al. (2007) requested participants to indicate how the organisation met their expectation regarding maintaining a 'diversity-friendly work environment'. The original results from McKay et al.'s (2007) study reported a Cronbach's alpha score of 0.91 on the reliability of the scale, while a South African application of the measuring instrument in a tertiary environment reported a Cronbach's alpha score of 0.90 (McCallaghan & Heyns, 2016).

• The employee commitment variable was determined using an application of the 'organisational commitment' construct in the psychological contracts across employment situations (Psycones) questionnaire (Kerstin, 2002). The organisational commitment variable within the Psycones questionnaire was adapted to a five-item scale from the organisational commitment scale developed by Cook and Wall (1980). The organisational commitment questionnaire as redeveloped by Kerstin (2002) specifically assesses affective commitment. The organisational commitment scale comprises five scale items and uses the same five-point Likert scale. A typical item to determine organisational commitment is 'even if this organisation or client was not doing too well, I would be reluctant to change to another employer or client'. A South African application of the measuring instrument reported a Cronbach's alpha score of 0.72 (Walters, 2008).

Statistical analysis

Primary data were captured, cleaned and processed by the institution's statistical unit. Data were processed using the Statistical Packages for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 23 (IBM Corp., 2015). The statistical analysis included descriptive statistics, reliability and validity, Pearson's correlation statistics and simple mediation models.

The statistical analysis of the factor analysis included the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy, with principal component analysis as the extraction method. Field (2009) advises that the KMO measure of sampling adequacy can be used to determine whether a sample is suitable for factor analysis. A value close to 1 indicates that patterns of correlations are relatively compact and a factor analysis should therefore produce individual, reliable factors (Field, 2009). The assumption that only one factor was present for each factor was based on the amount of variance explained and a strong decrease in the eigenvalue after the first factor. Eigenvalues larger than 1.0 were used as a criterion for factor selection, as proposed by Field (2009).

Descriptive statistics determined central propensities and whether the data were normally distributed. Statistics for skewness and kurtosis were used to determine normality. The criteria used to determine whether data could be considered a normal distribution were set at 2.00 for skewness (Finch & West, 1997) and 4.00 for kurtosis (Field, 2009).

Regarding reliability, Cronbach's alpha values above 0.7 are traditionally regarded as acceptable. However, for scales with fewer than 10 items it is sometimes difficult to obtain a decent Cronbach's alpha value, and for this reason mean inter-item correlation values can be examined as an additional indication of relationships among items (Pallant, 2007). Robinson, Shaver and Wrightsman (1991) suggest a practical alternative, which suggests that Cronbach's alpha as an interpretation of internal consistency can be interpreted as follows: α > 0.80 = exemplary, α > 0.70 = extensive, α > 0.60 = moderate and α < 0.60 = minimal. We followed the guideline proposed by Robinson et al. (1991). As a supplementary test for reliability, we calculated inter-item correlations. Internal correlation was considered adequate at r = 0.10.

To determine the relationships between the described variables, we conducted a Pearson's correlation analysis. Effect sizes were calculated with a confidence level set at 95%; p < 0.05 was considered significant. We interpreted the results by using the following criteria: 01 = small effect, 0.3 = medium effect and 0.5 = large effect (Steyn, 1999). A threshold of 0.30 (medium effect) was set for the practical significance of correlation coefficients (Cohen, 1988).

Simple mediation modelling was performed using the PROCESS macro version 3 (Hayes, 2017) which was installed in SPSS. Mediation was established with the indirect effect that was tested using a percentile bootstrap estimation approach with 10 000 samples (Shrout & Bolger, 2002). An indirect effect from the bootstrap analysis was considered significant if the lower level confidence interval (LLCI) and upper level confidence interval (ULCI) excluded zero (Zhao, Lynch, & Chen, 2010). In order to meet the criteria for a complementary mediation as set by Zhao et al. (2010), the mediated and direct effects should both exist and point in the same direction.

 

Ethical consideration

Ethical clearance for the study was obtained from the North-West University Business School (Reference number: EMSPBS09/09/16-01/01).

 

Results

The results of the study are presented as follows: firstly, factor analysis is reported, followed by descriptive and reliability results. Then, results obtained from the correlation analysis are presented, with an interpretation of the type and nature of the relationships between transformational leadership, diversity climate and organisational commitment. Finally, findings from the simple mediation results are reported.

Factor analysis

The analysis of the diversity climate (McKay et al., 2007) revealed that the first factor extracted explained 60.6% of the variance, with an eigenvalue of 5.45 (KMO = 0.90). These results are consistent with the results of the study by McCallaghan and Heyns (2016), which was also able to confirm the one-dimensional structure of this specific diversity climate measuring instrument.

The transformational leadership section contained six factors and a factor analysis was conducted for each individual factor with the following results: vision articulation had 78.2% of the variance explained, with an eigenvalue of 3.91 for the first factor extracted (KMO = 0.87). Role modelling had 93.2% of the variance explained, with an eigenvalue of 2.80 for the first factor extracted (KMO = 0.76). Goal acceptance had 88.1% of the variance explained, with an eigenvalue of 3.53 for the first factor extracted (KMO = 0.87). High-performance expectations had 78.7% of the variance explained, with an eigenvalue of 2.36 for the first factor extracted (KMO 0.70). Individual consideration had 56.3% of the variance explained, with an eigenvalue of 1.69 for the first factor extracted (KMO = 0.50). Intellectual stimulation had 82.4% of the variance explained, with an eigenvalue of 3.30 for the first factor extracted (KMO 0.84). The factor analysis for organisational commitment explained 56.0% of the variance with an eigenvalue of 2.80 (KMO = 0.79). Based on these results, the measuring instruments in the present study are valid because of the establishment of construct validity.

Descriptive results and reliability

Table 2 presents the descriptive results of all variables and factors used in this study. A closer examination of Table 2 reveals that the mean scores of all variables were within the respective scale's positive or agree range. This would suggest that a constructive diversity climate, transformational leadership and organisational commitment are present in the sample group.

Cronbach's alpha scores ranged from 0.62 to 0.96 and inter-item correlation scores ranged from 0.27 to 0.89. Individual consideration (four-scale items) recorded a Cronbach's alpha score of 0.62, which, according to the guidelines by Robinson et al. (1991), reached the moderate level. The inter-item correlation for individual consideration was recorded at r = 0.27. Taking into consideration the guidelines by Pallant (2007) and Robinson et al. (1991), the variables considered in this study were deemed to demonstrate sufficient internal consistency. All skewness and kurtosis results are within the set thresholds (skewness = 2.00, kurtosis = 4.00) and we can confirm that the data were normally distributed.

Table 2 presents the descriptive and reliability results for all variables measured in this study.

Correlation analysis

The study calculated correlations in order to determine the relationship between the described variables. Although correlations are considered a worthy indicator of the relationship, it does not necessarily indicate that one variable is caused by another (Hinkle, Wiersma, & Jurs, 2003). For that reason, the purpose of the correlation analysis was to determine the type and nature of the relationships between transformational leadership characteristics, diversity climate and the characteristics of the defined organisational employee outcomes. The results from the correlation analysis are presented in Table 3.

A closer inspection of the results in Table 3 reveals that all transformational leadership characteristics and the transformational leadership aggregate demonstrated a noticeable relationship with the diversity climate. The role modelling factor revealed a large effect (r = 0.54) in the relationship with the diversity climate. Individual consideration and the diversity climate revealed the lowest scoring correlation (r = 0.21) which was considered a small effect.

An analysis of the relationship between the diversity climate and organisational commitment revealed a medium effect (r = 0.34). The relationship between the transformational leadership aggregate and organisational commitment also demonstrated a medium effect (r = 0.35).

Mediation analysis

The final examination of transformational leadership, the diversity climate and commitment included an analysis of a simple mediation model. This model was computed using PROCESS macro version 3 (Hayes, 2017) through SPSS. The results of the simple mediation model are presented in Table 4.

 

 

As indicated in Table 4, the mediation analysis revealed that the four traditional conditions for mediation were met. The reliable bootstrapping bias-corrected 95% lower and upper confidence interval range did not include zero. This result supports the significant indirect effect of a diversity climate on the relationship between transformational leadership and commitment.

Figure 2 illustrates the results of the simple mediation modelling. Transformational leadership was the independent variable, diversity climate the mediator and organisational commitment the dependent variable.

 

 

A further analysis of Table 4 and Figure 2 reveals a significant result for the first regression (c) where transformational leadership was considered the independent variable and organisational commitment the dependant variable (b = 0.22, t(228) = 6.28, p < 0.01).

The second regression (a) with transformational leadership and diversity climate (mediator) was also significant with b = 0.26, t(228) = 6.45 and p < 0.01.

The third regression (b) between diversity climate (mediator) and organisational commitment was significant with b = 0.20, t(227) = 3.48, p < 0.01.

The results for the indirect effect revealed a significant result with B = 0.05, SE = 0.02, LLCI = 0.02 and ULCI = 0.10. The indirect effect from the bootstrap analysis with 95% confidence interval did not include zero; therefore, a x b is significant and consequently a diversity climate can be considered as a mediator in the relationship between transformational leadership and organisational commitment. All three pathways (a, b and c) are significant and positive; for that reason, the mediation model was considered a 'complementary mediation' model as prescribed by Zhao et al. (2010).

 

Discussion

In this section, we revisit the study's primary and secondary objectives. The primary objective was to test a proposed simple mediation model, with the diversity climate mediating the relationship between transformational leadership and employee commitment. The simple mediation analysis with transformational leadership as the independent variable, diversity climate as the mediator and commitment as the dependent variable yielded a significant result. The diversity climate demonstrated a significant indirect effect on the relationship between transformational leadership and organisational commitment. This result translates to a situation where shared perceptions regarding diversity policies and practices will constructively assist employees in demonstrating commitment towards the organisation when they are exposed to the characteristics of transformational leadership in their specific workplaces. Thus, the mediation result for the path of transformational leadership to organisational commitment via diversity confirms the mediating promises of a diversity climate as demonstrated by Volpone et al. (2012) and Taylor (2015).

The secondary objective of the study was to investigate and analyse the relationships between transformational leadership, diversity climate and employee commitment. The analysis included a correlation analysis and direct effects. The correlation results revealed small to medium practical effects when examining the relationship between transformational leadership and diversity climate. Our result confirms the findings of Ng and Sears (2011) who suggested that a documented constructive observation of 'diversity practices' is strongly associated with the presence of transformational leadership.

The correlation results also exposed the association between diversity climate and organisational commitment. Arguably, our results partially confirm the seminal research by Cox (1994), as we considered large effects to be more conclusive. These results also confirm the notion of Joubert (2017), suggesting that effective diversity management would lead to advantages for both the employee and the organisation.

The study further found evidence to suggest that the presence of transformational leadership will be associated with higher levels of employee commitment. This specific result confirms the notion of Walumbwa and Lawlwer (2003) that transformational leadership also contributes towards a general observation of employee commitment.

While traditional antecedents for diversity climate include human resource practices and policy interpretation and perceptions, none of these antecedents was tested. The study, however, explored transformational characteristics as predictors of the diversity climate score. A standardised regression coefficient demonstrated that transformational leadership could be considered a predictor of diversity climate. This result is consistent with the findings of Taylor (2015) who was also able to demonstrate a direct effect of transformational leadership on diversity climate. Our result further contributes towards organisational diversity climate literature, especially in an African setting, by responding to McKay and Avery's (2015) recommendations that future diversity climate investigations should also look into associations with managerial aspects such as leadership.

Limitations of the study and future research

We are realistic that this study was not faultless. The quantitative approach and cross-sectional design do not allow the testing of cause-effect relationships. This limitation can be addressed in a longitudinal study, investigating the effect of diversity climate interventions on similar leadership styles and employee outcomes. The sampling method (convenience sampling) does not allow the study to generalise the results and is limited to the sample group. Future studies should consider alternative sampling techniques, for example, stratified sampling. This would allow for group comparisons. Common source bias was also considered a limitation because of self-report questionnaires and significant correlations between variables. In order to minimise the common source bias, future studies should consider careful assessment of the research environment to identify potential sources of bias and implement both procedural and statistical methods to control for common source bias (Podsakoff, Mackenzie, & Lee, 2003). Future studies should also consider a mixed-method approach in order to confirm or dismiss quantitative results.

Future studies should further explore the mediating characteristics as demonstrated by the current study. Promising mediating characteristics found in previous studies by Volpone et al. (2012) and Taylor (2015) were confirmed in a South African environment. Future researchers should perhaps investigate alternative organisational outcomes to confirm the mediation capabilities of diversity climate. These outcomes could include typical organisational performance outcomes such as production or profit indicators. More negative outcomes and associations with increased diversity, such as subtle discrimination, could also be considered as dependent variables in the simple mediation model. Alternative leadership styles should also be tested, as studies of such a nature would further contribute towards organisational diversity climate literature.

The sample demographics was dominated by the white group (69.3%), senior managers and middle managers (60.4% combined), which could have possibly impacted the results. South Africa has a unique history in terms of segregation, with distinctive policy and legislative interventions to correct the inherited disproportions (Jackson & Van der Vijver, 2018). Previous research has demonstrated that policies aimed at correcting imbalances in employment will be viewed more positively by the group that has the most to gain (Durrheim, 2010). Furthermore, taking into consideration that South African organisations also demonstrate signs of both Afrocentric and Eurocentric leadership styles (Feldman & Msibi, 2014) and that stereotypical leadership assumptions and behaviours are a reality (Eagly, Johannesen-Schmidt, & Van Engen, 2003), future investigations should explore group differences including a multi-group analysis.

Practical and theoretical implications

The presence of transformational leadership and its associated advantages in the workforce of the sample group should not be underestimated. Organisations that participated in the study should consider leadership assessments for future employees, especially those organisations that require a constructive diversity climate and increased levels of employee commitment. The pathway whereby the diversity climate was considered the independent variable, and organisational commitment was considered the dependent variable, also revealed a significant result, thereby contributing towards the confirmation by Cox (1993) who had also explored outcomes of a positive climate for diversity.

It has been emphasised that future organisational leaders will have to consider managing organisational diversity as being a specialised skill or ability (Thomas, 2006). We believe that the required development of a specialised skill in order to manage future organisational diversity will necessitate an endless supply of information on aspects of leadership in diverse environments. Important transfer of knowledge, from theory to practice, would encompass the relay of information related to the type of leadership required to materialise the full organisational benefits associated with diversity, and the type of managerial tools (policies and practices) required to enhance the process of achieving those sought-after organisational outcomes.

McKay and Avery (2015) confirmed the scarcity of diversity climate mediation studies and have called upon researchers to investigate diversity climate non-related antecedents, such as leadership. The study contributes towards the limited diversity climate literature by confirming the mediating characteristics of a diversity climate in the relationship between transformational leadership and employee commitment in a South African environment.

 

Conclusion

Future organisational leaders tasked with managing diversity need to understand that although transformational leadership will enhance employee organisational commitment, the development and implementation of policies and practices towards diversity should receive equal attention. This study has contributed towards the body of knowledge for South African organisations, with the confirmation that transformational leadership and constructive perceptions regarding policies and practices directed at diversity are associated with organisational commitment.

 

Acknowledgements

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships which may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article. The views and opinions expressed in this article are that of the authors and do not represent those of the participating organisations or university where the study was conducted.

Author's contributions

S.M. conducted the literature review, collected and processed all data and was responsible for the write-up of the article. L.J. and M.H. guided the conceptualisation and interpretation of results, provided commentary and co-authored the article.

 

References

Abdul Rashid, M. Z., Sambasivan, M., & Johari, J. (2003). The influence of corporate culture and organisational commitment on performance. Journal of Management Development, 22(8), 708-728. https://doi.org/10.1108/02621710310487873        [ Links ]

Albrecht, S. L., Bakker, A. B., Gruman, J. A., Macey, W. H., & Saks, A. M. (2015). Employee engagement, human resource management practices and competitive advantage: An integrated approach. Journal of Organizational Effectiveness: People and Performance, 2(1), 7-35. https://doi.org/10.1108/JOEPP-08-2014-0042        [ Links ]

Bass, B. M., & Riggio, R. (2006). Transformational leadership (2nd edn.). New York: Psychology Press.         [ Links ]

Buttner, E. H., & Lowe, K. B. (2010). Diversity climate impact on employee of color outcomes: Does justice matter? Career Development International, 15(3), 239-258. https://doi.org/10.1108/13620431011053721        [ Links ]

Carley-Baxter, L. R., Hill, C. A., Roe, D. J., Twiddy, S. E., Baxter, R. K., & Ruppenkamp, J. (2009). Does response rate matter? Journal editors use of survey quality measures in manuscript publication decisions. Survey Practice, 2(7), 1-10. ISSN: 2168-0094. https://doi.org/10.29115/SP-2009-0033        [ Links ]

Chin, J. L., Desormeaux, L., & Sawyer, K. (2016). Making way for paradigms of diversity leadership. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 68(1), 49-71. https://doi.org/10.1037/cpb0000051        [ Links ]

Chrobot-Mason, D., & Aramovich, N. P. (2013). The psychological benefits of creating an affirming climate for workplace diversity. Group & Organisation Management, 38(6), 659-689. https://doi.org/10.1177/1059601113509835        [ Links ]

Chughtai, A. A., & Zafar, S. (2006). Antecedents and consequences of organisational commitment among Pakistani university teachers. Applied HRM Research, 11(1), 39-64.         [ Links ]

Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioural sciences (2nd edn.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.         [ Links ]

Colquitt, J. A., Lepine, J. A., & Wesson, M. W. (2011). Organisational behaviour: Improving performance and commitment in the workplace (2nd edn.). New York: McGraw-Hill.         [ Links ]

Cook, J., & Wall, T. (1980). New work attitude measures of trust, organizational commitment and personal need non-fulfilment. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 53(1), 39-52. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8325.1980.tb00005.x        [ Links ]

Cox, T. H. (1993). Cultural diversity in organisations: Theory, research, and practice. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Kochler.         [ Links ]

Cox, T. H. (1994). Cultural diversity in organisations: Theory; research and practice. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Kochler.         [ Links ]

Cox, T. H., & Blake, S. (1991). Managing cultural diversity: Implications for organisational competitiveness. The Executive, 5, 45-56. https://doi.org/10.5465/ame.1991.4274465        [ Links ]

Denton, M., & Vloeberghs, D. (2003). Leadership challenges for organisations in the new South Africa. Leadership & Organisation Development Journal, 24(2), 84-95. https://doi.org/10.1108/01437730310463279        [ Links ]

Durrheim, K. (2010). Attitudes towards racial redress in South Africa. In B. Roberts, M. Kivilu, & Y. D. Davids (Eds.), South African social attitudes: 2nd report (pp. 31-42). Cape Town, South Africa: HSRC Press.         [ Links ]

Eagly, A. H., Johannesen-Schmidt, M. C., & Van Engen, M. L. (2003). Transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership styles: A meta-analysis comparing women and men. Psychological Bulletin, 129(4), 569-591. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.129.4.569        [ Links ]

Engelen, A., Gupta, V., Strenger, L., & Brettel, M. (2015). Entrepreneurial orientation, firm performance, and the moderating role of transformational leadership behaviors. Journal of Management, 41(4), 1069-1097. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206312455244        [ Links ]

Feldman, A., & Msibi, S. (2014). Influence of cross-cultural leadership on organisational culture: Arcelormittal, Newcastle, a South African perspective. African Journal of Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure, 3(1), 1-9.         [ Links ]

Field, A. (2009). Discovering statistics using SPSS (3rd edn.). London: Sage.         [ Links ]

Finch, J. F., & West, S. G. (1997). The investigation of personality structure: Statistical models. Journal of Research in Personality, 31(4), 439-485. https://doi.org/10.1006/jrpe.1997.2194        [ Links ]

Fullerton, F. N., & Toossi, M. (2001). Labor force projections to 2010: Steady growth and changing composition. Monthly Labor Review, 124, 21-38.         [ Links ]

Gotsis, G., & Grimani, K. (2016). Diversity as an aspect of effective leadership: Integrating and moving forward. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 37(2), 24-1264. https://doi.org/10.1108/LODJ-06-2014-0107        [ Links ]

Hayes, A. F. (2017). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. New York: Guilford Publications.         [ Links ]

Hinkle, D. E., Wiersma, W., & Jurs, S. G. (2003). Applied statistics for the behavioural sciences (5th edn.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.         [ Links ]

Hofhuis, J., Van Der Rijt, P. G. A., & Vlug, M. (2016). Diversity climate enhances work outcomes through trust and openness in workgroup communication. SpringerPlus, 5(741), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40064-016-2499-4        [ Links ]

IBM Corp. (2015). IBM SPSS statistics for windows, version 23.0. Armonk, NY: IBM Corp.         [ Links ]

Jackson, L. T. B. (2017). The mediating role of personal resources in the relationship between transformational leadership and employee attitude. In C. A. Bisschoff & J. Jordaan (Eds.), 2017 International Business Conference Proceedings, Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania (pp. 569-608). Retrieved from http://ibc-conference.com/2017-ibc/        [ Links ]

Jackson, L. T. B., & Van Der Vijver, F. J. R. (2018). Confirming the structure of the dual process of diversity amongst public sector South African employees. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 28(3), 182-191. https://doi.org/10.1080/14330237.2018.1475468        [ Links ]

Jackson, S. E., & Joshi, A. (2011). Work team diversity. In S. Zedeck (Ed.), APA handbooks in psychology. APA handbook of industrial and organisational psychology, Vol. 1. Building and developing the organisation (pp. 651-686). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.         [ Links ]

Jayne, M. E. A., & Dipboye, R. L. (2004). Leveraging diversity to improve business performance: Research findings and recommendations for organisations. Human Resource Management, 43(4), 409-424.         [ Links ]

Joshi, A., & Roh, H. (2009). The role of context in work team diversity research: A meta-analytic review. Academy of Management Journal, 52(3), 599-627. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrm.20033        [ Links ]

Joubert, T. (2017). Workplace diversity in South Africa: Its qualities and management. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 27(4), 367-371. https://doi.org/10.1080/14330237.2017.1347760        [ Links ]

Kearney, R., & Gebert, D. (2009). Managing diversity and enhancing outcomes: The promise of transformational leadership. American Psychological Association, 94(1), 77-89. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013077        [ Links ]

Kerstin, I. (2002). Psychological contracts across employment situations (Psycones). Stockholm, Sweden: Institute for Working Life.         [ Links ]

Luijters, K., Van Der Zee, K., & Otten, S. (2008). Cultural diversity in organisations: Enhancing identification by valuing differences. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 32(2), 154-163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2007.09.003        [ Links ]

Malik, A. R., & Singh, P. (2017). Transformational leadership and cultural minorities: A conceptual model. European Business Review, 29(5), 500-514. https://doi.org/10.1108/EBR-12-2015-0181        [ Links ]

Mathieu, J., & Zajac, D. (1990). A review of meta-analysis of the antecedents, correlates and consequences of organisational commitment. Psychological Bulletin, 108(2), 171-194. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.108.2.171        [ Links ]

McCallaghan, S., & Heyns, M. M. (2016). Die verhouding tussen vertroue en 'n diversiteitsklimaat by 'n Suid-Afrikaanse universiteit. Tydskrif vir Geesteswetenskappe, 56(4), 1071-1088.         [ Links ]

McKay, P. F., & Avery, D. R. (2015). Diversity climate in organisations: Current wisdom and domains of uncertainty. Research in Personnel and Human Resource Management, 33, 191-233. https://doi.org/10.1108/S0742-730120150000033008        [ Links ]

McKay, P. F., Avery, D. R., Tonidandel, S., Morris, M. A., Hernandez, M., & Hebl, M. R. (2007). Racial differences in employee retention: Are diversity climate perceptions key? Personnel Psychology, 60(1), 35-62. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2007.00064.x        [ Links ]

McShane, S. L., & Von Glinow, M. (2015). Organisational behaviour: Emerging knowledge and practice for the real world (7th edn.). New York: McGraw-Hill.         [ Links ]

Mendes, L., & Jesus, J. (2018). Influence of total quality-based human issues on organisational commitment. Total Quality Management & Business Excellence, 29(3-4), 260-286. https://doi.org/10.1080/14783363.2016.1180953        [ Links ]

Meyer, J. P., & Allen, N. J. (1991). A three-component conceptualization of organizational commitment. Human Resource Management Review, 1(1), 61-89. https://doi.org/10.1016/1053-4822(91)90011-Z        [ Links ]

Miller, D., & Lee, J. (2001). The people make the process: Commitment to employees, decision making, and performance. Journal of Management, 27(2), 163-189. https://doi.org/10.1177/014920630102700203        [ Links ]

Ng, E. S., & Sears, G. J. (2011). CEO leadership styles and the implementation of organisational practices: Moderating effects of social values and age. Journal of Business Ethics, 105(1), 41-52. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-011-0933-7        [ Links ]

Odemure, J. A., & Ifeanyi, G. O. (2013). Transformational vs transactional leadership theories: Evidence in literature. International Review of Management and Business Research, 2(2), 355-361.         [ Links ]

Ogbonna, E., & Harris, L. C. (2006). The dynamics of employee relationships in an ethnically diverse workforce. Human Relations, 59(3), 379-407. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726706064181        [ Links ]

Pallant, J. (2007). SPSS survival manual. A step by step to data analysis using SPSS for windows (7th edn.). New York: McGraw-Hill.         [ Links ]

Podsakoff, P. M., Mackenzie, S. B., & Lee, J. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(5), 879-903. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879        [ Links ]

Podsakoff, P. M., Mackenzie, S. B., Moorman, R. H., & Fetter, R. (1990). Transformational leader behaviours and their effects on followers' trust in leader, satisfaction, and organisational citizenship behaviours. Leadership Quarterly, 1(2), 107-142.         [ Links ]

Pugh, S. D., Dietz, J., Brief, A. P., & Wiley, J. W. (2008). Looking inside out: The impact of employee and community demographic composition on organisational diversity climate. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(6), 1422-1428. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012696        [ Links ]

Richard, O., Roh, H., & Pieper, J. R. (2013). The link between diversity and equality management practice bundles and racial diversity in the managerial ranks: Does firm size matter? Human Resource Management, 52(2), 215-242. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrm.21528        [ Links ]

Richard, O. C., Barnett, T., Dwyer, S., & Chadwick, K. (2004). Cultural diversity in management, firm performance, and the moderating role of entrepreneurial orientation dimensions. Academy of Management Journal, 47(2), 255-266.         [ Links ]

Robinson, J. P., Shaver, P. R., & Wrightsman, L. S. (1991). Criteria for scale selection and evaluation. In J. P. Robinson, P. R. Shaver, & L. S. Wrightsman (Eds.), Measures of personality and social psychological attitudes (pp. 1-16). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.         [ Links ]

Sashkin, M. (2004). Transformational leadership approaches: A review and synthesis. In J. Antonakis, A. T. Cianciolo, & R. J. Sternberg (Eds.), The nature of leadership (pp. 171-196). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.         [ Links ]

Shrout, P. E., & Bolger, N. (2002). Mediation in experimental and nonexperimental studies: New procedures and recommendations. Psychological Methods, 7(4), 422-445. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.7.4.422        [ Links ]

Steyn, H. S. (1999). Practical significant relationships between two variables. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 28(3), 10-15. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v28i3.63        [ Links ]

Sun, R., & Wang, W. (2017). Transformational leadership, employee turnover intention, and actual voluntary turnover in public organisations. Public Management Review, 19(8), 1124-1141. https://doi.org/10.1080/14719037.2016.1257063        [ Links ]

Taylor, A. S. (2015). Transformational leadership, diversity, and creativity at work: A moderated mediation model (Unpublished doctoral thesis). Portland State University, OR.         [ Links ]

Thomas, R. R. (2006). Diversity management: An essential craft for leaders. Leadership Process and Practices, 41(1), 45-49. https://doi.org/10.1002/ltl.191        [ Links ]

Van Dijk, H., Van Engen, M. L., & Van Knippenberg, D. (2012). Defying conventional wisdom: Meta-analytical examination of the differences between demographic and job related diversity relationships with performance. Organisational Behaviour and Human Decision Making Processes, 119(1), 38-53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2012.06.003        [ Links ]

Volpone, S. D., Avery, D. R., & McKay, P. F. (2012). Linkages between racioethnicity, appraisal reactions, and employee engagement. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 42(1), 252-270. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2011.00877.x        [ Links ]

Walters, E. (2008). Intentions to leave the workplace: The role of unfulfilled promises (Unpublished master's dissertation). Potchefstroom: North-West University.         [ Links ]

Walumbwa, F. O., & Lawler, J. J. (2003). Building effective organisations: Transformational leadership, collectivist orientation, work-related attitudes and withdrawal behaviours in three emerging economies. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 14(7), 1083-1101. https://doi.org/10.1080/0958519032000114219        [ Links ]

Wieland, A. J. (2004). Business leadership and diversity: The relationships between team diversity climate, leaders' diversity attitudes, and leadership styles. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, 65(4-B), 2004, pp. 2134.         [ Links ]

Zhao, X., Lynch, J. G., & Chen, Q. (2010). Reconsidering Barron and Kenny: Myths and truths about mediation analysis. Journal of Consumer Research, 37(2), 197-206. https://doi.org/10.1086/651257        [ Links ]

Ziegert, J. C., & Hanges, P. J. (2005). Employment discrimination: The role of implicit attitudes, motivation and a climate for racial bias. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90(3), 553-556. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.90.3.553        [ Links ]

 

 

Correspondence:
Sean McCallaghan
sean.mccallaghan@nwu.ac.za

Received: 19 Nov. 2018
Accepted: 15 Apr. 2019
Published: 24 June 2019

^rND^sAbdul Rashid^nM. Z.^rND^sSambasivan^nM.^rND^sJohari^nJ.^rND^sAlbrecht^nS. L.^rND^sBakker^nA. B.^rND^sGruman^nJ. A.^rND^sMacey^nW. H.^rND^sSaks^nA. M.^rND^sButtner^nE. H.^rND^sLowe^nK. B.^rND^sCarley-Baxter^nL. R.^rND^sHill^nC. A.^rND^sRoe^nD. J.^rND^sTwiddy^nS. E.^rND^sBaxter^nR. K.^rND^sRuppenkamp^nJ.^rND^sChin^nJ. L.^rND^sDesormeaux^nL.^rND^sSawyer^nK.^rND^sChrobot-Mason^nD.^rND^sAramovich^nN. P.^rND^sChughtai^nA. A.^rND^sZafar^nS.^rND^sCook^nJ.^rND^sWall^nT.^rND^sCox^nT. H.^rND^sBlake^nS.^rND^sDenton^nM.^rND^sVloeberghs^nD.^rND^sDurrheim^nK.^rND^sEagly^nA. H^rND^sJohannesen-Schmidt^nM. C.^rND^sVan Engen^nM. L.^rND^sEngelen^nA.^rND^sGupta^nV.^rND^sStrenger^nL.^rND^sBrettel^nM.^rND^sFeldman^nA.^rND^sMsibi^nS.^rND^sFinch^nJ. F.^rND^sWest^nS. G.^rND^sFullerton^nF. N.^rND^sToossi^nM.^rND^sGotsis^nG.^rND^sGrimani^nK.^rND^sHofhuis^nJ.^rND^sVan Der Rijt^nP. G. A.^rND^sVlug^nM.^rND^sJackson^nL. T. B.^rND^sJackson^nL. T. B.^rND^sVan Der Vijver^nF. J. R.^rND^sJackson^nS. E.^rND^sJoshi^nA.^rND^sJayne^nM. E. A.^rND^sDipboye^nR. L.^rND^sJoshi^nA.^rND^sRoh^nH.^rND^sJoubert^nT.^rND^sKearney^nR.^rND^sGebert^nD.^rND^sLuijters^nK.^rND^sVan Der Zee^nK.^rND^sOtten^nS.^rND^sMalik^nA. R.^rND^sSingh^nP.^rND^sMathieu^nJ.^rND^sZajac^nD.^rND^sMcCallaghan^nS.^rND^sHeyns^nM. M.^rND^sMcKay^nP. F.^rND^sAvery^nD. R.^rND^sMcKay^nP. F.^rND^sAvery^nD. R.^rND^sTonidandel^nS.^rND^sMorris^nM. A.^rND^sHernandez^nM.^rND^sHebl^nM. R.^rND^sMendes^nL.^rND^sJesus^nJ.^rND^sMeyer^nJ. P.^rND^sAllen^nN. J.^rND^sMiller^nD.^rND^sLee^nJ.^rND^sNg^nE. S.^rND^sSears^nG. J.^rND^sOdemure^nJ. A.^rND^sIfeanyi^nG. O.^rND^sOgbonna^nE.^rND^sHarris^nL. C.^rND^sPodsakoff^nP. M.^rND^sMackenzie^nS. B.^rND^sLee^nJ.^rND^sPodsakoff^nP. M.^rND^sMackenzie^nS. B.^rND^sMoorman^nR. H.^rND^sFetter^nR.^rND^sPugh^nS. D.^rND^sDietz^nJ.^rND^sBrief^nA. P.^rND^sWiley^nJ. W.^rND^sRichard^nO.^rND^sRoh^nH.^rND^sPieper^nJ. R.^rND^sRichard^nO. C.^rND^sBarnett^nT.^rND^sDwyer^nS^rND^sChadwick^nK.^rND^sRobinson^nJ. P.^rND^sShaver^nP. R.^rND^sWrightsman^nL. S.^rND^sSashkin^nM.^rND^sShrout^nP. E.^rND^sBolger^nN.^rND^sSteyn^nH. S.^rND^sSun^nR.^rND^sWang^nW.^rND^sThomas^nR. R.^rND^sVan Dijk^nH.^rND^sVan Engen^nM. L.^rND^sVan Knippenberg^nD.^rND^sVolpone^nS. D.^rND^sAvery^nD. R.^rND^sMcKay^nP. F.^rND^sWalumbwa^nF. O.^rND^sLawler^nJ. J.^rND^sWieland^nA. J.^rND^sZhao^nX.^rND^sLynch^nJ. G.^rND^sChen^nQ.^rND^sZiegert^nJ. C.^rND^sHanges^nP. J.^rND^1A01^nNicola^sVermooten^rND^1A01^nBilly^sBoonzaier^rND^1A02^nMartin^sKidd^rND^1A01^nNicola^sVermooten^rND^1A01^nBilly^sBoonzaier^rND^1A02^nMartin^sKidd^rND^1A01^nNicola^sVermooten^rND^1A01^nBilly^sBoonzaier^rND^1A02^nMartin^sKidd

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Job crafting, proactive personality and meaningful work: Implications for employee engagement and turnover intention

 

 

Nicola Vermooten^I; Billy Boonzaier^I; Martin Kidd^II

^IDepartment of Industrial Psychology, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa
^IICentre for Statistical Consultation, and Department of Statistics and Actuarial Sciences, Stellenbosch University Stellenbosch, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

---

ABSTRACT

ORIENTATION: Jobs in the financial services industry are in constant flux because of the ever-changing nature of the products and services provided to customers. This could result in employee disengagement and turnover intention
RESEARCH PURPOSE: The purpose of the study was to examine the role of job crafting, proactive personality and meaningful work in predicting employee engagement and turnover intention among employees in the financial services industry based on the central tenets of the Job Demands-Resources theory
MOTIVATION FOR THE STUDY: Organisations or incumbents may redesign jobs. The self-initiated proactive behaviour that incumbents exhibit to shape the meaning of their work is known as job crafting. The relationships that exist among job crafting, proactive personality, meaningful work, employee engagement and turnover intention were, therefore, investigated.
RESEARCH DESIGN, APPROACH AND METHOD: A quantitative cross-sectional survey design was used to gather primary data in service-providing firms across South Africa (n = 391).
MAIN FINDINGS: Results demonstrated that job crafting, proactive personality and meaningful work significantly predict variance in employee engagement and turnover intention.
PRACTICAL AND MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS: Specific human resource practices and interventions are proffered to foster job crafting, proactivity and meaningful work and, in doing so, address employee disengagement and turnover intention.
CONTRIBUTION OR VALUE-ADD: The study highlights the importance of encouraging employees to craft their jobs as it has specific implications for prominent work-related outcomes, such as employee engagement and turnover intention, among employees in the financial services industry.

Keywords: Positive psychology; web-based survey; proactive personality scale; job crafting scale; psychological meaningfulness scale; Utrecht work engagement scale; turnover intention scale; covariance structural equation modelling; partial least squares structural equation modelling.

---

 

 

Introduction

Research has shown that employees perform optimally in challenging, resourceful work environments, as these environments foster employee engagement (Bakker & Demerouti, 2014). Organisations in the financial services industry should, therefore, develop and implement human resource practices and interventions that influence the work conditions (i.e. job demands and job resources) of their employees. In addition, the researchers argue that it is just as important for employees themselves to adjust their work conditions proactively. This can be achieved through crafting behaviour (i.e. job crafting) (Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001).

Job crafting is the process whereby employees, through their personal initiative, adjust their work environment to ensure that their need for congruence with their environment is met and to improve the meaningfulness of their work-related activities (Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001). As opposed to other bottom-up but reactive approaches to job redesign (e.g. employee participation in job redesign), job crafting denotes a self-initiated proactive work behaviour (Crant, 1995).

According to Parker and Collins (2010), proactive work behaviours involve taking action to address foreseeable situations at work in advance or taking control and effecting change in the work environment. Research has shown that employees who have a disposition towards proactive behaviour (i.e. proactive personality) are more inclined to exhibit proactive work behaviours than their counterparts (McCormick, Guay, Colbert, & Stewart, 2018). It is, therefore, proposed that job crafting, proactive personality and meaningful work are salient antecedents of variance in prominent work-related outcomes, such as employee engagement and turnover intention.

 

Research purpose and objectives

Against this background, the purpose of the study was to examine the role of job crafting, proactive personality and meaningful work in predicting employee engagement and turnover intention among employees in the financial services industry within the framework of the Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) theory. More specifically, the study aimed to:

• determine the level of employee engagement and turnover intention among employees in service-providing firms that operate in the financial services industry;

• propose and empirically test an explanatory employee engagement and turnover intention structural model among employees in service-providing firms that operate in the financial services industry;

• highlight the managerial implications of results, and recommend specific human resource practices and interventions to address challenges pertaining to employee engagement and turnover intention among employees in service-providing firms that operate in the financial services industry.

 

Literature review

Job Demands-Resources theory

The JD-R theory is a meta-theoretical framework that can be applied to diverse occupational settings. Even though each occupation has a unique set of work characteristics that are associated with employee wellness and effectiveness, the JD-R theory suggests that these characteristics can be categorised as job demands or job resources (Demerouti, Bakker, Nachreiner, & Schaufeli, 2001).

Job demands are the physical, psychological, social or organisational features of a job that require sustained physical, mental and/or psychological (i.e. cognitive and emotional) effort from employees (e.g. job insecurity or role conflict). Notably, job demands do not necessarily incur physiological and/or psychological costs. These characteristics evoke strain only when they exceed the adaptive capability of employees. Job resources, on the other hand, are the physical, psychological, social or organisational features of a job that enable employees to reduce job demands, achieve work goals, and stimulate development, learning and personal growth (Tims & Bakker, 2010). These characteristics are found at an organisational level (e.g. opportunities for advancement), an interpersonal level (e.g. team processes), a task level (e.g. feedback) or the level of work design (e.g. autonomy) (Demerouti & Bakker, 2011).

The JD-R theory suggests that two different underlying psychological processes influence the development of job strain (i.e. burnout) on the one hand and motivation (i.e. employee engagement) on the other. These processes reflect a health impairment process and a motivational process. The health impairment process (or effort-driven process) assumes that demanding jobs or jobs with chronic demands incur physiological and/or psychological costs by exhausting employees' physical and mental resources. This, in turn, may lead to health problems and the depletion of their energy. The motivational process (or motivation-driven process), on the other hand, assumes that job resources are not only used to deal with job demands but may be valued in their own right (i.e. intrinsic motivation) or may help employees achieve or protect other valued resources (i.e. extrinsic motivation) as well. By implication, these characteristics possess motivation potential that may foster employee engagement, improve job performance and discourage cynicism. Empirical research has demonstrated support for both processes (Bakker & Demerouti, 2014; Demerouti & Bakker, 2011).

Even though the JD-R theory was initially restricted to work conditions (i.e. job demands and job resources), Xanthopoulou, Bakker, Demerouti and Schaufeli (2007) highlighted that personal resources (e.g. optimism or self-efficacy) are also important determinants of employees' adaptive capability. These researchers defined personal resources as 'aspects of the self that are generally linked to resiliency and refer to individuals' sense of their ability to control and influence their environment successfully' (p. 123). Their cross-sectional study among 714 Dutch employees from an electrical engineering and electronics organisation showed support for this notion and demonstrated that personal resources mediate the positive association between job resources and employee engagement (i.e. motivational process) and influence employees' perception of job resources.

Job crafting

Parker and Ohly (2008) proposed that employees could actively shape their job design from the bottom up. This employee-driven process, known as job crafting, was initially defined as cognitive and physical changes employees make to the relational or task boundaries of their job (Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001). However, this definition of job crafting offered a limited perspective of the construct. To address concerns with the above-mentioned definition of job crafting, Tims, Bakker and Derks (2012) proposed that it involves self-initiated changes that employees make to their work conditions (i.e. job demands and job resources) in accordance with the JD-R theory. More specifically, these researchers proposed that job crafting involves increasing social or structural job resources, as well as challenging (positive) job demands, and/or decreasing hindrance stressors that interfere with work performance.

By drawing on the central precepts of the JD-R theory, the researchers operationalised proactive personality as a personal resource and meaningful work as a job resource among employees in the financial services industry.

Proactive personality

All humans have a unique personality characterised by a set of distinct personality traits. These traits signify the dimensions along which humans' personalities vary in relatively stable ways (Roberts et al., 2017). According to Barrick, Mount and Li (2013), personality traits are distal motivational forces that can be used to make generalisations about human nature and explore between-person differences, as they determine humans' behavioural responses. The researchers argue that proactive personality represents an invaluable personal resource among employees in the financial services industry.

Proactive personality refers to a 'relatively stable tendency to effect environmental change' (Bateman & Crant, 1993, p. 103). In other words, it denotes a dispositional tendency to engage in proactive behaviour. While some employees adapt to, react to and are shaped by their work environment, employees who have a proactive personality recognise opportunities, take personal initiative and persevere until they have brought about meaningful change in their work environment (Bakker, Tims, & Derks, 2012).

By drawing on the theory of proactive personality (Bateman & Crant, 1993), the researchers propose that employees who have a proactive personality, would be more inclined to exhibit crafting behaviour. More specifically, employees who have a proactive personality are more inclined to increase social or structural job resources and challenging job demands, and decrease hindering job demands. Research has shown direct support for the positive association between proactive personality and job crafting. For example, a cross-sectional study conducted by Bakker et al. (2012) among 95 dyads (n = 190) in the Netherlands found that employees who have a proactive personality were more inclined to craft their jobs (i.e. increasing structural or social job resources and challenging job demands). Comparable results were reported by Plomp et al. (2016) among a heterogeneous group of 574 employees and by Zhang, Lu and Li (2018) among 1971 employees. Based on a review of the existing literature, the researchers formulated the following hypothesis:

H1: Proactive personality has a significant positive influence on job crafting (i.e. increasing social or structural job resources and challenging job demands, and decreasing hindering job demands).

Turnover intention

Employee turnover involves the voluntary movement of employees across the membership boundaries of organisations (Price, 2001). It occurs when employees decide to depart from their current organisation despite having the opportunity of continued employment. Notably, employee turnover is a multistage process. Turnover intention is the last sequence of withdrawal cognitions in the turnover process (Parker & Martin, 2009). Although turnover intentions may not necessarily lead to employee turnover, research has indicated that it represents an important outcome variable (Chang, Wang, & Huang, 2013).

Research has revealed that employees who have a proactive personality strive for congruence between themselves and their work environment in terms of their needs and abilities (Parker & Collins, 2010; Tims & Bakker, 2010). The researchers argue that this might be compounded by their inclination to adopt proactive work behaviours. If their need for congruence with their work environment is not met, employees with a proactive personality may be more inclined, because of their inclination to adopt proactive work behaviours, to seek alternative employment opportunities. As opposed to tolerating a frustrating work environment, these employees may respond to the lack of congruence between themselves and their work environment by developing turnover intention. For this reason, the researchers formulated the following hypothesis:

H2: Proactive personality has a significant positive influence on turnover intention.

Meaningful work

Adlerian theory proposes that all humans live in the realm of meanings (Alderfer, 1972). They experience their reality by attaching meaning to experiences through the process of meaning-making. According to Mezirow (1981, p. 394), 'at its simplest meaning-making refers to a lifelong process of understanding the world and our relationships with it'. Through the interpretation of their experiences, humans spin webs of meaning known as 'meaning systems' (Molden & Dweck, 2006, p. 201). These integrated mental representations of interrelations between objects, events and relationships encompass everything humans know.

In light of the preceding discussion, it is to be expected that employees seek meaning in their work experiences. It is, however, necessary to recognise that considerable differences exist in the way employees perceive their work (Wrzesniewski, McCauley, Rozin, & Schwartz, 1997). Job design alone does not determine the meaningfulness of work (Steger, Dik, & Duffy, 2012; Tims, Derks, & Bakker, 2016). Inherent in the existence of meaningful work are job design (e.g. task significance and comprehensibility), person-job fit (e.g. values and mission), work relationships (e.g. colleagues and supervisors) and work beliefs (e.g. calling orientation) (Pratt & Ashforth, 2003). Wrzesniewski (2003) proposed that employees can improve the meaningfulness of their work by aligning it with their perception of work through job crafting.

A three-wave study conducted by Tims et al. (2016) among a heterogeneous group of 114 employees in the Netherlands has examined whether job crafting and meaningful work are positively related. These researchers demonstrated that employees who engaged in job crafting in the first week (i.e. increasing social or structural job resources and challenging job demands, and decreasing hindering job demands) reported higher levels of person-job fit the following week and, in turn, found their work more meaningful in the final week. In line with this, Wrzesniewski, LoBuglio, Dutton and Berg (2013) suggested that job crafting is related to work meaning and identity. This suggests that job crafting optimises person-job fit and, in turn, enhances the meaningfulness of work. In line with the above, the researchers formulated the following hypothesis:

H3: Job crafting (i.e. increasing social or structural job resources and challenging job demands, and decreasing hindering job demands) has a significant positive influence on meaningful work.

Employee engagement

Employee engagement has attracted much attention from researchers and practitioners alike. Perhaps this is to be expected given that it is considered a key determinant of organisational success (Macey, Schneider, Barbera, & Young, 2009; Rich, LePine, & Crawford, 2010). Despite being one of the most popular constructs in the research field of industrial and organisational psychology, there is still a lack of agreement about its definition and meaning. In this study, employee engagement is defined in accordance with Schaufeli, Salanova, González-Romá and Bakker (2002).

Schaufeli et al. (2002, p. 74) define employee engagement as 'a positive, fulfilling, work-related state of mind that is characterised by vigour, dedication, and absorption'. These researchers describe it as a relatively persistent and pervasive affective-cognitive state that does not depend on specific objects, events, individuals or behaviours. They suggest, in contrast to early studies (e.g. Maslach & Leiter, 1997) which conceptualised burnout and engagement as opposite poles of a continuum, that burnout and engagement are independent concepts (that should be measured with different instruments).

Apart from the positive association between job crafting and meaningful work, the study propose that employees who consider their work meaningful are more inclined to invest themselves in their work and engage more fully. Because of the intrinsic motivational force associated with meaningful work, these employees may find it easier to approach their work-related activities with vigour, dedication and absorption. Research has shown direct support for the positive association between meaningful work and employee engagement (Shuck, 2019). As an illustration, a cross-sectional study conducted by Jung and Yoon (2016) among 352 employees from family-style restaurants and 5-star hotels in South Korea demonstrated that employees who considered their work to be meaningful were engaged in their work. In line with this, Steger, Littman-Ovadia, Miller, Menger and Rothmann (2013) demonstrated that meaningful work and employee engagement were positively related among a heterogeneous group of 252 white-collar employees in Israel. Comparable results were reported by Geldenhuys, Łaba and Venter (2014) among a heterogeneous group of 415 employees in South Africa. The researchers consequently formulated the following hypothesis:

H4: Meaningful work has a significant positive influence on employee engagement.

In line with hypothesis 4, the researchers propose that employees who consider their work meaningful are less inclined to quit their job in the near future. Because of the presence of the intrinsic motivational force associated with meaningful work, these employees may be less inclined to seek alternative employment opportunities.

Research has revealed support for the negative association between meaningful work and turnover intention. As an illustration, a cross-sectional study conducted by Janik and Rothmann (2015) demonstrated that meaningful work and turnover intention were negatively related among 502 secondary school teachers in Namibia. Comparable results were reported by Arnoux-Nicolas, Sovet, Lhotellier, Di Fabio and Bernaud (2016) among a heterogeneous group of 336 employees in France and by Sun, Lee and Sohn (2019) among 315 employees in South Korea. For this reason, the researchers formulated the following hypothesis:

H5: Meaningful work has a significant negative influence on turnover intention.

Meta-analytic evidence reported by Bakker, Hakanen, Demerouti and Xanthopoulou (2007) showed that job resources and employee engagement were positively related, especially when job demands were high. By implication, when employees, who face high job demands, have sufficient job resources they are still able to flourish in their work. With this in mind, the researchers proffered that employees who exhibit crafting behaviour are more inclined to be engaged in their work as they adjust their work conditions (i.e. job demands and job resources) proactively. Job crafting, therefore, represents a practical way in which emplyees themselves can enhance their own work engagement.

Research has shown direct and indirect support for the above-mentioned process of 'self-engagement' (Bakker et al., 2012, p. 1363). As an example, a cross-sectional study conducted by Hakanen, Bakker and Schaufeli (2006) among 2555 Finish dentists found that personal initiative and employee engagement were positively related. Similarly, a cross-sectional study conducted by Hyvönen, Feldt, Salmela-Aro, Kinnunen and Mäkikangas (2009) among 747 Finnish managers found that managers who wanted to expand their professional knowledge and develop themselves on the job were engaged in their work. Comparable results were reported by Harju, Hakanen and Schaufeli (2016) among 1630 educated employees in Finland and by Mäkikangas (2018) among 131 Finish rehabilitation workers. Consequently, the researchers formulated the following hypothesis:

H6: Job crafting (i.e. increasing social or structural job resources and challenging job demands, and decreasing hindering job demands) has a significant positive influence on employee engagement.

Notably, Bakker (2011) suggested that the positive association between employee engagement and job crafting may be dynamic. He proposed that apart from the positive association between job crafting and employee engagement, it is plausible that a recerse causal association also exists between these constructs. Drawing on the Broaden-and-Build theory of positive emotions (Fredrickson, 2004), the researchers support this notion. The Broaden-and-Build theory proposes that positive emotions broaden employees' momentary thought-action repertoire (i.e. broaden hypothesis). As their momentary thought-action repertoire broadens, employees build personal resources that range from psychological and social resources to intellectual and physical resources (i.e. build hypothesis). In contrast, negative emotions narrow the momentary thought-action repertoire of employees (Fredrickson, 2004). A study conducted by Schaufeli and Van Rhenen (2006) among 815 managers from a telecommunications organisation in the Netherlands showed that engaged employees experienced positive emotions. In view of this, the current researchers support the notion that the positive emotions (including vigour, dedication and absorption) that engaged employees experience broaden their momentary thought-action repertoire and, in turn, encourage job crafting.

Research has revealed direct and indirect support for the reverse causal association between job crafting and employee engagement. For example, a diary study conducted by Sonnentag (2003) among 147 employees from public service organisations in Germany demonstrated that day-level employee engagement was positively associated with day-level proactive behaviour (i.e. the pursuit of learning and personal initiative) during the following work day. In accordance with this, Fritz and Sonnentag (2009) found that positive affective experiences were related to proactive behaviours (i.e. personal initiative) among 172 employees from civil service organisations in Germany. Harju et al. (2016) demonstrated direct support for this notion among 1630 educated employees in Finland. More specifically, they found that engaged employees were more inclined to exhibit crafting behaviour (i.e. increasing social or structural job resources). Comparable results were reported by Hakanen, Peeters and Schaufeli (2018) among 1877 dentists in Finland. The following hypothesis was consequently formulated in the study:

H7: Employee engagement has a significant positive influence on job crafting (i.e. increasing social or structural job resources and challenging job demands, and decreasing hindering job demands).

Apart from encouraging job crafting, the positive emotions (specifically vigour and dedication) that engaged employees experience may cultivate a sense of organisational commitment and, in turn, discourage the development of turnover intention. The researchers offer the Conversion of Resources theory (Hobfoll, 1989) to support this notion. The Conversion of Resources theory proposes that employees invest resources in their work environment and seek to minimize the loss of resources. Engaged employees willingly commit themselves to their work (i.e. dedication) and have difficulty detaching themselves after tasks have been completed (i.e. absorption) thereby investing resources in their current organisation (Schaufeli et al., 2002). In consideration of this, the researchers advocated that engaged employees are less inclined to seek alternative employment opportunities. The loss of resources that is associated with starting work in a new organisation discourages these employees to develop turnover intentions.

Research has shown direct support for the negative association between employee engagement and turnover intention. Meta-analytic evidence reported by Halbesleben (2010) and Saks (2019) found that employees who exhibit vigour and dedication were less inclined to develop turnover intention. In accordance with this, Takawira, Coetzee and Schreuder (2014) demonstrated that dedication and turnover intention were negatively related among 153 academic and non-academic employees from a higher education institution in South Africa. Comparable results were reported by Gabel Shemueli, Dolan, Suárez Ceretti and Nuñez Del Prado (2016) among 818 nurses in Uruguay (n = 316) and Spain (n = 502) and by Agarwal and Gupta (2018) among 1302 heterogenous managers in India. For this reason, the researchers formulated the following hypothesis:

H8: Employee engagement has a significant negative influence on turnover intention.

 

Research design

Research approach

The researchers adopted a quantitative research approach based on correlational analysis to achieve the research objectives. More specifically, primary data were collected through a cross-sectional survey of job crafting, proactive personality, meaningful work, employee engagement and turnover intention.

Research method

Research participants

The setting for the study comprised organisations in the financial services industry. Three service-providing firms that operate in the financial services industry were invited to participate in the study. Each firm, with regional offices across South Africa, was part of an international service provider offering primarily auditing and accounting services.

The researchers used non-probability purposive sampling to select a sample of approximately 800 employees from participating regional offices. Three hundred and ninety-one employees participated in the study (49% response rate). Table 1 offers a description of the demographic and employment characteristics of participants.

 

 

Data showed that women comprised 61% of the sample. The majority of participants had completed an Honour's degree (highest level of education; 70%), were employed less than a year at their current service-providing firm (organisational tenure; 34%) and worked in the auditing department (department; 82%). Furthermore, the age of participants varied from 18 to 57 years (mean = 26.53 years).

Measuring instruments

The web-based survey comprising two sections was developed specifically for the study. The first section requested the demographic and employment information of participants and the second section measured the latent variables of interest.

Proactive Personality Scale

Proactive personality was measured with the abbreviated Proactive Personality Scale (Claes, Beheydt, & Lemmens, 2005). This self-report measure consists of six items. An example item is 'If I see something I don't like, I fix it'. A cross-cultural analysis across three countries (i.e. Belgium, Finland and Spain) showed support for the internal consistency reliability of the abbreviated Proactive Personality Scale (α = 0.78 to 0.86) (Claes et al., 2005). The abbreviated Proactive Personality Scale measured the degree to which participants had a proactive personality. A seven-point Likert-type scale varying from 1 (certainly not agree) to 7 (certainly agree) was used to score responses. No items of the abbreviated Proactive Personality Scale were reverse-scored.

Job Crafting Scale

The Job Crafting Scale (Tims et al., 2012) was used to measure job crafting. This self-report measure, which consists of 21 items, assesses the four dimensions of job crafting, namely increasing social job resources (five items, e.g. 'I ask others for feedback on my job performance'), increasing structural job resources (five items, e.g. 'I try to develop myself professionally'), increasing challenging job demands (five items, e.g. 'when there is not much to do at work, I see it as a chance to start new projects') and decreasing hindering job demands (six items, e.g. 'I make sure that my work is mentally less intense'). A validation study among a random sample of 375 employees in the Netherlands (Tims et al., 2012) demonstrated support for the internal consistency reliability of the subscales of the Job Crafting Scale (increasing social job resources: α = 0.77; increasing structural job resources: α = 0.82; increasing challenging job demands: α = 0.75; decreasing hindering job demands: α = 0.79). The four subscales of the Job Crafting Scale were combined in the study. The composite measurement indicator measured the degree to which participants engaged in crafting behaviour. A five-point Likert-type scale varying from 1 (never) to 5 (often) was used to score responses. No items of the Job Crafting Scale were reverse-scored.

Psychological Meaningfulness Scale

Meaningful work was measured with the Psychological Meaningfulness Scale (May, Gilson, & Harter, 2004). This self-report measure consists of six items. An example item is 'I feel that the work I do on my job is valuable'. A validation study among 213 employees from an insurance firm in the United States of America (US) demonstrated support for the internal consistency reliability of the Psychological Meaningfulness Scale (α = 0.90) (May et al., 2004). The Psychological Meaningfulness Scale measured the degree of meaning that participants in the study found in their work-related activities. A five-point Likert-type scale varying from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) was used to score responses. No items of the Psychological Meaningfulness Scale were reverse-scored.

Utrecht Work Engagement Scale

The Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES-9) (Schaufeli, Bakker, & Salanova, 2006) was used to measure employee engagement. This self-report measure, which consists of nine items, assesses the three dimensions of employee engagement, namely vigour (three items, e.g. 'at my work, I feel bursting with energy'), dedication (three items, e.g. 'I am enthusiastic about my job') and absorption (three items, e.g. 'I am immersed in my work'). A cross-cultural analysis across 10 countries (i.e. Australia, Belgium, Canada, Finland, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Norway, South Africa and Spain) showed support for the internal consistency reliability of the UWES-9 (α = 0.85-0.92) and its subscales (vigour: α = 0.60-0.88; dedication: α = 0.75-0.90; absorption: α = 0.66-0.86) (Schaufeli et al., 2006). The three subscales of the UWES-9 were combined in the study. The composite measurement indicator measured the degree to which participants were engaged in their work. A seven-point Likert-type scale varying from 0 (never) to 6 (always or everyday) was used to score responses. No items of the UWES-9 were reverse-scored.

Turnover Intention Scale

Turnover was measured with the Turnover Intention Scale (Moore, 2000). This self-report measure consists of four items. An example item is 'I will probably look for a job at a different company in the next year'. A validation study among a random sample of 214 employees in the US demonstrated support for the internal consistency reliability of the Turnover Intention Scale (α = 0.92) (Moore, 2000). The Turnover Intention Scale measured the probability that participants would quit their job in the near future. A five-point Likert-type scale varying from 1 (very unlikely) to 5 (very likely) was used to score responses. Two items of the Turnover Intention Scale were reverse-scored.

Research procedure

Once the study was evaluated and approved by the Ethics Committee of the university where the research was undertaken, the researchers approached the human resource managers of financial service-providing firms with regional offices across South Africa. The human resource managers received an email that contained a letter of approval from abovementioned Ethics Committee and an institutional permission form. Human resource managers who agreed to participate in the study were asked to send a signed copy of the institutional permission form to the principal researcher. This gave the researchers written permission to invite employees to complete the web-based survey.

The web-based survey was sent electronically to employees of participating regional offices. Participation was anonymous and voluntary. Informed consent was obtained from individual participants. Participants were given 3 weeks to complete the survey. Two reminders (i.e. weekly) were sent to employees to encourage their participation.

Statistical analysis

A number of statistical procedures were used to analyse the data and to evaluate the proposed employee engagement and turnover intention structural model, depicted in Figure 1. These techniques included item analysis to determine the reliability of the latent variable scales, confirmatory factor analysis to validate the measurement model and covariance-based Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) to evaluate the structural model. In addition, partial least squares (PLS) SEM, a prediction-oriented SEM technique, was performed as an alternative method to evaluate the structural model.

 

 

Ethical consideration

Ethical approval was received from the Stellenbosch University Research Ethics Committee: Human Research (Humanities). Ref. nr: DESC_VanderwesthuizenN2013.

 

Results

Testing the measurement model

Item analysis

An item analysis was done on each latent variable scale that was included in the web-based survey. Table 2 shows that the Cronbach's alpha for each latent variable scale were satisfactory (≥ 0.70) (Nunnally, 1978). Moreover, the average inter-item correlation of the Psychological Meaningfulness Scale, UWES-9 and Turnover Intention Scale was > 0.50. Even though the average inter-item correlation for the abbreviated Proactive Personality Scale and Job Crafting Scale was 0.45 and 0.26, respectively, this was still considered satisfactory (≥ 0.15) (Clark & Watson, 1995).

 

 

Evaluating measurement model fit

Confirmatory factor analysis was performed to evaluate the measurement model fit. Notably, the researchers did not test all the model parameters in a single measurement model. Three measurement models were constructed. These measurement models were the employee engagement measurement model, the job crafting measurement model, and the meaningful work, proactive personality and turnover intention measurement model.

Results showed that the empirical data reproduced the employee engagement measurement model reasonably well: Sattora Bentler chi-square value = 85.84 (p < 0.00), root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) value = 0.08, goodness-of-fit index (GFI) value = 1.00 and adjusted goodness-of-fit index (AGFI) value = 0.99. The factor loadings of the indicator variables, which were included in the employee engagement measurement model, were statistically significant (p < 0.05) and the t-values exceeded the critical cut-off values (−1.96 < t-value < +1.96). The factor loadings ranged from 0.71 to 0.97, and t-values ranged from 18.68 to 96.16.

Comparable results were reported for the job crafting measurement model. The job crafting measurement model was also reproduced reasonably well by the empirical data: Sattora Bentler chi-square value = 480.41 (p < 0.00), RMSEA value = 0.07, GFI value = 0.97 and AGFI value = 0.97. The factor loadings of the indicator variables, which were included in the job crafting measurement model, were statistically significant (p < 0.05) and the t-values exceeded the critical cut-off values (−1.96 < t-value < +1.96). The factor loadings ranged from 0.58 to 0.93, and t-values ranged from 8.61 to 38.13.

In line with the above results, the meaningful work, proactive personality and turnover intention measurement model also reproduced by the empirical data reasonably well: Sattora Bentler chi-square value = 277.41 (p < 0.00), RMSEA value = 0.07, GFI value = 0.92 and AGFI value = 0.89. The factor loadings of the indicator variables, which were included in proactive personality, meaningful work and turnover intention measurement model, were statistically significant (p < 0.05) and the t-values exceeded the critical cut-off values (−1.96 < t-value < +1.96). The factor loadings ranged from 0.53 to 0.92, and t-values ranged from 13.03 to 93.33.

Empirical data thus corroborate the three measurement models reasonably well. Each measurement model showed reasonable fit (0.05 < RMSEA < 0.08) and met the criteria for the GFI value (> 0.90). The factor loadings of the indicator variables, which were included in each of the measurement models, were statistically significant (p < 0.05) and the t-values exceeded the critical cut-off values (−1.96 < t-value < +1.96).

Testing the structural model

Fitting the employee engagement and turnover intention structural model

It is important to mention that the subscales of the Job Crafting Scale (Tims et al., 2012) and the UWES-9 (Schaufeli et al., 2006) were operationalised as manifest variables of job crafting and employee engagement, respectively, during covariance-based SEM. This enabled the researchers to fit the employee engagement and turnover intention structural model despite restrictions in terms of sample size (n = 391).

The proposed employee engagement and turnover intention structural model, depicted in Figure 1, did not fit the empirical data exceptionally well: Sattora Bentler chi-square value = 549.22 (p < 0.00), RMSEA value = 0.06, GFI value = 0.89 and AGFI value = 0.86. Although the RMSEA value (0.06) showed reasonable fit, this was not verified by the GFI value (0.89) and the AGFI value (0.86). These values indicated mediocre fit. To ensure the accuracy and consistency of the results obtained from subsequent statistical analyses concerning the strength and significance of the hypothesised relationships that exist among the latent variables, covariance-based SEM was supplemented with PLS SEM.

Testing the hypothesised relationships

Table 3 shows that five p-values in the proposed employee engagement and turnover intention structural model were statistically significant. The strength of the influence of ξ_j and/or η_j on η_i was substantial and significant between proactive personality and job crafting (p = 0.73; accept Hypothesis 1); job crafting and meaningful work (p = 0.34; accept Hypothesis 3); meaningful work and employee engagement (p = 0.67; accept Hypothesis 4); job crafting and employee engagement (p = 0.29; accept Hypothesis 6); and employee engagement and turnover intention (p = −0.50; accept Hypothesis 8) at the 95% confidence level.

 

 

Three p-values were not statistically significant. The strength of the influence of ξ_j and/or η_j on η_i was not substantial and significant between proactive personality and turnover intention (p = 0.12; reject Hypothesis 2); meaningful work and turnover intention (p = −0.01; reject Hypothesis 5); and employee engagement and job crafting (p = 0.05; reject Hypothesis 7) at the 95% confidence level.

Partial least squares path analysis

Before commencing with PLS SEM, the proposed employee engagement and turnover intention structural model was modified. As shown in Figure 2, the revised structural model excluded the hypothesised positive influence of employee engagement on job crafting. Hypothesis 7 could, therefore, not be tested during PLS SEM because of the model modification.

 

 

Reliability analysis

A reliability analysis was done on all the latent variable scales that were included in the web-based survey. Table 4 shows that the composite reliability (> 0.70) and average variance extracted (> 0.50) obtained for the latent variable scales were satisfactory. It was concluded that the outer-measurement model fit was satisfactory. Each latent variable scale measured the construct it was assigned to measure.

 

 

Testing the structural model

Table 4 shows that the R² values of employee engagement (0.57) and turnover intention (0.21) were satisfactory. By implication, the inner-model measurement fit was satisfactory. The latent variables in the revised employee engagement and turnover intention structural model explained 57% of variance in employee engagement and 21% of variance in turnover intention.

Figure 3 depicts the path coefficients between the latent variables of interest. Six path coefficients in the revised employee engagement and turnover intention structural model were statistically significant. The strength of the influence of ξ_j and/or η_j on η_i was substantial and significant between proactive personality and job crafting (accept Hypothesis 1); job crafting and meaningful work (accept Hypothesis 3); meaningful work and employee engagement (accept Hypothesis 4); meaningful work and turnover intention (accept Hypothesis 5); job crafting and employee engagement (accept Hypothesis 6); and employee engagement and turnover intention (accept Hypothesis 8) at the 95% confidence level.

 

 

One path coefficient was not statistically significant. The strength of the influence of ξ_j and/or η_j on η_i was not substantial and significant between proactive personality and turnover intention (reject Hypothesis 2) at the 95% confidence level.

 

Discussion

The researchers drew on the central tenets of the JD-R theory to examine the role of job crafting, proactive personality (i.e. a personal resource) and meaningful work (i.e. a job resource) in predicting employee engagement and turnover intention among employees in service-providing firms that operate in the financial services industry. Results showed that employees exhibit average levels of employee engagement and turnover intention. It is, therefore, necessary to develop and implement human resource practices and interventions that concentrate on addressing employee disengagement and turnover intention.

Research has directed attention to a number of antecedents of variance in employee engagement and turnover intention. However, in response to recent developments in job crafting and proactive personality literature, only meaningful work, job crafting and proactive personality were addressed within the scope of the study. The researchers hypothesised that employees who have a proactive personality would be more inclined to exhibit crafting behaviour. This, in turn, may contribute to the meaningfulness of work-related activities, foster employee engagement and discourage the development of turnover intention.

Results generally supported the hypothesised relationships. Covariance-based SEM showed that hypotheses 1, 3, 4, 6 and 8 were statistically significant, and hypotheses 2, 5 and 7 were not statistically significant. Results of PLS SEM were mostly consistent with the results of covariance-based SEM. Partial least squares SEM showed that hypotheses 1, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 8 were statistically significant, and Hypothesis 2 was not statistically significant. As mentioned, Hypothesis 7 could not be tested during PLS SEM because of the model modification. The only difference in the results of covariance-based SEM and PLS SEM related to Hypothesis 5. In summary, results revealed that proactive personality was positively related to employee engagement and negatively related to turnover intention through job crafting and meaningful work.

Unexpectedly, the hypothesised positive influence of proactive personality on turnover intention was not statistically significant. Covariance-based SEM (p = 0.12) and PLS SEM (PLS path coefficient = 0.11) demonstrated that proactive personality was not a predictor of turnover intention. By drawing on the results obtained for Hypothesis 1 (p = 0.73; PLS path coefficient = 0.59), the researchers argued that employees who have a proactive personality rather exhibit crafting behaviour when their need for congruence is not met by their current work environment, as opposed to seeking alternative employment opportunities (i.e. turnover intention).

Practical implications

The practical implications of the study are threefold. Firstly, covariance-based SEM and PLS SEM demonstrated that job crafting is a predictor of meaningful work (p = 0.34; PLS path coefficient = 0.33), as well as employee engagement (p = 0.29; PLS path coefficient = 0.27). It is, therefore, necessary to encourage crafting behaviour among employees in the financial services industry in order to contribute to the meaningfulness of work-related activities and to foster employee engagement. The antecedents of job crafting can broadly be divided into individual differences (e.g. psychological states and personality traits) and organisational factors (e.g. organisational climate and supervisory support) (Petrou, 2013). The researchers recommend that at an individual level, human resource practices and interventions should be tailored to recruit and select employees who are more inclined to exhibit crafting behaviour. At an organisational level, supervisors should cultivate an organisational climate that encourages job crafting. In addition, supervisors should model crafting behaviours to their subordinates.

Secondly, covariance-based SEM (p = 0.73) and PLS SEM (PLS path coefficient = 0.59) demonstrated that proactive personality is a predictor of job crafting. It is, therefore, necessary to encourage proactivity among employees in the financial services industry in order to foster job crafting. Theories of proactivity suggest that the antecedents of proactivity can broadly be separated into individual differences (e.g. knowledge, skills and abilities and personality traits), motivational forces (e.g. extrinsic motivation and role-based motivation) and organisational factors (e.g. organisational climate and supervisory support) (Strauss & Parker, 2014). At an individual level, human resource practices and interventions should be tailored to recruit and select employees who are more inclined to be 'self-starting and change-orientated to enhance personal and organisational effectiveness' (Unsworth & Parker, 2003, p. 178). In addition, human resources practitioners should implement developmental interventions that equip employees with the knowledge, skills and abilities required for proactivity. At a motivational level, it is important to recognise and reward employees who exhibit proactivity. Recognising and rewarding employees who exhibit proactivity, will reinforce its value. Lastly, at an organisational level, supervisors should cultivate an organisational climate that encourages proactivity (McCormick et al., 2018).

Thirdly, covariance-based SEM (p = 0.67) and PLS SEM (PLS path coefficient = 0.62) demonstrated that meaningful work is a predictor of employee engagement. In addition, PLS SEM (PLS path coefficient = −0.14) demonstrated that meaningful work is a predictor of turnover intention. It is, therefore, necessary to improve the meaningfulness of work in organisations in the financial services industry in order to foster employee engagement and to discourage the development of turnover intention. As mentioned, job design (e.g. task significance and comprehensibility), person-job fit (e.g. values and mission), work relationships (e.g. colleagues and supervisors) and work beliefs (e.g. calling orientation) contribute to the meaningfulness of work-related activities (Pratt & Ashforth, 2003). With this in mind, the researchers recommend that human resources practitioners draw on the Job Characteristics theory (Hackman & Oldham, 1976) in order to improve the meaningfulness of employees' work-related activities through job enrichment. In addition, it is recommended that human resource practices and interventions be tailored to consider person-job fit and work beliefs when recruiting and selecting employees.

Limitations of the study and recommendations for research

Although the study offers valuable insight into the relationships between job crafting, proactive personality, meaningful work, employee engagement and turnover intention, it is not without limitations. The most noteworthy limitation of the study is its cross-sectional survey design. This design prevents the examination of causal relationships between latent variables and additional (including longitudinal) research is needed to understand the interplay and relational dynamics between the latent variables.

Another limitation relates to the nature of self-reported measures. Owing to the use of self-report measures, it is plausible that common-method variance negatively affected the accuracy of associations between the latent variables of interest. Reasonable steps were, however, taken to assure participants of the complete protection of their identity in order to reduce evaluation apprehension and, as a consequence, common-method variance (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, & Podsakoff, 2003). Nonetheless, multiple-source studies are needed to fully understand how job crafting, proactive personality and meaningful work influence employee engagement and turnover intention.

The mean age of respondents was 26.53 years old, and 34% of participants had been employed for less than a year at their current service-providing firm. Research has revealed that demographic characteristics, such as age and organisational tenure, influence employee engagement (Berg, Wrzesniewski, & Dutton, 2010) and turnover intention (Peltokorpi, Allen, & Froese, 2015). Although the sample size of the study was satisfactory, it is recommended that the study should be replicated among a sample with broader representation in terms of age and organisational tenure. Similarly, women comprised 61% of the sample. While research concerning the association between gender and proactivity has not been conclusive (Berdicchia, Nicolli, & Masino, 2016), it is recommended that future studies explore the salience of gender.

The four subscales of the Job Crafting Scale (Tims et al., 2012) were combined to obtain a composite measurement of crafting behaviour among participants. Research is needed to understand how each type of job crafting (i.e. increasing social or structural job resources and challenging job demands, and decreasing hindering job demands) is related to proactive personality, meaningful work and employee engagement. In addition, job crafting was operationalised as an individual-level phenomenon. It would, however, be valuable to investigate how the opportunity to perform crafting behaviours, as well as the effects of job crafting, may be influenced by other individuals such as colleagues and supervisors (Bakker, Rodríguez-Muñoz, & Sanz Vergel, 2016; Tims, Bakker, Derks, & Van Rhenen, 2013). Research which operationalises job crafting as a team-level phenomenon is needed.

The demarcation of the study within the financial services industry limits the findings and conclusions to the context of organisations within this industry. Research is needed to determine whether results obtained in the study hold true in other occupational contexts in order to generalise results to other work environments.

 

Concluding remarks

The study illustrates that the central tenets of JD-R theory can be applied to employees in the financial services industry to address challenges regarding employee engagement and turnover intention. Results demonstrated that job crafting, proactive personality and meaningful work significantly predict variance in employee engagement, which in turn significantly predicts turnover intention along with meaningful work. Employees with a proactive personality were more inclined to exhibit crafting behaviour to align job demands and job resources with their needs and abilities. By making their work more meaningful, these employees were more engaged in their work and, in turn, less inclined to develop turnover intention.

 

Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful for the support received from the service-providing firms that agreed to participate in the research study.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships which may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

Author's contributions

N.V. conducted the literature review, facilitated the self-administered web-based survey and prepared the manuscript. B.B. was the study leader of this project. M.K. facilitated the data processing.

Funding

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability statement

New data were created and analysed in this study. Authors may be contacted in this regard.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the authors.

 

References

Alderfer, C. P. (1972). Existence, relatedness, and growth: Human needs in organizational settings. New York: Free Press.         [ Links ]

Agarwal, U. A., & Gupta, V. (2018). Relationships between job characteristics, work engagement, conscientiousness and managers' turnover intentions: A moderated-mediation analysis. Personnel Review, 47(2), 353-377. https://doi.org/10.1108/PR-09-2016-0229        [ Links ]

Arnoux-Nicolas, C., Sovet, L., Lhotellier, L., Di Fabio, A., & Bernaud, J. L. (2016). Perceived work conditions and turnover intentions: The mediating role of meaning of work. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 704-713. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00704        [ Links ]

Bakker, A. B., Hakanen, J. J., Demerouti, E., & Xanthopoulou, D. (2007). Job resources boost work engagement, particularly when job demands are high. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99(2), 274-284. http://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.99.2.274        [ Links ]

Bakker, A. B. (2011). An evidence-based model of work engagement. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 20(4), 265-269. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721411414534        [ Links ]

Bakker, A. B., & Demerouti, E. (2014). Job demands-resources theory. In P. Y. Chen & C. L. Cooper (Eds.), Wellbeing: A complete reference guide: Work and wellbeing (vol. 3, pp. 37-64). Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118539415.wbwell019        [ Links ]

Bakker, A. B., Rodríguez-Muñoz, A., & Sanz Vergel, A. I. (2016). Modelling job crafting behaviours: Implications for work engagement. Human Relations, 69(691), 169-189. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726715581690        [ Links ]

Bakker, A. B., Tims, M., & Derks, D. (2012). Proactive personality and job performance: The role of job crafting and work engagement. Human Relations, 65(10), 1359-1378. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726712453471        [ Links ]

Barrick, M. R., Mount, M. K., & Li, N. (2013). The theory of purposeful work behavior: The role of personality, higher-order goals, and job characteristics. Academy of Management Review, 38(1), 132-153. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2010.0479        [ Links ]

Bateman, T. S., & Crant, J. M. (1993). The proactive component of organizational behavior: A measure and correlates. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 14(2), 103-118. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.4030140202        [ Links ]

Berdicchia, D., Nicolli, F., & Masino, G. (2016). Job enlargement, job crafting and the moderating role of self-competence. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 31(2), 318-330. https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-01-2014-0019        [ Links ]

Berg, J. M., Wrzesniewski, A., & Dutton, J. E. (2010). Perceiving and responding to challenges in job crafting at different ranks: When proactivity requires adaptivity. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 31(2-3), 158-186. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.645        [ Links ]

Chang, W. J. A., Wang, Y. S., & Huang, T. C. (2013). Work design-related antecedents of turnover intention: A multilevel approach. Human Resource Management, 52(1), 1-26. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrm.21515        [ Links ]

Claes, R., Beheydt, C., & Lemmens, B. (2005). Unidimensionality of abbreviated proactive personality scales across cultures. Applied Psychology, 54(4), 476-489. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.2005.00221.x        [ Links ]

Clark, L. A., & Watson, D. (1995). Constructing validity: Basic issues in objective scale development. Psychological Assessment, 7(3), 309-319. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.7.3.309        [ Links ]

Crant, J. M. (1995). The proactive personality scale and objective job performance among real estate agents. Journal of Applied Psychology, 80(4), 532-537. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.80.4.532        [ Links ]

Demerouti, E., & Bakker, A. B. (2011). The Job Demands-Resources model: Challenges for future research. South African Journal of Industrial Psychology, 37(2), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v37i2.974        [ Links ]

Demerouti, E., Bakker, A. B., Nachreiner, F., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2001). The Job Demands-Resources model of burnout. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(3), 499-512. https://doi.org/10.1037//0021-9010.86.3.499        [ Links ]

Fredrickson, B. L. (2004). The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 359, 1367-1377. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2004.1512        [ Links ]

Fritz, C., & Sonnentag, S. (2009). Antecedents of day-level proactive behavior: A look at job stressors and positive affect during the workday. Journal of Management, 35(1), 94-111. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206307308911        [ Links ]

Gabel Shemueli, R., Dolan, S. L., Suárez Ceretti, A., & Nuñez Del Prado, P. (2016). Burnout and engagement as mediators in the relationship between work characteristics and turnover intentions across two Ibero-American nations. Stress and Health, 32(5), 597-606. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2667        [ Links ]

Geldenhuys, M., Laba, K., & Venter, C. M. (2014). Meaningful work, work engagement and organisational commitment. South African Journal of Industrial Psychology, 40(1), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v40i1.1098        [ Links ]

Hackman, J. R., & Oldham, G. R. (1976). Motivation through the design of work: Test of a theory. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 16(2), 250-279. https://doi.org/10.1016/0030-5073(76)90016-7        [ Links ]

Hakanen, J. J., Bakker, A. B., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2006). Burnout and work engagement among teachers. Journal of School Psychology, 43(6), 495-513. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2005.11.001        [ Links ]

Hakanen, J. J., Peeters, M. C., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2018). Different types of employee well-being across time and their relationships with job crafting. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 23(2), 289-301. https://doi.org/10.1037/ocp0000081        [ Links ]

Halbesleben, J. R. B. (2010). A meta-analysis of work engagement: Relationships with burnout, demands, resources, and consequences. In A. B. Bakker & M. P. Leiter (eds.), Work engagement: A handbook of essential theory and research (pp. 102-117). New York: Psychology Press.         [ Links ]

Harju, L. K., Hakanen, J. J., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2016). Can job crafting reduce job boredom and increase work engagement? A three-year cross-lagged panel study. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 95-96, 11-20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2016.07.001        [ Links ]

Hobfoll, S. E. (1989). Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress. American Psychologist, 44(3), 513-524. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.44.3.513        [ Links ]

Hyvönen, K., Feldt, T., Salmela-Aro, K., Kinnunen, U., & Mäkikangas, A. (2009). Young managers' drive to thrive: A personal work goal approach to burnout and work engagement. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 75(2), 183-196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2009.04.002        [ Links ]

Janik, M., & Rothmann, S. (2015). Meaningful work and secondary school teachers' intention to leave. South African Journal of Education, 35(2), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.15700/SAJE.V35N2A1008        [ Links ]

Jung, H. S., & Yoon, H. H. (2016). What does work meaning to hospitality employees? The effects of meaningful work on employees' organizational commitment: The mediating role of job engagement. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 53, 59-68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2015.12.004        [ Links ]

Macey, W. H., Schneider, B., Barbera, K. M., & Young, S. A. (2009). Employee engagement: Tools for analysis, practice, and competitive advantage (vol. 31). Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell.         [ Links ]

Mäkikangas, A. (2018). Job crafting profiles and work engagement: A person-centered approach. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 106, 101-111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2018.01.001        [ Links ]

May, D. R., Gilson, R. L., & Harter, L. M. (2004). The psychological conditions of meaningfulness, safety and availability and the engagement of the human spirit at work. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 77(1), 11-37. https://doi.org/10.1348/096317904322915892        [ Links ]

McCormick, B. W., Guay, R. P., Colbert, A. E., & Stewart, G. L. (2018). Proactive personality and proactive behaviour: Perspectives on person-situation interactions. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 92(1), 30-51. https://doi.org/10.1111/joop.12234        [ Links ]

Mezirow, J. (1981). A critical theory of adult learning and education. Adult Education Quarterly, 32(1), 3-24. https://doi.org/10.1177/074171368103200101        [ Links ]

Molden, D. C., & Dweck, C. S. (2006). Finding 'meaning' in psychology: A lay theories approach to self-regulation, social perception, and social development. American Psychologist, 61(3), 192-203. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.61.3.192        [ Links ]

Moore, J. E. (2000). One road to turnover: An examination of work exhaustion in technology professionals. MIS Quarterly, 24(1), 141-168. https://doi.org/10.2307/3250982        [ Links ]

Nunnally, J. (1978). Psychometric methods. New York: McGraw-Hill.         [ Links ]

Parker, P. D., & Martin, A. J. (2009). Coping and buoyancy in the workplace: Understanding their effects on teachers' work-related well-being and engagement. Teaching and Teacher Education, 25(1), 68-75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2008.06.009        [ Links ]

Parker, S. K., & Collins, C. G. (2010). Taking stock: Integrating and differentiating multiple proactive behaviors. Journal of Management, 36(3), 633-662. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206308321554        [ Links ]

Parker, S. K., & Ohly, S. (2008). Designing motivating jobs: An expanded framework for linking work characteristics and motivation. In R. Kanfer, G. Chen, & R. D. Pritchard (Eds.), Work motivation: Past, present, and future (pp. 233-284). New York: Routledge.         [ Links ]

Peltokorpi, V., Allen, D. G., & Froese, F. (2015). Organizational embeddedness, turnover intentions, and voluntary turnover: The moderating effects of employee demographic characteristics and value orientation. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 36(2), 292-312. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.1981        [ Links ]

Petrou, P. (2013). Crafting the change: The role of job crafting and regulatory focus in adaption to organizational change. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Utrecht, NL: Utrecht University.         [ Links ]

Plomp, J., Tims, M., Akkermans, J., Khapova, S. N., Jansen, P. G. W., & Bakker, A. B. (2016). Career competencies and job crafting: How proactive employees influence their well-being. Career Development International, 21(6), 587-602. https://doi.org/10.1108/CDI-08-2016-0145        [ Links ]

Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J. Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(5), 879-903. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879        [ Links ]

Pratt, M. G., & Ashforth, B. E. (2003). Fostering meaningfulness in working and at work. In K. S. Cameron, J. E. Dutton, & R. E. Quinn (Eds.), Positive organizational scholarship: Foundations of a new discipline (pp. 309-327). San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler Publishers.         [ Links ]

Price, J. L. (2001). Reflections on the determinants of voluntary turnover. International Journal of Manpower, 22(7), 600-624. https://doi.org/10.1108/EUM0000000006233        [ Links ]

Rich, B. L., LePine, J. A., & Crawford, E. R. (2010). Job engagement: Antecedents and effects on job performance. Academy of Management Journal, 53(3), 617-635. https://doi.org/10.5465/AMJ.2010.51468988        [ Links ]

Roberts, B. W., Luo, J., Briley, D. A., Chow, P. I., Su, R., & Hill, P. L. (2017). A systematic review of personality trait change through intervention. Psychological Bulletin, 143(2), 117-141. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000088        [ Links ]

Saks, A. M. (2019). Antecedents and consequences of employee engagement revisited. Journal of Organizational Effectiveness: People and Performance, 6(1), 19-38. https://doi.org/10.1108/JOEPP-06-2018-0034        [ Links ]

Schaufeli, W. B., Bakker, A. B., & Salanova, M. S. (2006). The measurement of work engagement with a short questionnaire: A cross-national study. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 66(4), 701-716. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164405282471        [ Links ]

Schaufeli, W. B., Salanova, M. S., González-Romá, V. A., & Bakker, A. B. (2002). The measurement of engagement and burnout: A two sample confirmatory factor analytic approach. Journal of Happiness Studies, 3(1), 71-92. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015630930326        [ Links ]

Schaufeli, W. B., & Van Rhenen, W. (2006). About the role of positive and negative emotions in managers' well-being: A study using the Job-related Affective Well-being Scale (JAWS). Gedrag & Organisatie, 19(4), 223-244.         [ Links ]

Shuck, B. (2019). Does my engagement matter? In Yeoman, R., Bailey, C., Madden, A., & Thompson, M. (eds.), The Oxford handbook of meaningful work (pp. 288-301). New York: Oxford University Press.         [ Links ]

Sonnentag, S. (2003). Recovery, work engagement, and proactive behavior: A new look at the interface between nonwork and work. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(3), 518-528. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.3.518        [ Links ]

Steger, M. F., Dik, B. J., & Duffy, R. D. (2012). Measuring meaningful work: The Work and Meaning Inventory (WAMI). Journal of Career Assessment, 20(3), 322-337. https://doi.org/10.1177/1069072711436160        [ Links ]

Steger, M. F., Littman-Ovadia, H., Miller, M., Menger, L., & Rothmann, S. (2013). Engaging in work even when it is meaningless. Journal of Career Assessment, 21(2), 348-361. https://doi.org/10.1177/1069072712471517        [ Links ]

Strauss, K., & Parker, S. K. (2014). Effective and sustained proactivity in the workplace: A self-determination theory perspective. In M. Gagné (ed.), The Oxford handbook of work engagement, motivation, and self-determination theory (pp. 50-71). New York: Oxford University Press.         [ Links ]

Sun, J., Lee, J. W., & Sohn, Y. W. (2019). Work context and turnover intention in social enterprises: The mediating role of meaning of work. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 34(1), 46-60. https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-11-2017-0412        [ Links ]

Takawira, N., Coetzee, M., & Schreuder, D. (2014). Job embeddedness, work engagement and turnover intention of staff in a higher education institution: An exploratory study. South African Journal of Human Resource Management, 12(1), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajhrm.v12i1.524        [ Links ]

Tims, M., & Bakker, A. B. (2010). Job crafting: Towards a new model of individual job redesign. South African Journal of Industrial Psychology, 36(2), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v36i2.841        [ Links ]

Tims, M., Bakker, A. B., & Derks, D. (2012). Development and validation of the Job Crafting Scale. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 80(1), 173-186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2011.05.009        [ Links ]

Tims, M., Bakker, A. B., Derks, D., & Van Rhenen, W. (2013). Job crafting at the team and individual level: Implications for work engagement and performance. Group & Organization Management, 38(4), 427-454. https://doi.org/10.1177/1059601113492421        [ Links ]

Tims, M., Derks, D., & Bakker, A. B. (2016). Job crafting and its relationships with person-job fit and meaningfulness: A three-wave study. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 92, 44-53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2015.11.007        [ Links ]

Unsworth, K. L., & Parker, S. K. (2003). Proactivity and innovation: Promoting a new workforce for the new workplace. In D. Holman, T. D. Wall, C. W. Clegg, P. Sparrow, & A. Howard (eds.), The new workplace: A guide to the human impact of modern working practices (pp. 175-196). Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.         [ Links ]

Wrzesniewski, A. (2003). Finding positive meaning in work. In K. S. Cameron, J. E. Dutton, & R. E. Quinn (Eds.), Positive organizational scholarship: Foundations of a new discipline (pp. 296-308). San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler Publishers.         [ Links ]

Wrzesniewski, A., & Dutton, J. E. (2001). Crafting a job: Revisioning employees as active crafters of their work. Academy of Management Review, 26(2), 179-201. https://doi.org/10.5465/AMR.2001.4378011        [ Links ]

Wrzesniewski, A., LoBuglio, N., Dutton, J. E., & Berg, J. M. (2013). Job crafting and cultivating positive meaning and identity in work. In A. B. Bakker (Ed.), Advances in positive organizational psychology (pp. 281-302). Bingley: Emerald. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/S2046-410X(2013)0000001015        [ Links ]

Wrzesniewski, A., McCauley, C., Rozin, P., & Schwartz, B. (1997). Jobs, careers, and callings: People's relations to their work. Journal of Research in Personality, 31(1), 21-33. https://doi.org/10.1006/jrpe.1997.2162        [ Links ]

Xanthopoulou, D., Bakker, A. B., Demerouti, E., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2007). The role of personal resources in the Job Demands-Resources model. International Journal of Stress Management, 14(2), 121-141. https://doi.org/10.1037/1072-5245.14.2.121        [ Links ]

Zhang, L., Lu, H., & Li, F. (2018). Proactive personality and mental health: The role of job crafting. PsyCh Journal, 7(3), 154-155. https://doi.org/10.1002/pchj.214        [ Links ]

 

 

Correspondence:
Nicola Vermooten
nicolavanderwest@gmail.com

Received: 18 July 2018
Accepted: 01 Mar. 2019
Published: 30 July 2019

^rND^sAgarwal^nU. A.^rND^sGupta^nV.^rND^sArnoux-Nicolas^nC.^rND^sSovet^nL.^rND^sLhotellier^nL.^rND^sDi Fabio^nA.^rND^sBernaud^nJ. L.^rND^sBakker^nA. B.^rND^sHakanen^nJ. J.^rND^sDemerouti^nE.^rND^sXanthopoulou^nD.^rND^sBakker^nA. B.^rND^sBakker^nA. B.^rND^sDemerouti^nE.^rND^sBakker^nA. B.^rND^sRodríguez-Muñoz^nA.^rND^sSanz Vergel^nA. I.^rND^sBakker^nA. B.^rND^sTims^nM.^rND^sDerks^nD.^rND^sBarrick^nM. R.^rND^sMount^nM. K.^rND^sLi^nN.^rND^sBateman^nT. S.^rND^sCrant^nJ. M.^rND^sBerdicchia^nD.^rND^sNicolli^nF.^rND^sMasino^nG.^rND^sBerg^nJ. M.^rND^sWrzesniewski^nA.^rND^sDutton^nJ. E.^rND^sChang^nW. J. A.^rND^sWang^nY. S.^rND^sHuang^nT. C.^rND^sClaes^nR.^rND^sBeheydt^nC.^rND^sLemmens^nB.^rND^sClark^nL. A.^rND^sWatson^nD.^rND^sCrant^nJ. M.^rND^sDemerouti^nE.^rND^sBakker^nA. B.^rND^sDemerouti^nE.^rND^sBakker^nA. B.^rND^sNachreiner^nF.^rND^sSchaufeli^nW. B.^rND^sFredrickson^nB. L.^rND^sFritz^nC.^rND^sSonnentag^nS.^rND^sGabel Shemueli^nR.^rND^sDolan^nS. L.^rND^sSuárez Ceretti^nA.^rND^sNuñez Del Prado^nP.^rND^sGeldenhuys^nM.^rND^sLaba^nK.^rND^sVenter^nC. M.^rND^sHackman^nJ. R.^rND^sOldham^nG. R.^rND^sHakanen^nJ. J.^rND^sBakker^nA. B.^rND^sSchaufeli^nW. B.^rND^sHakanen^nJ. J.^rND^sPeeters^nM. C.^rND^sSchaufeli^nW. B.^rND^sHalbesleben^nJ. R. B.^rND^sHarju^nL. K.^rND^sHakanen^nJ. J.^rND^sSchaufeli^nW. B.^rND^sHobfoll^nS. E.^rND^sHyvönen^nK.^rND^sFeldt^nT.^rND^sSalmela-Aro^nK.^rND^sKinnunen^nU.^rND^sMäkikangas^nA.^rND^sJanik^nM.^rND^sRothmann^nS.^rND^sJung^nH. S.^rND^sYoon^nH. H.^rND^sMäkikangas^nA.^rND^sMay^nD. R.^rND^sGilson^nR. L.^rND^sHarter^nL. M.^rND^sMcCormick^nB. W.^rND^sGuay^nR. P.^rND^sColbert^nA. E.^rND^sStewart^nG. L.^rND^sMezirow^nJ.^rND^sMolden^nD. C.^rND^sDweck^nC. S.^rND^sMoore^nJ. E.^rND^sParker^nP. D.^rND^sMartin^nA. J.^rND^sParker^nS. K.^rND^sCollins^nC. G.^rND^sParker^nS. K.^rND^sOhly^nS.^rND^sPeltokorpi^nV.^rND^sAllen^nD. G.^rND^sFroese^nF.^rND^sPlomp^nJ.^rND^sTims^nM.^rND^sAkkermans^nJ.^rND^sKhapova^nS. N.^rND^sJansen^nP. G. W.^rND^sBakker^nA. B.^rND^sPodsakoff^nP. M.^rND^sMacKenzie^nS. B.^rND^sLee^nJ. Y.^rND^sPodsakoff^nN. P.^rND^sPratt^nM. G.^rND^sAshforth^nB. E.^rND^sPrice^nJ. L.^rND^sRich^nB. L.^rND^sLePine^nJ. A.^rND^sCrawford^nE. R.^rND^sRoberts^nB. W.^rND^sLuo^nJ.^rND^sBriley^nD. A.^rND^sChow^nP. I.^rND^sSu^nR.^rND^sHill^nP. L.^rND^sSaks^nA. M.^rND^sSchaufeli^nW. B.^rND^sBakker^nA. B.^rND^sSalanova^nM. S.^rND^sSchaufeli^nW. B.^rND^sSalanova^nM. S.^rND^sGonzález-Romá^nV. A.^rND^sBakker^nA. B.^rND^sSchaufeli^nW. B.^rND^sVan Rhenen^nW.^rND^sShuck^nB.^rND^sSonnentag^nS.^rND^sSteger^nM. F.^rND^sDik^nB. J.^rND^sDuffy^nR. D.^rND^sSteger^nM. F.^rND^sLittman-Ovadia^nH.^rND^sMiller^nM.^rND^sMenger^nL.^rND^sRothmann^nS.^rND^sStrauss^nK.^rND^sParker^nS. K.^rND^sSun^nJ.^rND^sLee^nJ. W.^rND^sSohn^nY. W.^rND^sTakawira^nN.^rND^sCoetzee^nM.^rND^sSchreuder^nD.^rND^sTims^nM.^rND^sBakker^nA. B.^rND^sTims^nM.^rND^sBakker^nA. B.^rND^sDerks^nD.^rND^sTims^nM.^rND^sBakker^nA. B.^rND^sDerks^nD.^rND^sVan Rhenen^nW.^rND^sTims^nM.^rND^sDerks^nD.^rND^sBakker^nA. B.^rND^sUnsworth^nK. L.^rND^sParker^nS. K.^rND^sWrzesniewski^nA.^rND^sWrzesniewski^nA.^rND^sDutton^nJ. E.^rND^sWrzesniewski^nA.^rND^sLoBuglio^nN.^rND^sDutton^nJ. E.^rND^sBerg^nJ. M.^rND^sWrzesniewski^nA.^rND^sMcCauley^nC.^rND^sRozin^nP.^rND^sSchwartz^nB.^rND^sXanthopoulou^nD.^rND^sBakker^nA. B.^rND^sDemerouti^nE.^rND^sSchaufeli^nW. B.^rND^sZhang^nL.^rND^sLu^nH.^rND^sLi^nF.^rND^1A01^nMariana M.^svan der Heever^rND^1A01^nAnita S.^svan der Merwe^rND^1A01^nTalitha^sCrowley^rND^1A01^nMariana M.^svan der Heever^rND^1A01^nAnita S.^svan der Merwe^rND^1A01^nTalitha^sCrowley^rND^1A01^nMariana M^svan der Heever^rND^1A01^nAnita S^svan der Merwe^rND^1A01^nTalitha^sCrowley

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Nurses' views on promotion and the influence of race, class and gender in relation to the Employment Equity Act

 

 

Mariana M. van der Heever; Anita S. van der Merwe; Talitha Crowley

Department of Nursing and Midwifery, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

---

ABSTRACT

ORIENTATION: Regardless of the implementation of the Employment Equity Act (EEA), No. 55 of 1998 and the abolishment of apartheid in 1994, African and mixed-race females are under-represented in managerial positions in the public sector of the Western Cape (WC) in South Africa and nationally in the private health sector.
RESEARCH PURPOSE: The purpose was to explore the views of nurses about promotion to managerial positions in view of the Employment Equity Act (EEA) and the possible influence of race, class and gender.
MOTIVATION FOR THE STUDY: South Africa has a history of racial hierarchies and gender inequities. It was therefore important to explore the influence of the EEA and race, class and gender on the promotion of nurses in the post-apartheid context.
Research approach/design and method: A cross-sectional descriptive survey design was completed. Six hundred and eighty-eight (n = 688) nurses consented to participate and 573 (83%) questionnaires were returned.
MAIN FINDINGS: Race as a social construct surfaced in the superior viewing of white and the inferior viewing of African nurses. Mixed-race and white nurses seemed disgruntled with the EEA because of the benefits it holds for African nurses. African nurses seemed angered by their under-representation in managerial positions in the private and public sectors in the WC. White nurses seemed convinced that African, mixed-race and Indian nurses experience upward mobility. Mixed-race nurses (public sector WC) showed concerns about the career successes of males in a female-dominated profession.
PRACTICAL/MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS: Managerial structures should be required to invest in diversity training, create awareness of the noble intentions of the EEA and communicate the relevance of employment equity plans.
CONTRIBUTION/VALUE-ADD: The findings provided evidence that reflected a need for diversity training and the creation of awareness about the longstanding influence of racial and gender hierarchies.

Keywords: Employment equity; nurses; promotion; race; class; gender.

---

 

 

Introduction

This article forms part of a larger PhD study that focused on the promotion of female nurses in public and private sector hospitals in South Africa, and reports on a subsection of the larger study, that is, the views of nurses on the influence of the Employment Equity Act (EEA), No. 55 of 1998 of South Africa on the promotion to managerial positions and the embedded realities of race, class and gender. The EEA was promulgated in 1998 by the South African government to redress the labour market inequities created by apartheid and to minimise discrimination on the basis of race, gender, disability and Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) status. According to the EEA, unfair discrimination does not apply to the exclusion of a candidate who does not meet the minimum inherent requirements of a job. At the same time, Section 20, subsection 5 (Republic of South Africa, 1998) affirms that unfair discrimination similarly relates to not appointing a qualified person because of a lack of experience. Furthermore, employers have to develop employment equity plans to attain an equitable account of all designated groups in the workplace. These plans should promote employment opportunities for designated groups that were previously disadvantaged, that is, females, African people (this included African people, mixed-race people and Indian people) and people with disabilities (Steyn, 2010; Burger & Jephta, 2006). The 2015 equity reports reflect that despite the implementation of the EEA in 1998, progress has only been achieved with the promotion of Indian and white females to managerial positions, and not African and mixed-race females (Republic of South Africa, 2015). For the purpose of this study, African and mixed-race female nurses are referred to as 'female nurses of colour'.

The study was carried out in the Western Cape (WC) and Gauteng provinces of South Africa because of representing different geographic and equity data. Geographically mixed-race people dominate in the WC as the population consists of 32.9% African people, 48.8% mixed-race people, 1% Indian people and 15.7% white people (Statistics South Africa, 2012). In contrast, Gauteng has a different profile. The population of Gauteng comprises 77.4% African people, 3.5% mixed-race people, 2.9% Indian people and 15.6% white people (Statistics South Africa, 2012), reflecting an African majority.

In considering equity data, the 2012 equity report of the public health sector in the WC (Republic of South Africa, 2012) indicated mostly white females occupying senior managerial positions. Mid-managerial positions were held mostly by mixed-race people, followed by white and lastly African females. The 2015 equity report of the public health sector in the WC (Republic of South Africa, 2015) shows minimal improvement in terms of equity, as white females still occupied more senior management positions than African and mixed-race females. Mid-managerial positions are still mostly occupied by mixed-race people, followed by white and lastly African females. Considering the demographic dominance firstly of mixed-race people and then African people in the WC, these groups' representation in managerial positions in the public health sector seems less prominent than that of white people.

The 2014 equity report of the public health sector in Gauteng reflects mostly African females in senior and mid-managerial positions, followed by white females and a lower representation of mixed-race people compared with Indian females (Republic of South Africa, 2014). The spread of African females is more representative considering the demographic dominance of the group in Gauteng.

Equity reports of private health care: The 2015 national equity reports of the private health sector do not reflect a breakdown according to province (Republic of South Africa, 2015). The reports show strong representation of white people (118) and Indian people (23) compared with that of mixed-race people (9) and African people (11) in senior managerial positions. The dominance of white people (564) in mid-managerial positions is also strong compared with African people (98), mixed-race people (67) and Indian people (94).

Literature

The findings of South African studies (Mputa, Heinechen & Vorster, 2016; Msomi, 2006) show that compliance to equity legislation seems to be slow in white male-dominated companies. The slow pace of achieving diversity in the workplace is further confirmed by a report of the Commission of Employment Equity in South Africa (2016) and Oosthuizen and Naidoo (2010). Research completed in the United Kingdom (Crofts, 2013; Taylor, 2007) and Canada (Yap & Konrad, 2009) confirmed slow progress with the creation of diversity in managerial positions despite the implementation of employment equity legislation.

 

Qualifications and advancement

Advancement to middle management (deputy nurse manager) in South African public sector hospitals can only be achieved should the applicant have a minimum of 9 years' experience in nursing of which 4 years should be at managerial level. Advancement to senior management (the head of nursing at a hospital) can only be achieved should the applicant have an additional postgraduate qualification (diploma) in nursing management (Republic of South Africa, 2007). In the private health sector, the postgraduate diploma in nursing management is an advantage but not a requirement for advancement to middle management (deputy nurse manager) and senior manager positions (nursing service manager). However, extensive experience in nursing management - preferably in the private health sector - is valued (Dorse, 2015; Coustas, 2015).

The statistical data of the South African Nursing Council (SANC, the legislative body representing South African nurses) on how many nurses are in possession of postgraduate qualifications in nursing management do not show a breakdown according to race (Hattingh, 2017). Ultimately, it appears that the minimum qualifications weighted against years of experience required for advancement in both the public and private sectors indicate that experience instead of qualifications might be the deciding factor for advancement.

 

Racial discrimination

South Africa has a history of legalised racial discrimination (apartheid) that benefited white people and disadvantaged African people (Ndinda & Okeke-Uzodike, 2012). Mixed-race people and Indian people were disadvantaged to a lesser extent than African people. During apartheid, white people were assigned improved privileges in terms of schooling, jobs, remuneration and social services. Mixed-race people and Indian people were assigned fewer of these privileges and African people fewest (Horwitz & Jain, 2011). Apartheid also surfaced in the history of nursing in South Africa. Nursing in South Africa was initially managed by white male medical doctors. White female nurses seem to have benefited because of their affiliation with white males (Marks, 1994) and later became the custodians of the nursing profession (Schultheiss, 2010). African nurses, however, were viewed as inferior as they were legally not allowed to oversee white nurses, ultimately enhancing institutional racism (Marks, 1990). Ndinda and Okeke-Uzodike (2012) aver that despite the abolishment of apartheid in 1994, institutionalised racism seems to persist in post-apartheid South Africa and is evident in terms of income and positions held in the workforce. The authors state that African females are the most disadvantaged because of being female and views relating to their ethnic background. African females are disadvantaged by the legacy of apartheid, meaning prejudice of white male managers and that they entered the corporate sector rather late, post 1994, lacking the necessary managerial exposure and experience (Msomi, 2006). In addition, managerial positions in the private health sector in South Africa seem to be dominated by white people, whereas African people seem to fare better in the public health sector (Republic of South Africa, 2015). If one considers the low presentation of African nurses in managerial positions in private health care as reflected in the national equity reports (Republic of South Africa, 2015), one can deduce that the domination of white people in private health care could benefit white nurses in terms of upward mobility and disadvantage the African nurses.

 

The Theory of Intersectionality

This study is supported by the theory of intersectionality. This theory was developed by Kimberlé Crenshaw (Crenshaw, 1989), and explains unfair discrimination as a consequence of the creation of prejudice by mutually reinforcing vectors of race, gender, class and sexuality. The simultaneity of these reinforcing vectors of race, gender, class and sexuality in everyday lives and social practices is considered to influence the identities of African females, their experiences and their constant struggles for empowerment, ultimately causing them to be marginalised and subordinate (Nash, 2008). As the study did not focus on sexuality, sexuality is not included in the following discussion.

Race and gender

The theory describes the twofold burden of race and gender as females in general are discriminated against; yet females of colour experience discrimination because of being female and their ethnic background (Jean-Marie, Williams & Sherman, 2009; Yap & Konrad, 2009). In workplace structures where white male managers are in control, females of colour tend to experience more difficulty with upward mobility than white females, reflecting elements of patriarchy and race intersecting with gender (Fryberg, 2010). The white female in the workplace seems to benefit as a result of the positive notions associated with whiteness and not being subjected to racial oppression (Ndinda & Okeke-Uzodike, 2012).

Gender and class

Organisational structures tend to reflect men's masculine power and practices and then reproduce these. Therefore, the concept of male supremacy in workplace structures seems to hold and the tendency to ascribe females an inferior stance compared with males, eventually demonstrates how gender intersects with class (Collinson, 2007). The situation tends to be worse for females of colour as they tend to experience more marginalisation because of race intersecting with class and gender (Ndinda & Okeke-Uzodike, 2012; Nash, 2008).

Race and class

Race relates to the systematic subordination or privileges that are assigned to a group based on the evaluation of their biological attributes (Haslanger, 2000). Class intersects with race and is visible in the superior views that society tends to hold of white people compared to the inferior views of those who are not white (Flecher, 2013). The Department of Labour in South Africa distinguishes four race groups: African, mixed-race, Indian and white people (Republic of South Africa, 2015). South Africa has a history of racial hierarchies where white people were regarded as being superior to other races, followed by mixed-race people and Indians, while African people were viewed as being inferior to these race groups (Horwitz & Jain, 2011). Historically, white people were regarded as superior to other races and race was viewed as a system of global oppression against people of other races in the interests of capitalism (Fletcher, 2013; Marks, 1994).

It is therefore deduced that regardless of the implementation of the EEA in 1998 and the abolishment of apartheid in 1994, African and mixed-race females are not well represented in managerial positions in the public sector of the WC and nationally in the private health sector of South Africa. The minimum requirements for advancement to managerial positions in both sectors reflect a preference for managerial experience rather than formal qualifications. It is consequently surmised that because of the history of apartheid, racial hierarchies and institutionalised racism may persist and curb the upward mobility of African and mixed-race females.

 

Research purpose

The purpose of this article was to report the views of nurses on promotion to managerial positions in light of the implementation of the EEA and the influence of race, class and gender.

Research design

Research approach

A post-positivist worldview was adopted as it does not view research to be subjective or objective. The post-positivist worldview also values multiplicity of inputs such as the multiple realities obtained via the survey pertaining to the views of participants regarding the influence of the EEA and race, class and gender on promotion (Ryan, 2006).

Method

A cross-sectional descriptive design was used as it allowed investigation of a small group of concepts (Creswell, 2009) - as for the purposes of this study, the influence of the EEA, race, class and gender on the promotion of nurses to leadership positions - and a large group of participants (Kelle, 2006). The large group of participants was useful as it enabled heterogeneity of the final sample, meaning participants from the private and public health sectors and two provinces of South Africa. Furthermore, qualitative data were derived from the open-ended questions and thematic analysis of such data assisted with the identification of patterns of data that enhance interpretation (Terre Blanche, Durheim & Painter, 2006).

Participants

The population concerned comprised professional nurses (PNs) employed in both the public and private sector hospitals of the WC and Gauteng provinces. The study used multi-staged sampling. The two provinces were purposefully selected as they host the largest public and private hospitals in South Africa. Thereafter one central hospital (a public sector hospital with more than 1200 beds) and three private hospitals (bed occupancy ranged between 330 and 150 each) were purposefully selected in each province. It was assumed that because of the size of the hospitals, promotion and appointments to managerial positions would occur more regularly and nurses employed at the hospitals would have observed or experienced promotional processes. Sample size was calculated on the basis of logistical criteria such as time, costs and the availability of participants. A bio-statistician calculated the sample size to ensure a proportionate and representative sample of each hospital and sector. Accordingly, one-third (n = 825) of the total population (N=2476 PNs) was selected by means of systematic random sampling. A total of 688 participants consented to participate and 573 (83%) questionnaires were returned.

Measuring instrument

Instrumentation comprised a questionnaire with two sections. Section A relates to demographic information such as race, qualifications, gender and location. Section B contains the actual questions concerning the concepts under study, for example, the EEA, race, class and gender. Question 1 reflects a rating scale question where participants have to rate the possible influence of the implementation of the EEA on race, gender and hierarchical relationships in the workplace as well as advancement of nurses from previously disadvantaged groups. Ratings vary from -3 (worsened) to 0 (stayed the same) and then +3 (improved).

Questions 2 and 3 are Likert scale questions, for example, participants have to reflect on promotional opportunities in the workplace, namely, whether increased concerns arise when promotional opportunities become available, and whether decision-making is influenced by race, class, gender and the EEA. Options were coded as follows: not at all (1), slightly (2), moderately (3) and absolutely (4). Furthermore, each question has a sub-question, that is, an open-ended question that allows participants to relate experiences not addressed in the initial question.

An existing questionnaire that addressed the intersection of race, class, gender and equity legislation on promotion could not be found. The first and second authors therefore developed the structured questionnaire over time and with careful consideration of the implied conceptual realities. Terre Blanche et al. (2006) are of the opinion that establishing content validity of an abstract construct such as subtle racism is not easy as the real content is vast and not restricted to what can be found in textbooks. Therefore, as advised by Terre Blanche et al. (2006), care was taken to explain and include the content area of the phenomenon under study. Concepts such as the EEA, race, class and gender were therefore explained to the reader on the first page of the questionnaire.

Face and content validity

As this study is based on the theory of intersectionality, the concepts contained in the theory are reflected in the objectives of the study and the questionnaire. Besides, to enhance precision regarding content, the questionnaire was developed with the assistance of an expert in industrial psychology employed at Stellenbosch University who restructured various questions to enhance both face and content validity. To further ensure content validity, the instrument was reviewed by a well-known expert in political sciences at Stellenbosch University.

Reliability

The interrelatedness of the individual options contained in the Likert and rating scale questions was found sufficient as the Cronbach alpha of question 1 was 0.90, question 2 was 0.77 and question 3 was 0.80.

Pilot test

The questionnaire was pre-tested by 10 PNs employed at a large district hospital in the Cape Metropolitan Area to verify possible inaccuracies such as vague instructions and language, as advised by Brink, van der Walt and van Rensburg (2012). Following the pilot test, minor adjustments were made to the questionnaire, for example, words were changed to enhance meaning. The data obtained via the pilot test were not included in the results of the actual study because the questionnaire had yet to be finalised.

Research procedure and ethical considerations

Data collection was completed by the first author over an 8-month period. The following process was followed at each hospital. The first author reported her presence to the unit manager or person in command of a shift and requested their input as to a suitable time and date to recruit the individual participants. In cases where the ward was not that busy, the unit manager or shift leader allowed the first author to approach participants. Participants who consented to participate were handed an envelope that contained two consent forms and the questionnaire. Once the consent forms were signed, the researcher retained a copy and handed the original copy to the participant. The researcher collected the questionnaires on the next shift of a participant.

Written consent was obtained from each participant after which each was handed a leaflet that further explained the context of the study, voluntary participation and their right to withdraw from the study at any stage. Questionnaires were kept anonymous, not reflecting identifying details of the institution or the participant. Data are kept in a locked safe for 5 years, after which they will be destroyed.

Statistical analysis

Data were analysed with the assistance of a bio-statistician using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software, version 24. Descriptive statistics were used to organise the data (visual presentation through frequency tables).

As the study is supported by the theory of intersectionality, the responses to each question were compared to race, class and gender. The Kruskal-Wallis test was used to compare the responses for three or more groups, such as the African, mixed-race, Indian, and white racial groups. The scores (continuous variables) were therefore rank-ordered and the mean rank for each group was compared (Pallant, 2013). The Mann-Whitney U test was used to compare the responses of two independent groups such as gender (male and female) and position/class (managers and followers, i.e., the PNs) with a continuous variable (Pallant, 2013), that is, the scores of the possible responses, for example, 1, 2, 3, -1, -2, -3 and 0.

Data from the open-ended questions were analysed using the approach described by Terre Blanche et al. (2006), comprising the following steps: familiarisation and immersion, inducing themes, coding, elaboration and interpretation and checking. During this process the researcher endeavoured to set aside her preconceived notions about the topic and focused on the meaning of the text.

 

Ethical consideration

The study received ethical clearance from Stellenbosch University (ethical clearance number: S1505122) and institutional permission was granted by the individual public hospitals and private hospital groups.

 

Results

The results (Tables 1 and 2) confirm the female dominance among nurses (n = 516, 91.2%) and African dominance (n = 266, 47.2%) among the South African race groups. Most participants were from the public sector (n = 304, 53.1%) and were PNs (n = 461, 85.5%). Although Gauteng had a larger private health care component (n = 146, 52.3%), the WC had a larger public health care component (n = 170, 57.8%). A large number had undergraduate (n = 400, 77.5%) and postgraduate nursing (n = 198, 67.3%) diplomas.

 

 

 

 

The mean age of the participants was 44 with a standard deviation (SD) of 10.5, indicating a good spread of generations as some were as young as 24 while others were 67 years old. The average years working at an institution were 12 (SD 10.7), ranging from rather low (3 months) periods of employment to being employed at one institution for a lengthy period of time (43 years).

The influence of the EEA on racial, gender and hierarchical relationships and promotion in the workplace (results displayed in Figure 1 and Table 3).

 

 

Figure 1 illustrates that overall the application of the EEA contributed to improved racial, gender and hierarchical relationships in the workplace and increased promotion of nurses from previously disadvantaged groups. The improvements were generally rated 1 and 2, reflecting a rather cautious stance towards admitting that improvement had taken place. Equally, a large number of participants perceived that racial, gender and hierarchical relationships, and the promotion of previously disadvantaged groups, have stayed the same.

Statistically significant differences existed in the views for all the options contained in this question across categories of race (means and SDs are displayed in Table 3). The mixed-race group was least convinced that the EEA contributed to improved racial relationships in the workplace, whereas the African group had a more positive stance. The mixed-race group also seemed to be most sceptical that the application of the EEA improved gender relationships, whereas the Indian group was more likely to concur. Although African, mixed-race and Indian nurses were more optimistic that the application of the EEA contributed to improved hierarchical relationships in the workplace, white nurses were less convinced. Similarly, compared with managers, the PNs were less likely to concur that the application of the EEA contributed to improved hierarchical relationships. Regarding whether the application of the EEA enhanced the promotion of African, mixed-race and Indian nurses, mixed-race and African nurses were less convinced, whereas white nurses were more convinced and in agreement. No statistically significant differences were found between the views of males and females for all the options contained in this question.

Concerns that arise when new promotional opportunities become available - that decision-making be influenced by race, class, gender and the EEA (results displayed in Figure 2 and Table 4).

 

 

Figure 2 illustrates that when promotional opportunities become available, there are fewer concerns that class and gender will play a role. However, the majority indicated that concerns about the influence of race and the EEA increased considerably with new promotional opportunities.

The race groups hold statistically significant divergent views regarding all the options contained in the question (means and SDs are displayed in Table 4). The mixed-race and white groups seemed to be most concerned that race could influence decision-making regarding promotion, whereas the African group seem to be less concerned, yet rather divided (the larger SD). Likewise, the Indian and white groups were more certain and in agreement that class would have a lesser influence on decision-making when promotional opportunities became available. The mixed-race and African groups were also less concerned about the possible influence of class, yet more divided (the larger SDs). On the contrary, the mixed-race group, followed by the African group were more concerned that gender would influence decision-making when promotional opportunities become available compared with the Indian and white groups. Furthermore, the mixed-race and white groups were most convinced that the EEA plays a role in decision-making regarding promotion, followed by the African and Indian groups.

No statistically significant differences were found between the views of males and females (gender) and those of managers and PNs (class) across all the options contained in this question (Table 4).

The extent that the Employment Equity Act is implemented in a facility; the presence, training, encouragement and successes of African, mixed-race and Indian nurses with promotion (results are displayed in Figure 3 and Table 5).

 

 

Figure 3 illustrates that although African, mixed-race and Indian nurses were encouraged to apply for promotion, their success in being promoted was generally viewed to be moderate. Furthermore, the overall view was that African, mixed-race and Indian nurses were encouraged to apply for promotion and that they received training that enabled them to be promoted. One can therefore infer that the participating facilities considered the implementation of the EEA.

However, irrespective of the positive views indicated by the frequencies, the race groups again differed statistically significantly across all the options contained in the question (the means and SDs are displayed in Table 5). Although white nurses were most convinced that African, mixed-race and Indian nurses are promoted to leadership positions, these nurses themselves were less convinced. White nurses again seemed to be most certain that African, mixed-race and Indian nurses are encouraged to apply for promotion, while these nurses were less in agreement. White nurses were also quite convinced that African, mixed-race and Indian nurses are successful when applying for promotion, while these nurses themselves were less so. African nurses were, however, less convinced than nurses from the other race groups that African, mixed-race and Indian nurses received training that enabled them to be promoted. Male nurses too were less convinced about the provision of training.

No statistically significant differences were found among the views of managers and PNs.

 

Findings from the open-ended responses

Five themes emerged from the responses to the open-ended questions: race, gender, class, nepotism and bribery, and staff development and promotion.

Race

Mixed-race participants seemed almost anxious about the role of race in promotions and that they might not be valued in the implementation of the EEA:

'Yes if you not black enough you won't get the post [and] equity favours the Africans only unfortunately.' (WC, female, public sector)

African participants, however, commented on the dominance of mixed-race people in managerial positions:

'Mixed-race nurses have better opportunities than Africans. Most mixed-races are into leadership positions except Africans.' (WC, female, public sector)

African participants also appeared to be disgruntled by their low presentation in managerial positions:

'There is not a single unit manager that is black at my hospital and this disgusts me. I'll just say "slightly" on all the above, because otherwise I'll just get more upset about this - it is almost as if we don't get recognised.' (WC, female, private sector)

White participants too seemed concerned about the role of race:

'It is often voiced by some of my colleagues that with the new legislation if whites apply for promotion, that it will be overlooked for blacks or other previously disadvantaged groups as there is an active drive in the group to align themselves with EEA initiatives. Concerns are also raised that the company will favour colour as opposed to qualifications or experience.' (WC, female, private sector)

The comments from white and mixed-race participants signify a solicitousness for one's own career and not the broader ethical purpose of the EEA. Considering the dominance of white people in managerial positions in the private sector, one can deduce that white nurses might not be knowledgeable of their firm representation in managerial positions as is reflected in the equity reports.

Participants in Gauteng's private and public sectors referred to the role of race, but in a less anxious manner. African nurses reflected on their dominance in the public sector:

'Really difficult to comment accurately on racial issues, as the majority of the employees are Africans - 99.9%.' (Gauteng, male, public sector)

Another opinion of white nurses on increased employment of mixed-race nurses was that:

'More black and mixed-race nurses are employed.' (Gauteng, female, private sector).

Gender

Concerns were also raised about the promotion of males, that at times, males were appointed irrespective of poor performance in the interview:

'Since 2014 men are more considered when promotion opportunities become available…' (WC, female, public sector)

'…most men usually fail dismally during the interview but still selected even if a man got 48% marks.' (WC, female, public sector).

Other participants had differing views; some averred that males were not treated fairly in terms of promotion, while others indicated that they were favoured:

'Profession is dominated by females from African background. Men are being overlooked and discriminated against [and] because males are few and are given first preference.' (Gauteng, male, public sector)

Similarly, comments also reflected favouritism of males:

'Males also get higher salaries [and] Africans take preference above others of colour and men above women.' (Gauteng, female, private sector)

Those in the private sector commented on female domination in managerial posts:

'There are more women in management roles.' (WC, male, private sector)

Yet, those employed in the public sector in Gauteng observed more respect being demonstrated towards male nurses, signifying the possibility of patriarchal behaviour surfacing at work:

'Male nurses are respected more than female nurses and are given leadership positions'. (Gauteng, female, public sector)

Class

Race as a social construct appeared in the view of African people as inferior and superior view of white people in the WC:

'Because I am an African, I am not considered as a person who may hold high position. Because of my race and clan.' (WC, female, public sector)

'White nurses are still regarded as more competent' (WC, female, private sector).

Class also surfaced in hierarchical structures, signifying the presence of autocratic leadership practices; participative decision-making was seemingly not practised consistently:

'Poor hierarchical relations between managers and followers, for example if you request leave for your relative one is questioned; deny mostly one's requests. Off duties just changed without notification. Autocratic [and] only abuse of power - using one or position of authority to improper benefit or discriminate against another person.' (WC, female, public sector)

Equally, hierarchical relationships were seemingly unsound and managerial interest in the careers of nurses was lacking:

'No relationship between managers and nurses. No succession plan in leadership positions'. (Gauteng, female, public sector)

Nepotism and bribery

At times, bribery, good relationships and affiliation with social clubs seemingly influenced promotion practices:

'Sometimes people are hand-picked to apply and are given tips on which areas to read in preparation for interviews. And this is followed by a reward, because those will get their promotion irrespective of how bad they performed.' (Gauteng, male, public sector)

Money talks:

'… give me this, and I will give you that.' (Gauteng, male, public sector)

'They preferred to give promotional posts to nurses they know socially'. (Gauteng, male, public sector)

Staff development and promotion

A postgraduate diploma in nursing management is not a requirement for promotion to senior managerial positions in the private sector, but necessary for senior managerial positions in the public sector (see qualifications and advancement). Participants averred that it was difficult to obtain study leave and that lacking a qualification could have implications for successful promotion:

'It is difficult to receive assistance, for example study leave to do nursing administration even on a part-time basis, which makes applying for promotion even more difficult due to lack of qualification.' (WC, female, public sector)

'Most people apply to further their studies without being successful.' (Gauteng, female, private sector).

Another comment suggested discrimination in terms of who was granted study leave:

'Most of the study opportunities are given to whites in our department - they get 95% chance; whereas our Africans get 5%.' (WC, female, private sector).

 

Discussion

The purpose of this article was to report the views of nurses about the influence that the EEA and race, class and gender have on promotion.

The results showed a cautious stance towards conceding that the implementation of the EEA benefited female nurses of colour. Mixed-race nurses were sceptical that the EEA contributed to their being promoted and were most concerned that the EEA could influence promotional outcomes. Qualitative data also reflected that the mixed-race group might not value the EEA as the implementation of the Act could enhance the promotion of African nurses. Oosthuizen and Naidoo (2010) confirm disgruntlement among some mixed-race people with the EEA as the Act, according to them, mostly benefits African staff.

The equity reports (Republic of South Africa, 2015) reflect that mixed-race nurses dominate in mid-managerial positions in the WC, while white nurses are more successful with senior appointments in both the public sector of the WC and in the private health sector nationally. African nurses dominate in the public sector in Gauteng (Republic of South Africa, 2014), but have yet to find their feet in the private sector (Republic of South Africa, 2015).

The fact that senior managerial positions tend to evade mixed-race nurses in the private health sector and the WC, despite their demographic dominance in the province, might explain their discontent with the Act. Taylor, Mwaba and Roman (2014) and Amberger (2007) report that mixed-race people in post-apartheid South Africa tend to view race as an issue, being marginalised to some extent.

White nurses, however, seemed more convinced about the successful promotion of female nurses of colour: that female nurses of colour occupy managerial positions and are encouraged to apply for promotion. Female nurses of colour concurred less on these issues. The Witt-Kiefer report (2011) showed that white people tend to hold views that people of African descent indeed experience upward mobility in the health sector, whereas those of African descent were not in agreement.

White nurses were also less in agreement than the other groups that the EEA contributed to improved hierarchical relationships and expressed concerns that equity takes precedence over the competency profile of a candidate. Oosthuizen and Naidoo (2010) showed that white people view the EEA as benefiting African people; that at times, a person of colour who is successful lacks the required experience for the position. Other research findings (Mputa, Heinechen & Vorster, 2016; Level Playing Field Institute, 2008) confirmed the notion among white employees that managers tend to favour people of colour in an effort to meet equity targets. Mputa et al. (2016) refer to feelings of being disadvantaged by the EEA among white South Africans because the Act focuses on the advancement of previously disadvantaged groups. Steyn (2010) relates an element of angst among white Afrikaners about potentially losing the power or advantage created by apartheid.

Conversely, the disgruntlement of African nurses with their perceived lack of upward mobility in the private health sector and the public sector in the WC could be explained by the 2015 equity reports that show under-representation of the group in these spheres despite the implementation of the EEA in 1998 (Republic of South Africa, 2015). Mixed-race and white participants in these sectors seemed to be disgruntled and concerned about the EEA and the advantages it holds for African nurses. Seekings (2007) and Oosthuizen and Naidoo (2010) aver that race remains an issue in post-apartheid South Africa. Steyn (2010) also reports a scramble for power among white South Africans in order not to lose any advantage already attained. It therefore appears that African nurses have a difficult road towards achieving promotion in post-apartheid South Africa.

The frequency distributions suggested that gender has little influence on decision-making regarding promotion. However, mixed-race nurses were most concerned about this. The responses to the open-ended questions of the public sector in the WC indicated purposeful efforts to appoint males, whereas the responses of nurses in the Gauteng private sector implied that males might be favoured in terms of promotions and salaries. The equity reports of the WC public sector (Republic of SA, 2015) show a 1:3.2 male-to-female ratio in mid- and junior managerial levels, whereas the equity report of Gauteng (Republic of SA, 2014) reflects 1: 3.4 (mid-managerial level) and 1:4.5 (junior managerial levels) male-to-female ratios. The website of the South African Nursing Council (SANC) (the legislative body that governs nursing practice in South Africa and maintains statistics of registration of all South African PNs) reflects a 1:8 male-to-female nurse ratio. The divide between the ratios of SANC and those of the equity reports signifies that although males are few, they are also in command. Therefore, despite nursing being a female-dominated profession (SANC, 2016), males tend to experience more upward mobility in the WC than Gauteng. These ratios might explain the discontent of the mixed-race people. Research findings of Simpson (2004) confirm that the careers of males tend to flourish in female-dominated professions such as nursing. Males in their study seemed to have benefited from the minority status in the female-dominated profession and the belief that males are worthy leaders. Furthermore, Muench, Sindelar, Busch and Buerhaus (2015) and Brown (2009) found in their studies that male nurses were better remunerated than female nurses.

Irrespective of the influence of gender, the racial hierarchies created by apartheid (Horwitz & Jain, 2011) seem to persist, as reflected in the inferior viewing of African nurses and superior viewing of white nurses in the current study. Talbot and Durrheim (2012) confirm the existence of racial stereotyping in post-apartheid South Africa. Booysen and Nkomo (2010) and Bendick and Nunes (2012) ascribe the slow progress with diversity in the workplace to the persistence of these racial stereotypes. Tropp and Molina (2012) found that people tend to view individuals from their own race group more favourably than those from other race groups. Nguyen-Phuong-Mai (2017) also reports discriminatory acts exhibited by dominant groups in organisations as efforts to protect their own power and privileges. The latter might explain the responses reflecting racial discrimination in terms of developmental opportunities.

Class also surfaced in institutional hierarchies (managers vs. followers) where those with less power were seemingly marginalised through autocratic managerial practices. Although managers hold views that the EEA contributed to improved hierarchical relationships, the PNs (followers) were less convinced. Wetzel (2014) writes that PNs (lower class) tend to find themselves in bureaucratic systems that are controlled by managers with decision-making power who could be intimidating because resistance could have an impact on their careers. The PNs have yet to become managers, whereas the managers are the privileged ones (and could be blind to these privileges) who do not have to be concerned about promotional prospects (Pratto & Stewart, 2012). Therefore, one can deduce why the managers would view the EEA to have contributed to improved hierarchical relationships.

Furthermore, on the point of class and the power contained in it, research conducted by the Public Service Commission of South Africa (2016) and Pauw (2017) confirmed irregularities with promotion and appointments that might explain the comments reflecting nepotism and bribery. The Commission found that at times documentation regarding recruitment and promotion was absent and in some cases lacked evidence of the selection committee members and/or the selection process, deducing that this evidence could have been purposefully misplaced.

 

Conclusion

Although African nurses seemed to be marginalised in the WC public and private sector, mixed-race nurses experience marginalisation in the private sector. The progress that African nurses experience in the public sector, Gauteng, and mixed-race nurses, WC, seems to relate to their demographic dominance in the respective provinces. The superior viewing of white females and their dominance in senior managerial positions in public and private sectors is rather prominent regardless of their being a minority group, signifying the persistence of advantages attained through apartheid. The dominance of racial hierarchies in terms of upward mobility is therefore a reality with female nurses of colour receiving the shorter end of the stick. The apparent superior viewing of male nurses and their progress with upward mobility, although a minority, displays class intersecting with gender. It therefore appears that institutions have to reassess their efforts to do justice to the noble intentions of the EEA.

Practical implications

As the results indicate the persistence of racial hierarchies in terms of positions held in the workplace and the inferior viewing of mixed-race people, management should actively seek ways to enhance inclusivity. These should include diversity training, a racially diverse recruitment team and enhancing the transformational managerial skills of managers to minimise discontent among followers and increase unity among race groups.

Limitations of the study

The study was carried out in the hospital environment and therefore excluded day clinics, primary health care settings and nursing schools. It is assumed that the views of nurses working in these areas might be different.

 

Acknowledgements

M.M.v.d.H. acknowledges the support of the National Research Foundation (NRF) and the South African Nurses Trust (SANTRUST) in the preparation and execution of the research. The authors also acknowledge the support of Profs. Johann Malan and Amanda Gouws at Stellenbosch University for their contributions with the development of the questionnaire.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this paper.

Author's contributions

M.M.v.d.H. wrote the article and conducted the research under the supervision of the A.S.v.d.M. A.S.v.d.M. was the supervisor involved in the study. She reviewed the article and provided advice regarding the completion thereof. T.C. provided guidance with the presentation of the results and the section on statistical analysis. She also reviewed the article.

Funding

A sabbatical grant was received from the National Research Foundation of South Africa to complete the degree and the article: NRF grant number 110862.

Data availability statement

A lot of data have been generated in the larger study. The data is the intellectual property of Stellenbosch University and not for sharing.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the authors.

 

References

Amberger, M. (2007). The Situation of the Coloureds in South Africa. [Online]. Retrieved August 26, 2017 http://www.kas.de/wf/doc/kas_11965-544-2-30.pdf?071002114810        [ Links ]

Bendick, M. & Nunes, A. P. (2012). Developing the research basis for controlling bias in hiring. Journal of Social Issues, 68(2): 238-262.         [ Links ]

Booysen, L. & Nkomo, S. M. (2010). Gender role stereotypes and requisite management characteristics: The case of South Africa. Gender in Management: An International Journal, 25(4):285-300.         [ Links ]

Brink, H., van der Walt, C. & van Rensburg, G. (2012). Fundamentals of Research Methodology for Healthcare Professionals. 3rd Edition. Lansdowne: Juta.         [ Links ]

Brown, B. 2009. Men in nursing: Re-evaluating masculinities, re-evaluating gender. Contemporary Nurse: A Journal For The Australian Nursing Profession, 33(2), 120-129.         [ Links ]

Burger, R & Jephta, R. (2006). Returns to Race: Labour Market Discrimination in Post-Apartheid South Africa. Stellenbosch Economic Working Papers, 04/06.         [ Links ]

Collinson, D. L. (2007). Work and masculinity. In Flood M, Gardiner JK, Pease B, Pringle K. (Eds.). International Encyclopedia of Men and Masculinities (pp 69-73). New York: Routledge        [ Links ]

Coustas, E. (2015). (cousstas.estelle@mediclinic.co.za). (2015, March 12). Proposal.         [ Links ]

Crenshaw, K. (1989). Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Antidiscrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory and Antiracist Politics. University of Chicago Legal Forum, 1: 8        [ Links ]

Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods Approaches. 3rd Edition, California: Sage Publications, Inc.         [ Links ]

Crofts M. (2013). The Impact of the Public Sector Equality Duties on higher education: a case study. Doctoral thesis. The University of Northampton. [Online]. Retrieved May 15, 2018. http://nectar.northampton.ac.uk/6879/1/Crofts20136879.pdf 2018 May 15        [ Links ]

Dorse, A. (Alta.Dorse@lifehealthcare.co.za). (2015, February 24). Proposal.         [ Links ]

Fletcher, B. (2013). The Production of Difference: race and the management of labour in US history. Race Class, 54: 97        [ Links ]

Fryberg, S. A. (2010). Constructing junior faculty of colour as strugglers: the implications for tenure and promotion. In D. Little & S.P. Mohanty (Eds.). The future of diversity. Academic leaders reflect on American Higher Education (pp 181-217). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.         [ Links ]

Haslanger, S. (2000). Gender and Race: (What) Are They? (What) Do We Want Them To Be? NOÛS, 34 (1): 31-55.         [ Links ]

Hattingh, J. (jhattingh@sanc.co.za). (2015, February 24). Statistics.         [ Links ]

Horwitz, F. M. & Jain, H. (2011). An assessment of employment equity and Broad Based Black Economic Empowerment developments in SA. Equality, Diversity and Inclusion: An International Journal, 30(4): 297-317.         [ Links ]

Jean-Marie, G., Williams, V. A. & Sherman, S. L. (2009). Black Women's Leadership Experiences: Examining the Intersectionality of Race and Gender. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 11: 562        [ Links ]

Kelle, U. (2006). Combining qualitative and quantitative methods in research practice: purposes and advantages. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3:4, 293-311        [ Links ]

Level Playing Field Institute. 2008. How the Clinton, McCain and Obama candidacies can reframe conversations in the workplace. [Online]. Retrieved April 13, 2018. https://www.smash.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/race-age-gender-executive-summary_0.pdf        [ Links ]

Marks, S. (1994). Divided Sisterhood: Race, Class and Gender in the South African Nursing Profession. London: Palgrave Macmillan.         [ Links ]

Mputa C. K., Heinechen, L. & Vorster, J. (2016). Evaluating the implementation of Employment Equity in a Pharmaceutical Company: A Case Study. Unpublished master's thesis. [Online]. Retrieved April 11, 2018 http://scholar.sun.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10019.1/98604/mputa_evaluating_2016.pdf?sequ        [ Links ]

Msomi, D. (2006). Factors affecting women representation on boards of directors. Unpublished master's thesis. University of Pretoria. [Online]. Retrieved October 18, 2018 https://repository.up.ac.za/handle/2263/23659?show=full        [ Links ]

Muench, U., Sindelar, J., Busch, S. & Buerhaus, P. I. (2015). Salary Differences between Male and Female Registered Nurses in the United States. Journal of American Medical Association, 313(12).         [ Links ]

Nash, J. C. (2008). Re-thinking intersectionality. Feminist Review, 89(1), 1-15.         [ Links ]

Ndlinda, C. & Okeke-Uzodike, U. (2012). Present but Absent: Women in Business Leadership in South Africa. Journal of International Women's Studies, 13(1).         [ Links ]

Nguyen-Phuong-Mai M. (2017). Intercultural Communication: An Interdisciplinary Approach: When Neurons, Genes, and Evolution Joined the Discourse. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.         [ Links ]

Oosthuizen, R. M. & Naidoo, V. (2010). Attitudes towards and experience of employment equity. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 36(1).         [ Links ]

Pallant, J. (2013). SPSS Survival Manual. 5th Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies.         [ Links ]

Pauw, J. (2017). The president's keepers. Those who keep Zuma in power and out of prison. Cape Town: Tafelberg Printers        [ Links ]

Pratto, F & Steward, A. L. (2012). Group Dominance and the Half-Blindness of Privilege. Journal of Social Issues, 68(1): 28-45.         [ Links ]

Public Service Commission of South Africa. (2016). Fact sheet on irregular appointments in the public service. [Online]. Retrieved September 11, 2017 http://www.psc.gov.za/documents/reports/2016/Factsheet_Public_Service.pdf        [ Links ]

Republic of South Africa. (1998). Employment Equity Act, Act 55 of 1998. Pretoria: Government Printer.         [ Links ]

Republic of South Africa. (2007). Department of Public Service and Administration (DPSA). Pretoria: Government Printing Works.         [ Links ]

Republic of South Africa. (2012). Department of Labour: Employment Equity Report. Pretoria: Government Printer.         [ Links ]

Republic of South Africa. (2012). Department of Labour: Employment Equity Report - Private Healthcare Companies. Pretoria: Government Printer.         [ Links ]

Republic of South Africa. (2014). Department of Labour: Employment Equity Report - Private Healthcare Companies. Pretoria: Government Printer.         [ Links ]

Republic of South Africa. (2015). Department of Labour: Employment Equity Report. Pretoria: Government Printer.         [ Links ]

Republic of South Africa. (2015). Department of Labour: Employment Equity Report, Private Healthcare Companies. Pretoria: Government Printer.         [ Links ]

Ryan, Anne B. (2006) Post-Positivist Approaches to Research. In: Researching and Writing your thesis: a guide for postgraduate students. MACE: Maynooth Adult and Community Education, pp. 12-26.         [ Links ]

Schultheiss, K. (2010). Imperial Nursing: Cross-Cultural Challenges for Women in the Health Professions: A Historical Perspective. Policy, Politics, & Nursing Practice, 11 (2): 151-157.         [ Links ]

Seekings, J. (2007). Race, Discrimination and Diversity in South Africa. Centre for Social Science Research, Working paper, 194.         [ Links ]

Simpson, R. (2004). Masculinity at work: the experiences of men in female dominated occupations. Work, employment and society, 18(2): 349-368.         [ Links ]

South African Nursing Council. (2016). Provincial distribution of nursing manpower versus the population of South Africa. [Online]. Retrieved January 30, 2019 http://www.sanc.co.za/stats/stat2017/Year%202017%20Registrations%20of%20Practitioners%20Stats.pdf        [ Links ]

South African Nursing Council. (2016). Public nursing education institutions. [Online]. Retrieved August 22, 2017 http://www.sanc.co.za/pdf/NEIs/Public%20NEI"s%20Details%20(2016-02-03).pdf        [ Links ]

Statistics South Africa. (2012). Census 2011. [Online]. Retrieved April 8, 2014 https://www.statssa.gov.za/publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf        [ Links ]

Statistics South Africa. (2015). Employment, unemployment, skills and economic growth. An exploration of household survey evidence on skills: development and unemployment between 1994 and 2014. [Online]. Retrieved September 6, 2017 https://www.statssa.gov.za/presentation/Stats%20SA%20presentation%20on%20skills% 20and%20unemployment_16%20September        [ Links ]

Steyn, M. (2010). Critical Diversity literacy: Diversity awareness in twelve South African organisations. Innovative Issues and Approaches in Social Sciences, 3(3).         [ Links ]

Talbot, K. & Durrheim, K. (2012). The Princeton Trilogy revisited: how have racial stereotypes changed in South Africa? South African Journal of Psychology, 42(4): 476-491.         [ Links ]

Taylor, M.J., Mwada, K. & Roman N. (2014). The generational exploration of Coloured identity in post-apartheid SA: Marching towards a new personhood. [Online]. Retrieved August 25, 2017 http://repository.uwc.ac.za/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10566/1686/taylor_mwaba_roman_poster_ APA_2014.jpg?sequence=1&isAllowed=y        [ Links ]

Taylor, V. (2007). Leadership for service improvement. Nursing Management, 4(1): 28-32.         [ Links ]

Terre Blanche, M., Durrheim, K. & Painter, D. (2006). Research in Practice. 6th Edition. Cape Town: University of Cape Town Press (Pty) Ltd.         [ Links ]

Tropp, L. R. & Molina, L. E. (2012). From prejudice to positive relations between groups. In K. Deaux & Snyder, M. (Eds.). The Oxford handbook of personality and social psychology (pp. 545-571). New York: Oxford University Press.         [ Links ]

Wetzel T. (2014). What is Class Oppression? Who is the Working Class? [Online]. Retrieved May 3, 2018 http://ideasandaction.info/2014/11/class-oppression-working-class/        [ Links ]

Witt-Kiefer. (2011). Building the Business Case. Healthcare Diversity Leadership: A National Survey Report. [Online]. Retrieved April 11, 2017. http://www.diversityconnection.org/diversityconnection/membership/Resource%20Center %20Docs/Healthcare%20Diversity%20Leadership-20a%20National%20Survey%20Report.pdf        [ Links ]

Yap, M. & A. M. Konrad. (2009). Gender and racial differences in promotions: Is there a sticky floor, a mid-level bottleneck, or a glass ceiling? Industrial Relations, 64(4): 593-619.         [ Links ]

 

 

Correspondence:
Mariana van der Heever
mmvdheever@sun.ac.za

Received: 13 Nov. 2018
Accepted: 04 Feb. 2019
Published: 31 July 2019

^rND^sBendick^nM.^rND^sNunes^nA. P.^rND^sBooysen^nL.^rND^sNkomo^nS. M.^rND^sBrown^nB.^rND^sCollinson^nD. L.^rND^sCrenshaw^nK.^rND^sFletcher^nB.^rND^sFryberg^nS. A.^rND^sHaslanger^nS.^rND^sHorwitz^nF. M.^rND^sJain^nH.^rND^sJean-Marie^nG.^rND^sWilliams^nV. A.^rND^sSherman^nS. L.^rND^sKelle^nU.^rND^sMuench^nU.^rND^sSindelar^nJ.^rND^sBusch^nS.^rND^sBuerhaus^nP. I.^rND^sNash^nJ. C.^rND^sNdlinda^nC.^rND^sOkeke-Uzodike^nU.^rND^sOosthuizen^nR. M.^rND^sNaidoo^nV.^rND^sPratto^nF^rND^sSteward^nA. L.^rND^sRyan^nAnne B.^rND^sSchultheiss^nK.^rND^sSimpson^nR.^rND^sSteyn^nM.^rND^sTalbot^nK.^rND^sDurrheim^nK.^rND^sTaylor^nV.^rND^sTropp^nL. R.^rND^sMolina^nL. E.^rND^sYap^nM.^rND^nA. M.^sKonrad^rND^1A01^nHannelie^sdu Preez^rND^1A02^nWerner^sde Klerk^rND^1A01^nHannelie^sdu Preez^rND^1A02^nWerner^sde Klerk^rND^1A01^nHannelie^sdu Preez^rND^1A02^nWerner^sde Klerk

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

A psycho-philosophical view on the 'conceptualisation' of psychological measure development

 

 

Hannelie du Preez^I; Werner de Klerk^II

^IDepartment of Early Childhood Education, Faculty of Education, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
^IISchool of Psychosocial Health, Community Psychosocial Research (COMPRES), North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

---

ABSTRACT

ORIENTATION: When researchers' understanding and application of 'conceptualisation' can allude to nearly anything, it loses its philosophical purpose and stature. Negating the philosophical meaning of the term 'conceptualisation', because it appears obvious, will result in research inquiries becoming ambiguous and ideologically diminished. Paradigms and theoretical frameworks are rooted in philosophical principles, yet researchers often 'conceptualise' and conduct inquiries without understanding the foundation of their applied scientific methods
RESEARCH PURPOSE: The historicity of psychological measurement development depicts a fusion of transdisciplinary knowledge systems and the stature of scientific methods is comprehensive. Yet the philosophical lenses through which researchers 'conceptualise' their measure to understand psychological behaviour are not as clear.
MOTIVATION FOR THE STUDY: Contemporary psychometric literature postulates the 'conceptualisation phase' as a mere point of departure to develop a psychological measure, whereas philosophical literature depicts 'conceptualisation' as the mainstay of any research inquiry.
RESEARCH APPROACH/DESIGN AND METHOD: A qualitative design was used with the conceptual analysis of terminology as approach. Textual or typographical psychometric and psychological literature was purposively sampled and inductively and deductively analysed, using the philosophical framework of Van der Walt and Potgieter.
MAIN FINDINGS: The definition of the 'conceptualisation phase' is principally characterised as the scientific method to measure the scientific reality, while the integral human component, represented by the measure developer, is overlooked.
PRACTICAL/MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS: Insights derived can enthuse future dialogues on the purpose and importance of the conceptualisation phase in the development of psychological measures.
CONTRIBUTION/VALUE-ADD: A potential delineation of what the 'conceptualisation phase' should encapsulate is proposed.

Keywords: Conceptual analysis; conceptualisation; conceptualisation phase; psycho-philosophical viewpoints; psychological measure development.

---

 

 

Introduction

Psychological measures, or psychometric tools, typically constitute a process-orientated action to objectively and systematically gather information about aspect(s) of a person's psychological behaviour or being, whereupon inferences are drawn to inform decisions and/or make recommendations (Anastasi & Urbina, 1997; Murphy & Davidshofer, 2014; Ryan, Lopez, & Sumerall, 2001; Schweizer & DiStefano, 2016). In brief, a psychological measure characterises a clearly designed map of constructs or latent traits (scientific reality) and the measurement (scientific method) thereof (Finkelstein, 2003; Michell, 1997).

This generic definition is evidence of important fundamentals when developing a psychological measure; however, what the conceptualisation phase in measure development pertains to is consequently not as clear as assumed. The fundamentals of the definitions of psychological measure indicate rigorous experimentation and mathematisation to measure constructs. However, the measure developer's own philosophical lens or interpretation of the scientific method and the scientific reality is not explicitly accounted for (Borsboom, 2005, 2006; Maul, Torres Irribarra, & Wilson, 2016; Michell, 1997). A serious social scientist, scholar or researcher, also implying a measure developer, characterises someone who carefully considers their philosophical positioning when conceptualising before operationalising their actions (Comte-Sponville, 2005, Harris, 2010). Social science is a branch of the philosophy of science (Delanty & Strydom, 2010), and the practice of measurement has philosophical implications (Michell, 2005). Therefore, the body of scholarship of social sciences, psychology and philosophy are integrated, not dichotomous, and for this article labelled a psycho-philosophical view.

Supportive literature indicated that terminology in social sciences and psychology is commonly overlooked, not studied, not questioned, and frequently accepted as being self-explanatory, obvious or apparent (Cocchiarella, 2007; Petocz & Newbery, 2010). Words, concepts, terms and symbols are the only mediums available for conveying meaning, and such terminology gives voice to serious measure developers to structure their thoughts and determine their prediction in language. Therefore, clarifying concepts and terminology, disclosing conceptual anomalies in theories and models, questioning unsound assumptions and arguments and evaluating the reliability of procedural methods are much needed (Borsboom, 2006; Petocz & Newbery, 2010).

Conceptualisation, as one of seven phases (see Figure 1), is precariously open for unguided interpretation, faces the risk of detaching from its precise meaning and understanding, and might become vague and manifold (Cocchiarella, 2007; Hutto, 2013). Seeing that the meaning of the 'conceptualisation phase' is not always obvious, it is sometimes confused with or seen as part of the operationalisation phase(s). This suggests that the serious measure developer's insinuations, inclinations, assumptions and/or biases influence his or her understanding of the scientific reality and the scientific method; the more reason to delineate the conceptualisation phase. As soon as language eludes signs, index, description or register, philosophical scrutiny becomes necessary (Hutto, 2013; Margolis & Laurence, 2007).

The conceptual and methodological silences in the body of scholarship inspired us to formulate and answer the research question: What is the psycho-philosophical meaning of 'conceptualisation' as the first phase during the development of a psychological measurement? We were set to explore the existing body of scholarship pertaining to the 'conceptualisation phase' of psychological measure development. We critiqued the sampled textual sources and identified a lacuna in the delineation of the conceptualisation phase by using a philosophical a priori framework. We found that 'conceptualising' a psychological measure is an iterative, continuous and intentional process of abstracting, simplifying and categorising. It is a conceptual mapping of the ontological scientific reality, its epistemological scientific method, and the anthropological and axiological scientific understanding of human behaviour and being, as a relational system.

 

Literature review

Research endeavours in psychometrics show evidence of and support for measure development, utilisation and advancement in the pursuit of esteemed psychometric modelling (Borsboom, 2005, 2006; Goldstein & Beers, 2004). Scientific knowledge systems, and therefore psychological measure frameworks, comprise statements and approximations about reality (the ontological-epistemological criterion) that are in accordance with the evidence that alludes to the application of rigorous techniques and methods (the objectivity criterion), which are scrutinised and accepted or rejected by a scientific community (the rational criterion) (Babbie & Mouton, 2001). To contextualise each of these aspects that constitute a scientific knowledge system, we allude to the historicity of psychological measurement development, conceptualisation, the nature of a psychological measure and the development thereof against the backdrop of a psycho-philosophical context.

The historicity of psychological measure development

The origin of measurement can be traced back to the physical sciences (Finkelstein, 2003). Measurement has since been applied in diverse inter- and trans-disciplinary fields of study, and has achieved prominence in psychology and the social sciences (Humphry, 2013; Jones & Thissen, 2006). The historicity of measurement signals four major physical science and mathematical eras that contributed to and served as an important impetus in the establishment of psychometrics as a disciplinary field, namely, the syncopated era (500 BC-1000 AD); the Middle Ages or symbolic era (1000-1500 AD); the modern era (1500-1900 AD) and, finally, the contemporary era (1900 AD-present). Each of these eras, and their respective renowned scholars, revolutionised how the foundations of measurement tools were invented, practised and revised, drawing on both philosophical and mathematical viewpoints (Finkelstein, 2003).

The innovative works of astronomer, physicist, engineer, philosopher and mathematician Galileo contributed to the nexus of the theory-praxis dichotomy, as he quantified observations of the physical world through mathematics (Finkelstein, 2003). A trajectory of continuous discoveries charted the quest for closing the theory-praxis gap by quantifying human's psychological behaviour and being. A succinct trajectory of some revolutionary works is: (1) Newton and Maxwell's mathematical theories how to denote the physical world; (2) psycho-physicist Helmholtz's contribution to a modern theory of measurement; (3) philosopher, physicist and experimental psychologist Fechner, who is the founder of psychophysics; (4) Campbell's work on physical quantities for empirical operation; (5) the nature of measurement in psychology by Stevens, and philosophically analysed by Ellis; (6) the institution of scholarly journals (Psychometrika and Psychometric Methods) and the Psychometric Society by psycho-physicist Thurstone and psychologist Guildford; and (7) the leap forward in proposing the representational theory of measurement by Tarski, Suppes, Zinnes, Luce and Krantz, to name a few (Finkelstein, 2003; Humphry, 2013; Jones & Thissen, 2006; Michell, 1997).

The historicity of psychometrics, firstly, signalled the importance of fusing fields of study and their knowledge systems and, secondly, indicated how philosophy has shed light on a scientific hiatus, and vice versa. Observing and understanding human psychological behaviour is not only a philosophical, scientific or a mathematical phenomenon. Rather, scholars from these distinct fields of study recognised the importance of establishing an intellectual cohort to advance the scientific measurement of a scientific reality. In other words, the origins of psychometrics herald important transitions and revolutions, such as hybridising trans- and cross-disciplinary fields of knowledge, incorporating innovative views on reality and joining scholarly communities (Borsboom, 2006; Finkelstein, 2003; Jones & Thissen, 2006).

As with any discipline, psychometrics also has manifold measurement models and theories, which are based on works of particular, serious scientists, operating from very specific paradigmatic orientations. For example, the test for individual differences is associated with Gauss, Bessel, Galton and Cattell, while factor analysis was pioneered by Spearman, Thomson, Binet, Goddard and Terman (Humphry, 2013; Jones & Thissen, 2006). In addition to these theories is the Rasch model, based on the mathematical theory of item response theory, and the psychological measurement and multidimensional scaling, as influenced by Thurstone, Luce, Tukey, Guttman, Tucker and Messick, among others (Humphry, 2013; Jones & Thissen, 2006). Scrutinising the underlying theoretical premises of each of the aforementioned scholars is not the focus of the article; however, it is important that a serious measure developer should establish his or her theoretical framework when conceptualising a psychological measure. The historicity of psychometrics contextualises and informs our psycho-philosophical understanding of the importance of conceptualisation.

Conceptualisation

From a philosophical point of view, conceptualisation characterises a scholar's act of going through an iterative, continuous and intentional process to abstract, simplify and categorise his or her impressions, experiences or perceptions of a phenomenon or reality, to give meaning, purpose or expression through clear and descriptive language (Babbie & Mouton, 2001; De Vos & Strydom, 2011). This philosophical explication moots the possibility for the serious measure developer to map 'an empirical relational system into a well-defined theory in a mathematical language' (Finkelstein, 2003, p. 44). Therefore, conceptualisation is crucial to understand the history, philosophy and purpose of the intended measure, which represents its nature.

Nature of psychological measurement

The nature of a psychological measure is the experimentation and mathematisation of the scientific reality through a scientific method (Michell, 1997, 2005). Evidently, the majority of working definitions draw on science- and mathematics-related terminology, for example, 'process-orientated', 'systematic', 'scientific', 'standardise', 'norms', 'categories', 'scales' and, of course, 'quantify'. Maul (2013) and Maul et al. (2016), on the other hand, suggest that any measure has a philosophically infused foundation, which is not accounted for in most working definitions.

In light of the two perspectives on the nature of a psychological measure, it seems that consensus on the delineation of a psychological measure has not been reached, because the merit of the scientific reality, the scientific method, as well as philosophically infused provisions, are not evident in all working definitions. To better understand the complex nature of a psychological measure, firstly, warrants a better understanding of how a psychological measure is developed step-by-step (or phase-by-phase) and, secondly, realising the importance of psycho-philosophical contexts.

Psychological measure development

Acknowledged frameworks stipulate specific stages, phases or steps when developing a psychological measure (see Figure 1). Although a universally accepted exact, sequential and descriptive model has not yet been agreed upon, we have scrutinised the body of scholarship and developed a probable depiction, or side-by-side illustration, which represents the acceptable and sequential phases and their tasks that are evident in the process of developing a psychological measure (Chadha, 2009, pp. 87-90; Coaley, 2014, pp. 52-53; Cohen & Swerdlik, 2009, pp. 245-252; Foxcroft & Roodt, 2013, pp. 70-74; Kingston, Scheuring, & Kramer, 2013, pp. 165-182; Moerdyk, 2009, pp. 27-28; Murphy & Davidshofer, 2014, pp. 227-238; Ryan et al., 2001, pp. 1-4; Wright, 1999, pp. 65-101).

Figure 1 is a preliminary representation of the scientific reality and the scientific method of a philosophical measure; however, the philosophically infused provisions are not obvious, which call for a psycho-philosophical context.

Psycho-philosophical context

Philosophy has always been concerned with the fundamental question of what it means to be human and its corollaries of what truth is and how we can know it. The question that Galileo asked, 'What has philosophy got to do with measuring?' (Drake, 1999, p. 266) and its teased obverse, 'What has measuring got to do with philosophy?' (Michell, 2005, p. 285) indicate a historical dichotomy - a division where measure developers have to choose between science and philosophy, whereas the advancement of a measurement necessitates unifying science and philosophy (Maul et al., 2016; Michell, 1997, 2005). According to Oono (2012, p. v), the investigation of realities to convey clarity and precise meaning is, indeed, important research, because researchers ought to make 'intuitively grasped concepts clear'.

A psycho-philosophical lens can facilitate a conceptual tribunal and a collaborative ingenuity; it can assure that the psychological measure is conceptually clear, ethical towards humankind, meaningful and relevant through proper conceptualisation (Hacker, 2013). 'The license that philosophy possesses to intervene in scientific debates is a critical one, but the licit criticism is not empirical. It is purely conceptual' (Hacker, 2013, p. 20). In this context, we adopted the notion stressed by Maul (2013) and Michell (1997, 2005) to include philosophical principles in the working definition and potentially breaking away from common practice, where synonyms and word substitutions are used, which misconstrues the intent and meaning of conceptualisation.

 

Research design

Concept analysis of terminology

Qualitative social research endeavours ordinarily serve diverse purposes, among which are exploring, describing and explaining scientific knowledge systems, and clarifying concepts and terminology (Babbie & Mouton, 2001). Concept analysis is a process to guide the exploration of a term that is new, ambiguous and/or underdeveloped (Hughes & Duffy, 2018). Although concept analysis requires the systematic investigation of the characteristics or attributes of a concept to clarify its meaning (Hughes & Duffy, 2018; Nuopponen, 2010a, 2010b, 2011), it should not be confused with a systematic review or meta-analysis. A systematic review summarises key quantitative and qualitative scientific contributions to a field, while meta-analysis offers a statistical procedure to fuse findings to obtain overall reliability (Tranfield, Denyer, & Smart, 2003). The rationale for using concept analysis is to clarify and delineate terminology that are open to subjectivity, individual interpretation and multiple truths (Hughes & Duffy, 2018) We wanted to explore the delineation of the 'conceptualisation phase' according to psychometric as psychological (social science and psychology) textual sources; and elaborate on its meaning by interpreting it through a philosophical lens. We derived a possible delineation for the 'conceptualisation phase' and further dialogues on this delineation beckon. Different models can be utilised to conduct conceptual analysis (Hughes & Duffy, 2018), but for this inquiry we drew on Nuopponen's (2010a, 2010b, 2011) six generic phases, as depicted in Figure 2.

 

 

In the first two phases, the purpose, scope and knowledge domains for the analysis of the term 'conceptualisation' are delineated. Utilising this particular research approach indicates that to clarify or give meaning to a term, that cannot be sufficiently addressed by a mere literature review, requires a research investigation.

Phase three consists of identifying, attaining and constructing a textual or typographical dataset, from which an informed understanding about the discipline is formed (Nuopponen, 2010b). Our study is categorised as an empirical study in which we utilised existing typographical or textual sources to construct a particular and restricted textual dataset, which we then analysed. The integral and central part of our methodology comprised continuously scanning, scoping, gathering and selecting the most suitable textual sources for analysis and interpretation in a systematic and purposive manner (Babbie & Mouton, 2001). We collaborated with an information specialist to sample scholarly textbooks, using specific search terminology to locate either virtual (computerised) or physical (non-computerised) literature. This search was guided by establishing inclusion and exclusion criteria. The first inclusion criterion was that the content of the source should match the predetermined terminology or keywords (e.g. 'conceptualise' and/or 'conceptualise phase' and 'plan? phase' in 'measure?', and/or 'assess?', and/or 'test' in 'psychometric', and/or 'psychological' in and/or 'measure?', and/or 'assess?', and/or 'test'). Secondly, the textual sources had to represent the works of renowned scholars within the field of psychometrics and psychology; a body of scholarship on how to objectively and systematically measure psychological behaviour or being. Thirdly, each source should be accessible in its full electronic or printed format through an official and authorised library. Lastly, the selection of sources should represent both international and national scholars and be written in or translated into English. In relation to the exclusion criteria, we firstly discarded texts where the psychological measurement development was not located in psychology or psychometrics. Secondly, texts elucidating phases other than conceptualisation and/or planning or accounts of actual measuring or assessing of specific psychological constructs were rejected. Lastly, texts published in a language other than English were also not selected. We identified and scrutinised nine existing or typographical sources because they complied with all the inclusion and exclusion criteria and fit the purpose of this inquiry.

In phase four we identified a philosophical framework, because all research, including measure development, should be clarified and legitimised by the philosophical framework (Harris, 2010; Van der Walt & Potgieter, 2012). This particular a priori framework consisted of four philosophically inspired pre-scientific provisions, as founded in the work of Van der Walt and Potgieter (2012), and guided our thinking and reasoning about 'conceptualisation' during analysis and interpretation. The four philosophical pre-conditions and justifications provide conceptual clarity and guide a researcher's thinking and decisions about the scientific reality and the scientific method which influence the quality of the outcome or product or finding. The importance of a framework to explain the construct (scientific reality) is also alluded by leading Rasch measurement theorists Bond and Fox (2015) and Boone, Staver and Yale (2014). A serious measure developer should focus firstly on theoretical premises underlying the construct (scientific reality) and thereafter on the quantitative analysis (scientific method). Conceptualising and refining a psychological measure should primarily be carried out for construct representation; in other words, the data should fit the philosophical framework (Bond & Fox, 2015; Boone et al., 2014).

The first provision is integrated personality positioning, which is the intentional choice of a researcher, as a holistic individual being, to unify or connect with his or her choice of research inquiry and ideological preferences. Furthermore, it is expected that a researcher should demonstrate qualities such as integrity, moral reflectiveness, authenticity, trustworthiness and dedication to serve others when conducting research. The second provision, namely transcendental positioning, denotes the intentional and theoretical deductions that a researcher cherishes about the research topic, such as his or her own assumptions, values, predispositions and intuitive thinking. Although the latter account could be considered as being an 'opinion', rather than a scientific fact, it remains likely that a researcher's underlying ontology will ultimately guide his or her research conduct pertaining to the choice of epistemology, cosmology, anthropology and methodology. The third provision, teleological positioning, acknowledges the importance of envisioning the outcome or reflecting on the purpose of a research inquiry and, therefore, what the researcher aims to attain when developing a measure. The intentional reflection on the outcome of the measure should resonate with his or her integrated and transcendental orientation and serve not only as an encouraging driving force to develop a measure but also to warrant a trustworthy and authentic outcome that mirrors quality and excellence in every aspect of the word. Lastly, a nomothetic positioning refers to a researcher's informed decision to consider an audience whom the outcome can affect and to whom it can contribute. Given the importance of establishing a community of scholars, such an audience can be sampled on the premises of ontological, epistemological and anthropological choices.

Commencing phase five, we were cautious (Guarino, 1995; Margolis & Laurence, 2007) not to cherish an all-confounding illusion to finally define the 'conceptualisation phase'. Rather, we deductively and inductively analysed, compared and interpreted the dataset in order for us to develop a clearer understanding of the terminology and to linguistically express our finding and delineate this phase and its implication(s). Through iterative steps of analyses, comparisons, interpretations and reflection, we interpreted the dataset and in phase six concluded our research inquiry by drawing a preliminarily delineation of the term 'conceptualisation'. The philosophical framework that enriched our understanding in phase four was imperative for our delineation of the conceptualisation of a psychological measure. How we constructed psycho-philosophical lenses to view the conceptualisation of a psychological measure is pivotal and necessitates explanation.

Inductive analysis as our psychological lens

An inductive analysis of the generated dataset enabled us to condense the psychometric literature on the conceptualisation phase into a tabular format, to indicate how psychometric literature depicts this phase. As seen in Table 1, we documented 'activity-based captions' from the nine sources and preliminarily grouped these captions into pre-emptive, possible thematic relations. Probable synonyms, polysemy and equivalences were considered as another validation process to assure the themes and their captions carried the same meaning across literature. The grouped captions were categorised into themes and labelled according to the predominant trends and patterns of the captions. We present eight general themes with their 34 respective captions, as well as evidence of which authors' texts were analysed.

The majority of scholars included 'piloting the measure', determining the 'format of the test items', and the 'audience' as the most important aspects to consider when conceptualising a psychological measure. Some scholars alluded to the 'rationale' and 'construction, format and scaling of items' as important aspects also to consider in this phase. Yet, the smallest number of scholars included the role of the 'measure developer', elucidating and emphasising the scope of practice of a serious measure developer. Looking at what was prevalently focused on in psychometric literature regarding the 'conceptualisation phase', it corroborates that psychological measures are rapidly operationalised and not sufficiently conceptualised. The 'type' (objective, subjective or projective), 'format' (open-ended, forced-choice or sentence completion) and 'description of constructs' are emphasised, while the 'knowledge, skills and dispositions' of the measure developer, as well as his or her theoretical framework, is almost entirely negated. It is assumed that serious measure developers are alike rather than unique, complex, individual and different. To illustrate the importance of considering the person who is utilising his or her social, emotional, cognitive, spiritual and physical views when developing a psychological measure, required that we analyse the same dataset deductively, using our philosophical framework.

Deductive analysis as our psycho-philosophical lens

The deductive analysis of the generated dataset enabled us to utilise the a priori framework to indicate a philosophical understanding of psychometric and psychological literature. We wanted to detect evidence of structured thought, experiences and rule-following activities that support a philosophical understanding of conceptualisation. By re-analysing the nine sources, we scrutinised the dataset for evidence of pre-scientific provisions in their descriptions of what constitutes the conceptualisation phase. Table 2 represents the process of deductive analysis.

The majority of these scholars incorporated transcendental, teleological and nomothetic positioning in their delineation of the conceptualisation phase, while the smallest number of scholars assimilated the integrated personality positioning in their working definition. The most prevalent activity-based captions that were suggested are the 'intentional expression of his or her understanding of the outcome, purpose or aim of measure', 'trustworthiness of the measure' and the 'justification of audience' for whom the measure is intended. In contrast, the 'intentional expression of his or her own socio-historical-cultural predispositions and thinking and its influence on the measure development', and also 'his or her understanding of the meaning of psychological behaviour and of being in the world, or being human' were almost omitted.

 

Limitations and recommendation

We acknowledge the likelihood that more scientific sources, which fit the exact inclusion and exclusion criteria, may exist and this can be a limitation. Further identification of such sources for inductive and deductive analyses may result in the elimination or addition of themes and activity-based captions in ways that may further improve the trustworthiness of this inquiry. We are also aware that other philosophical frameworks could be utilised. Yet we are convinced that the content analysed from this sample was sufficient and we have reached inductive thematic saturation and a priori thematic saturation (Saunders et al., 2018). Interestingly, the small sample of analysed textual or typographical psychometric literature has shed light on the importance of utilising psycho-philosophical lenses to make sense of a scientific hiatus.

 

Ethical consideration

This research inquiry was approved and monitored by the Health Research Ethics Committee (HREC) and the North-West University Institutional Research Ethics Regulatory Committee (NWU-IRERC). Ethical clearance number: NWU-00087-16-A1.

 

Discussion and practical implications

The most remarkable result to emerge from the data is that the conceptualisation phase merely expresses a synopsis on the agreement of what the scientific process entails, almost like an aerial view of the identified scientific reality and the applied scientific method. The transition from the conceptualisation phase of the scientific reality (ontology) and the scientific reality (epistemology) to the operationalisation phase of the measurement is swift, without considering the human positioning (anthropology and axiology) in the development of a psychological measure. Negating the human positioning in measure development is a serious lacuna. The proposed philosophical framework legitimises human reflexivity in the conceptualisation phase, which can enhance the integrity of the instrument. In our opinion, the four pre-scientific provisions can frame and inspire the delineation of the conceptualisation phase of a psychological measure in the following ways:

Integrated personality positioning

This can serve as a reminder that the serious measure developer should take a moment to become cognisant of himself or herself and take notice of self-interest as a possible motive (Comte-Sponville, 2005; Van der Walt & Potgieter, 2012) before commencing the development of a psychological measure that could be worthwhile, useful and beneficial to others. An intentional opportunity for self-interest should challenge serious measure developers to reflect on their socio-historical and cultural predispositions about the phenomenon and the scientific method (Comte-Sponville, 2005; Van der Walt & Potgieter, 2012). The reason for such an opportunity is that any scientific reality is socially, culturally, philosophically and historically constructed and affects how a theory of measurement and understanding is applied to develop a measure (Maul et al., 2016). Proper contextualisation of the scientific reality (ontology),the scientific method (epistemology) and the human positioning (anthropology and axiology) affects the entire development process (Finkelstein, 2003; Michell, 1997; Petocz & Newbery, 2010).

Transcendental positioning

Conceptualisation should prompt serious measure developers to think about their ethical behaviour and morality (Harris, 2010; Van der Walt & Potgieter, 2012), particularly because after following a set of methodological procedures (Maul et al., 2016; Petocz & Newbery, 2010), a measure will be constructed and utilised by human beings. Opportunity should be created for serious measure developers to evaluate and reflect on their ideological and theoretical assumptions and their understanding of terminology and concepts in order to identify risks that could threaten the measure's internal and external structure, which could harm future test takers (Maul et al., 2016; Michell, 1997, 2005). The validity and reliability of the measure's structure is always of concern and require the measure developer to consider both the purpose and use of the measure (Coaley, 2014; Finkelstein, 2003). Although the diversity of ideology is acknowledged, certain shared systems of human understanding do exist, and its influence on how one views and applies a scientific phenomenon is accentuated (Burgess & Plunkett, 2013; Michell, 1997, 2005). The measure developer's own anthropological positioning and approach to developing such a measure is an intrinsic and important part of the process (Michell, 1997, 2005; Petocz & Newbery, 2010) and proper conceptualisation can help measure developers move beyond an epistemological focus and achieve an ontological essence (Maul et al., 2016; Petocz & Newbery, 2010).

Teleological positioning

Along with the intentional act of reflecting on and explaining the purpose of the measure, to ensure that the internal and external structure contributes towards the aim (Coaley, 2014), the conceptualisation phase should also consider the individual for whom the measure is intended. The continuous and conscious engagement of scholars to construct, change, create, define, develop, give, interpret, justify, make and/or rationalise the use and applicability of a measure is an important practice (Babbie & Mouton, 2001; Van der Walt & Potgieter, 2012). No measure is faultless or perpetually relevant and should be revisited and adapted and, in some sense, reconceptualised. The validity and reliability of the measure rely on the continuous involvement of measure developers throughout the entire development process and on their collaboration with scholars to attain the purpose of the envisioned measure in an ethical and moral way (Michell, 1997, 2005; Petocz & Newbery, 2010).

Nomothetic positioning

The conceptualisation phase also necessitates that not only should the serious measure developer consider the audience for whom the measure is intended, but they should also establish beforehand their collaborating measure development team. Each human participant introduces his or her own integrated personality, as well as their transcendental and teleological orientation to the development process (Delanty & Strydom, 2010; Van der Walt & Potgieter, 2012). The latter is a crucial element to introduce multiple views and to expand our use of language pertaining to the scientific reality and scientific method. The conceptualisation phase creates the opportunity to co-construct a clear conceptual vocabulary by collaborating for meaning on the scientific reality, as well as the scientific method (Humphry, 2013; Maul et al., 2016). The engagement of the measure developer with the conceptualisation and with all the operational phases justifies that they can coexist (Petocz & Newbery, 2010) and, in turn, promote the outcomes and trustworthiness of the measure that will serve humankind.

 

Conclusion and recommendations

To introduce a philosophical stance when conceptualising a psychological measure gives the serious measure developer the edge to obtain a clearer view of the scientific reality and the scientific method throughout the entire process:

The greater the field of our awareness and understanding, the more we can transform from mute followers of rigid authoritarian prescriptions into authentic and willing embracers of aporia and enlightened ignorance. (Petocz & Newbery, 2010, p. 141)

On the other hand, overlooking the fundamental role of the philosophical framework during the conceptualisation of a psychological measurement can have serious repercussions for test developers and the test users. The conceptualisation of a psychological measure calls for a serious measure developer, who intentionally shows awareness of the intricate relationship that exists between language and thinking, as well as the social, cultural and historical nature of infused scientific knowledge systems about reality, method and being. The serious measure developer should furthermore intentionally reflect on their own structure of thought, experiences, rule-following, cognitive and linguistic capacities about the scientific reality, scientific method and being, as the meaning and understanding of the latter are loaded with socio-contemporaneity and socio-linguistic interpretations. A serious measure developer should justify and clearly express their understanding of conceptualisation in a well-defined theory in a mathematical and linguistic language. We are of the opinion that utilising the proposed psycho-philosophical lens can herald further studies that promote the rootedness of any type of theoretical framework in those philosophical principles that influence serious measure developers' understanding and measurement of a psychological phenomenon.

 

Acknowledgements

This article is based on the MA mini-dissertation of H. Du Preez, entitled, 'A conceptual analysis of conceptualisation as first phase in the development of a psychological measurement', under the supervision of W. de Klerk, North-West University, Potchefstroom.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

Author's contributions

H.D.P. is the lead author and responsible for conducting the entire research inquiry. H.D.P. and W.d.K. collaborated in conceptualising and designing the research inquiry. H.D.P. continuously scanned, scoped, gathered and selected the most suitable textual sources for analysis and interpretation in a systematic and purposive manner. W.d.K. is the co-author and supervisor of this article and was responsible for the critical reading, synthesis and analysis of all content in the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability statement

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The authors confirm that this work is original and has not been published elsewhere, nor is it currently under consideration for publication elsewhere. Furthermore, they also confirm that the content represented in this article is their own and not an official position of the institution or funder.

 

References

Anastasi, A., & Urbina, S. (1997). Psychological testing (7th edn.). New York: Prentice-Hall International.         [ Links ]

Babbie, E., & Mouton, J. (2001). The practice of social research. Cape Town, South Africa: Oxford University Press.         [ Links ]

Bond, T. G., & Fox, C. M. (2015). Applying the Rasch Model: Fundamental measurement in the human sciences (3rd edn.). New York: Routledge.         [ Links ]

Boone, W. J., Staver, J. R., & Yale, M. S. (2014). Rasch analysis in the human sciences. Dordrecht: Springer.         [ Links ]

Borsboom, D. (2005). Measuring the mind: Conceptual issues in contemporary psychometrics. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.         [ Links ]

Borsboom, D. (2006). The attack of the psychometricians. Psychometrika, 71(3), 425-440. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11336-006-1447-6        [ Links ]

Burgess, A., & Plunkett, D. (2013). Conceptual ethics I. Philosophy Compass, 8(12), 1091-1101. https://doi.org/10.1111/phc3.12086        [ Links ]

Chadha, N. K. (2009). Test construction. New York: Sage.         [ Links ]

Coaley, K. (2014). An introduction to psychological assessment and psychometrics. London, UK: Sage.         [ Links ]

Cocchiarella, N. B. (2007). Formal ontology and conceptual realism (Vol. 339). Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Springer.         [ Links ]

Cohen, J. C., & Swerdlik, M. E. (2009). Psychological testing and assessment: An introduction to tests and measurement (7th edn.). London, UK: McGraw-Hill.         [ Links ]

Comte-Sponville, A. (2005). The little book of philosophy. London, England: Vintage - Random House.         [ Links ]

Delanty, G., & Strydom, P. (2010). Philosophies of social science: The classic and contemporary readings. Philadelphia, PA: Open University Press.         [ Links ]

De Vos, A. S., & Strydom, H. (2011). Scientific theory and professional research. In A. S. De Vos, H. Strydom, C. B. Fouché, & C. S. L. Delport (Eds.), Research at grassroots. For the social sciences and human service professions (4th edn., pp. 28-44). Pretoria, South Africa: Van Schaik.         [ Links ]

Drake, S. (1999). Essays on Galileo and the history and philosophy of science (Vol. 1). Toronto: University of Toronto Press.         [ Links ]

Finkelstein, L. (2003). Widely, strongly and weakly defined measurement. Measurement, 34(1), 39-48. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0263-2241(03)00018-6        [ Links ]

Foxcroft, C., & Roodt, G. (2013). An introduction to psychological assessment in the South African context (4th edn.). Cape Town, South Africa: Oxford University Press.         [ Links ]

Goldstein, G., & Beers, S. (Eds.). (2004). Comprehensive handbook of psychological assessment (Vol. I). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley.         [ Links ]

Guarino, N. (1995). Formal ontology, conceptual analysis and knowledge representation. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 43(5), 625-640. https://doi.org/10.1006/ijhc.1995.1066        [ Links ]

Hacker, P. M. S. (2013). Prologue: Wittgenstein's philosophy of psychology as a critical instrument for the psychological sciences. In T. P. Racine & K. L. Slaney (Eds.), A Wittgensteinian perspective on the use of conceptual analysis in psychology (pp. 10-27). Hampshire, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.         [ Links ]

Harris, S. (2010). The moral landscape. How science can determine human values. London, England: Bantam.         [ Links ]

Hughes, M., & Duffy, C. (2018). Public involvement in health and social sciences research: A concept analysis. Health Expectations, 21(6), 1183-1190. https://doi.org/10.1111/hex.12825        [ Links ]

Humphry, S. M. (2013). Understanding measurement in light of its origins. Frontiers in Psychology, 4(113), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00113        [ Links ]

Hutto, D. (2013). Psychology's inescapable need for conceptual clarification. In T. P. Racine & K. L. Slaney (Eds.), A Wittgensteinian perspective on the use of conceptual analysis in psychology (pp. 28-50). Hampshire, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.         [ Links ]

Jones, L. V., & Thissen, D. (2006). A history and overview of psychometrics. Handbook of Statistics, 26(2006), 1-27. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-7161(06)26001-2        [ Links ]

Kingston, N. M., Scheuring, S. T., & Kramer, L. B. (2013). Test development strategies. In K. F. Geisinger (Ed.), APA handbook of testing and assessment in psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 165-184). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.         [ Links ]

Margolis, E., & Laurence, S. (2007). The ontology of concepts - Abstract objects or mental representations? Noûs, 41(4), 561-593. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0068.2007.00663.x        [ Links ]

Maul, A. (2013). On the ontology of psychological attributes. Theory & Psychology, 23(6), 752-769. https://doi.org/10.1177/09593543I3506273        [ Links ]

Maul, A., Torres Irribarra, D., & Wilson, M. (2016). On the philosophical foundations of psychological measurement. Measurement, 79(February), 311-320. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.measurement.2015.11.001        [ Links ]

Michell, J. (1997). Quantitative science and the definition of measurement in psychology. British Journal of Psychology, 88(3), 355-383. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8295.1997.tb02641.x        [ Links ]

Michell, J. (2005). The logic of measurement: A realist overview. Measurement, 38(4), 285-294. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.measurement.2005.09.004        [ Links ]

Moerdyk, A. (2009). The principles and practice of psychological assessment. Pretoria, South Africa: Van Schaik.         [ Links ]

Murphy, K. R., & Davidshofer, C. O. (2014). Psychological testing: Principles and applications (6th edn.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.         [ Links ]

Nuopponen, A. (2010a). Method of concept analysis - A comparative study. Part 1 of 3. LSP Journal, 1(1), 4-12.         [ Links ]

Nuopponen, A. (2010b). Methods of concept analysis - Towards systematic concept analysis. Part 2 of 3. LSP Journal, 1(2), 5-14.         [ Links ]

Nuopponen, A. (2011). Methods of concept analysis - Tools for systematic concept analysis. Part 3 of 3. LSP Journal, 2(1), 4-15.         [ Links ]

Oono, Y. (2012). The nonlinear world: Conceptual analysis and phenomenology. New York: Springer Science & Business Media.         [ Links ]

Petocz, A., & Newbery, G. (2010). On conceptual analysis as the primary qualitative approach to statistics education research in psychology. Statistics Education Research Journal, 9(2), 123-145.         [ Links ]

Ryan, J. J., Lopez, S. J., & Sumerall, S. W. (2001). Understanding test construction. In W. I. Dorfman & M. Hersen (Eds.), Understanding psychological assessment (pp. 1-15). New York: Kluwer Academic.         [ Links ]

Saunders, B., Sim, J., Kingston, T., Baker, S., Waterfield, J., Bartlam, B., … Jinks, C. (2018). Saturation in qualitative research: Exploring its conceptualization and operationalization. Quality & Quantity, 52(4), 1893-1907. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-017-0574-8        [ Links ]

Schweizer, K., & DiStefano, C. (Eds.). (2016). Principles and methods of test construction. Standards and recent advances (Vol. III). Boston, MA: Hogrefe.         [ Links ]

Tranfield, D., Denyer, D., & Smart, P. (2003). Towards a methodology for developing evidence-informed management knowledge by means of systematic review. British Journal of Management, 14(3), 207-222. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8551.00375        [ Links ]

Van der Walt, J. L., & Potgieter, F. J. (2012). Research method in education: The frame by which the picture hangs. International Journal of Multiple Research Approaches, 6(3), 220-232. https://doi.org/10.5172/mra.2012.6.3.220        [ Links ]

Wright, B. D. (1999). Fundamental measurement for psychology. In S. E. Embretson & S. L. Hershberger (Eds.), The new rules of measurement (pp. 65-104). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.         [ Links ]

 

 

Correspondence:
Hannelie du Preez
hannelie.dupreez@up.ac.za

Received: 28 Sept. 2018
Accepted: 31 May 2019
Published: 31 July 2019

^rND^sBorsboom^nD.^rND^sBurgess^nA.^rND^sPlunkett^nD.^rND^sDe Vos^nA. S.^rND^sStrydom^nH.^rND^sFinkelstein^nL.^rND^sGuarino^nN.^rND^sHacker^nP. M. S.^rND^sHughes^nM.^rND^sDuffy^nC.^rND^sHumphry^nS. M.^rND^sHutto^nD.^rND^sJones^nL. V.^rND^sThissen^nD.^rND^sKingston^nN. M.^rND^sScheuring^nS. T.^rND^sKramer^nL. B.^rND^sMargolis^nE.^rND^sLaurence^nS.^rND^sMaul^nA.^rND^sMaul^nA.^rND^sTorres Irribarra^nD.^rND^sWilson^nM.^rND^sMichell^nJ.^rND^sMichell^nJ.^rND^sNuopponen^nA.^rND^sNuopponen^nA.^rND^sNuopponen^nA.^rND^sPetocz^nA.^rND^sNewbery^nG.^rND^sRyan^nJ. J.^rND^sLopez^nS. J.^rND^sSumerall^nS. W.^rND^sSaunders^nB.^rND^sSim^nJ.^rND^sKingston^nT.^rND^sBaker^nS.^rND^sWaterfield^nJ.^rND^sBartlam^nB.^rND^sJinks^nC.^rND^sTranfield^nD.^rND^sDenyer^nD.^rND^sSmart^nP.^rND^sVan der Walt^nJ. L.^rND^sPotgieter^nF. J.^rND^sWright^nB. D.^rND^1A01^nTatenda^sNyabvudzi^rND^1A02^nWillie T.^sChinyamurindi^rND^1A01^nTatenda^sNyabvudzi^rND^1A02^nWillie T.^sChinyamurindi^rND^1A01^nTatenda^sNyabvudzi^rND^1A02^nWillie T^sChinyamurindi

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

The career development processes of women refugees in South Africa: An exploratory study

 

 

Tatenda Nyabvudzi^I; Willie T. Chinyamurindi^II

^IDepartment of Industrial Psychology, Faculty of Management and Commerce, University of Fort Hare, Alice, South Africa
^IIDepartment of Business Management, Faculty of Management and Commerce, University of Fort Hare, Alice, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

---

ABSTRACT

ORIENTATION: There is an observed global movement of labour (freely and forcibly). South Africa emerges as a popular receiving ground for refugees. Within the career psychology literature, scant attention is given to understanding the career development concerns, post-settlement, of women refugees in the host country.
RESEARCH PURPOSE: The study explored the career development processes of women refugees, post-settlement, in South Africa as a host country.
MOTIVATION FOR THE STUDY: Calls have been made within local and international literature for studies that give attention to understanding the career development processes of minority groups.
RESEARCH APPROACH/DESIGN AND METHOD: Using a narrative inquiry approach, this study explored the career development processes of women refugees using a sample of 20 women refugees in South Africa. Relying on a snowball sampling procedure to recruit the participants, in-depth interviews were utilised as a data collection technique.
MAIN FINDINGS: Drawing on participants' narratives, the findings illustrate how women refugees have been more concerned with fulfilling a short-term desire for survival and acquiring basic commodities at the expense of a longer focus of advancement and career progression. This is mainly compounded by the structural constraints that limit both their career development and their lived experiences. Issues exclusive to the women refugees are also revealed. Overall, the results illustrate how all the aforementioned factors intersect as barriers that hinder women refugees in developing their careers.
PRACTICAL/MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS: The study provides information and strategies that policymakers in South Africa and other developing nations that are hosting refugees can use to facilitate the career development processes of women refugees.
CONTRIBUTION/VALUE-ADD: This study contributes to the growing body of knowledge focussing on career development of women refuges, a populace that previously received limited focus both locally and internationally.

Keywords: South Africa; women; refugees; career development; minority groups.

---

 

 

Introduction

Generally, women are perceived to be a vulnerable gender group compared to their male counterparts (Doubell & Struwig, 2014). However, they are not inherently vulnerable as their vulnerability depends on multiple factors which extend beyond the fact that they are females (Islam, Ingham, Hicks, & Manock, 2017). In the same way, refugees represent the most vulnerable and deprived fraction of the immigrant workforce (Magqibelo, Londt, September, & Roman, 2016; United Nations High Comissioner of Refugees, United Nations Population Fund Agency & Women's Refugee Commission, 2016). Having fled from their home countries, the moment refugees arrive in another country, they hope that they will be protected, they encounter adversity as they seek employment and navigate in this new and unfamiliar environment (Anderson, Stuart, & Rossen, 2015; Newman, Brimrose, Nielsem, & Zacher, 2018). There is an observation that refugees have the potential to face challenges linked to their gender, history and immigration status (Harry, Dodd, & Chinyamurindi, 2019). Notably, women refugees are viewed as one of the most vulnerable groups of the immigrant workforce (Mason & Pulvirenti, 2011; United Nations High Commission of Refugees, 2016). This study heightens focus on the issues faced by such a sample group.

The number of people seeking refuge and protection has escalated over the past decade (Newman et al., 2018). Reportedly, one in every 122 individuals across the world is seeking refuge (United Nations High Commission for Refugees, 2015) in countries that hold the promise of a safe and fulfilling life (Abkherz & McMahon, 2017). One such country is South Africa, which is regarded as more popular in receiving refugees than any other African country (Harry, Dodd, & Chinyamurindi, 2017; International Organisation for Migration, 2012). Since the transition to democracy in 1994, South Africa has been a favoured destination by a high number of refugees fleeing persecution in their home countries (Greyling, 2015). It has been observed in South Africa that refugees and migrants are vulnerable because of their status in the host country, yet their contribution can be immense (Harry et al., 2017; Mothibi, Roelofse, & Tshivhase, 2015). Within the extant literature, calls exist to understand issues that affect refugees' integration into the mainstream society (Felicano & Lanuza, 2017). Obtaining decent work is a significant contributor towards successful resettlement for refugees and, as such, this study explored the process of how refugee women navigate their careers when they arrive in a host country such as South Africa.

Often, career trajectories of women migrants receive less scholarly attention than migrant men (Kofman, 2012; Rydzik, Pritchard, Morgan, & Sedgley, 2017) and despite the international observation that half of all migrants are women, the migration literature often frames the experience to be one that is gender neutral (De Leon Siantz, 2013; Kibiribiri, Moodley, Groves, & Sebitloane, 2016; Noyori-Corbett & Moxley, 2017). The researchers acknowledge that there has been a growing body of literature exploring careers of female self-initiated expatriates (Rydzik et al., 2017; Vagenshtein & Yemini, 2016); however, less attention has been given to the plight of women refugees (Noyori-Corbett & Moxley, 2017; United Nations High Commission for Refugees, 2015). The distinguishing factor is that one group initiates movement (e.g. self-initiated expatriates), whereas others like refugees are forced to leave their country.

A plethora of literature positions women refugees as a demographic group that is vulnerable often because of their difficult life trajectories (Abkherz & McMahon, 2017; Magqibelo et al., 2016; Noyori-Corbett & Moxley, 2017), an experience also noted in South Africa (Legal Resource Centre, 2015; United Nations High Commission of Refugees, 2016). The vocational obstacles and experiences among female refugees are not well-known as most refugee studies have presented women as dependants of men rather than economic providers (Kofman, 2012). It is only recently that the vocational literature has begun to focus on vulnerable groups such as women refugees (Abkhezr, McMahon, Glasheen, & Campell, 2018; Newman et al., 2018).

Despite strides made through the enactment of legislation that seeks to protect refugees, like the South African Refugee Act 130 of 1998, challenges still exist that impede the career development processes not just of refugees, but especially those of women refugees (Abkherz & McMahon, 2017; Magqibelo et al., 2016). This has led to calls, especially in South Africa, for studies that examine both the career transitions and the experiences of refugees (Elez, 2014). Within such nations, the career development processes of women refugees remain an underexplored phenomenon (Chinyamurindi, 2012, 2016). It is thus useful to explore the career development processes of women refugees in South Africa, with a particular focus on the role that structural constraints can play (Harry et al., 2017).

 

Research purpose and objectives

Calls exist within the empirical literature for studies that focus more on understanding the issues presented in this literature review, primarily on the career development processes of vulnerable groups such as women refugees (Campion, 2017). Thus, the main questions guiding the study were the following: how do the career development processes of women refugees in South Africa manifest, and what factors influence such processes when they arrive in host countries?

Additionally, very little is known about the impact of the global refugee crisis on the career dynamics and national labour markets (Richardson, Karam, & Afiouni, 2016). With the reported influx of refugees in South Africa (Greyling, 2015), limited studies have investigated how refugees adapt to new life settings, career ecosystems and the impact of their migration in the management of their careers (Elez, 2014). Further, there is also a need to ascertain the role of structural constraints (including gender) in the lived experiences of refugees, especially within a developing nation context (Chinyamurindi, 2016). It is against this background that the study investigated the lived experiences of women refugees and the challenges they encounter in developing their careers in the South African context.

 

Literature review

Theoretical lens

This article is guided by a threefold theoretical framework. Firstly, feminist theory (Feminist Africa, 2015; Fernandes, 2013); secondly, intersectionality theory which emanates from black feminist theory (Crenshaw, 1991; McCall, 2005); and, lastly, the career construction theory (Savickas, 2005), which addresses unique issues that impact the career and life experiences to address women refugees' career development (Savickas, 2005). All three theoretical frameworks are discussed next.

Feminist theory

The feminist theory acknowledges subjectivities and women's struggles (Fernandes, 2013) and advocates for equal rights for women and equality of sexes (Lubis, Nasution, Rahimah, & Zein, 2016). Feminist theorists call for the establishment of equal opportunities in all spheres of life, for instance in education, employment and voting (Hyndman & De Alwis, 2008), and are primarily concerned with issues of gender differences (Feminist Africa, 2015). This study takes a feministic standpoint by promoting women refugees' voices through their career trajectories as their experiences are often muted within refugee studies (Hyndman & De Alwis, 2008; Noyori-Corbett & Moxley, 2017; Rydzik et al., 2017). As a feminist exploration of refugee women's experiences, this article builds on the career development literature by incorporating the voice of an often-neglected populace.

Intersectionality theory

Intersectional feminism is deeply rooted in black feminist thoughts that advocated and analysed the multiple oppressions of race, class and gender (Carbado, Crenshaw, Mays, & Tomlinson, 2013; Choo & Ferree, 2010). The basis of intersectional feminism is to examine overlapping systems of oppression and discrimination that certain groups of women encounter on the basis of gender, race and class simultaneously (Mitchell, 2013). Similarly, Cook, Heppner and O'Brien (2002) ascertained that the career development processes of women are more complex than those of men because of a combination of internal and external barriers exclusive to women. The intersectionality theory helps to understand the multiple sources of refugee women's experiences as well as the impact of the interconnections in the career development of the women refugees.

Career construction theory

This study also focussed on the career construction theory in helping to understand how careers develop and adapt over time in response to role transitions over a given lifespan (Di Fabio & Maree, 2013; Savickas, 2005). This theory has been used in previous research with refugees as a research sample (Campion, 2017). Within the career construction theory, value is placed on the role of career adaptability through an individual's readiness and resources for coping with varying career transitions (Savickas, 2005; Xie, Xia, Xin, & Zhou, 2016). The underlying focus is that career adaptability influences career decision-making, career engagement and satisfaction (Perera & Mcllveen, 2014). This positions the career construction theory as beneficial in understanding career development experiences as it focusses on individuals and their response to varying changes, especially those in their environment (Maree, 2015; Savickas, 2005).

Empirical literature

The empirical literature attributes the successful integration of refugees mostly to the effects created by the interaction of pre- and post-migration factors (Tharmaseelan, Inkson, & Carr, 2010). These pre- and post-migration factors have the potential to influence the success or failure of refugees in the host country (Berger, 2004; Harry, Dodd, & Chinyamurindi, 2017; Yakushko, Backhaus, Watson, Ngaruiya, & Gonzalez, 2008). Pre-migration factors include education, vocational experience, knowledge and skills that one acquired before migrating in their home country (Tharmaseelan et al., 2010). Post-migration factors comprise occupational demography, culture of the host country as well as structural constraints (Codell, Hill, Woltz, & Paul, 2011; Tharmaseelan et al., 2010). Often it is the role of their gender that limits these refugees' lived experiences in the resettlement phase (Noyori-Corbett & Moxley, 2017).

Notably, the first universal instrument to outline the definition of a refugee, the 1951 Convention, excluded the experiences of women from the scope of the convention (Arbel, Dauvergne, & Millbank, 2014). Feminists argue that the convention is silent on the forms of harm and disadvantages specific to women and their experiences may be understood as falling outside the definition of persecution (Fletcher, 2006), and this has seen some women's asylum applications being rejected (Edwards, 2010). Consequently, failure to obtain a legal status impedes their rights stipulated in the South African Constitution, including the right to work.

Previous studies in South Africa have framed the role of gender and structural constraints in the career development processes of women, mostly from an organisational perspective (Chinyamurindi, 2016; Crush, 2011; Doubell & Struwig, 2014). Internationally, this also appears to be a trend, with the focus being on the role that quests for balance and responses to societal expectations play in career development (Allen, French, & Poteet, 2016; Bleinjenbergh, Gremmen, & Peters, 2016; Campion, 2017). Ostensibly, migrant women often devalue their qualifications and take service jobs like domestic work as a measure to gain entry into the labour force. In some cases, this is because of some employers and organisations not recognising the refugees' right to work (Magqibelo et al., 2016), the desire to fend for family, as well as already existing challenges of forced migration (Chinyamurindi, 2012; Harry et al., 2017; Saunders, 2017). Often, women refugees fail to secure employment due to a combination of low language skills, poor or no formal qualifications (Nicolescu, 2017; Willott & Stevenson, 2013), in some cases xenophobic attacks because of the threat they pose to citizens' socio-economic success (Amataika, 2013), as well as traditional gender stereotyping which sees the society upholding that certain roles and duties belong to women (International Labour Organization, 2015; Sandberg, 2013).

 

Research design

Research approach and strategy

With the predominantly explorative nature of this study, the authors followed a qualitative and interpretivist research approach.

The interpretivist paradigm promotes the value of qualitative data in seeking knowledge (Yilmaz, 2013), exploring unique realities faced by participants and understanding human experiences through the participants' voices, activities, beliefs and behaviour (Shaik, 2016).

The study further operated from the feministic premise of giving women the voice of constructing their realities (McMahon, Watson, Chetty, & Hoelson, 2012); thus, the interpretive paradigm was best suited to the exploration.

Ontologically, the authors believe that reality is socially constructed and that there are as many realities as there are people constructing them (Scotland, 2012). The authors thus do not claim any neutrality in the process of meaning-making but adopted strategies to ensure data quality. The authors' epistemological perspective is based on real-world phenomena (Scotland, 2012) where the social world can be understood from participants' perspective (Creswell, 2013).

Research method

Sampling

The study used a purposive and snowball sampling technique to identify research participants (Abkherz & McMahon, 2017). This technique allowed deliberately access to a reliable database that is not easily accessible (Woodley & Lockard, 2016).

A total of 20 women refugees were recruited, who shared their career development narratives. The research participants consisted of women refugees from African countries, notably the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) (35%), Somalia (30%), Uganda (10%), Burundi (15%), Cameroon (5%) and Kenya (5%). Table 1 details the profiles of the participating women refugees.

Research setting, entrée and researcher roles

The researchers strategically located the study in the city of Port Elizabeth in the Eastern Cape province, as this was a well-known receiving ground for refugees settling in South Africa. The researchers approached the refugee reception centre in Port Elizabeth, Eastern Cape province, and asked for permission to access refugee women who take part in their activities. Once contacts from the agencies were established, the researcher relied on referrals from these contacts.

The choice of the research setting was based on the purposive nature of the study. Permission to access participants was obtained from the refugee reception centre as well as consent from individuals who volunteered to take part in the study. The first author who worked as an intern at the refugee reception centre facilitated the data collection and transcription. The second author participated in the full data analysis and completion of the manuscript.

Data collection

Data were collected primarily through the use of face-to-face, semi-structured in-depth interviews. The interviewer worked as an intern at a refugee reception centre and conducted all 20 interviews over the course of 7 months (approximately three interviews per month). Because of this lengthy period, the researchers had enough time to try to recruit more participants and transcribe the data. Interviews were conducted in a closed room at the refugee centre to ensure complete confidentiality.

Data recording

Interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim and stored on password-protected computers accessible only to the researchers. Recording interviews protected the researcher against bias and provided a true record of what was said during the interviews (Cormark, 2000).

Strategies to ensure data quality

Four steps were followed to ensure data quality. Firstly, interview questions (refer to Appendix 1) were pre-tested with a sample of 10 female international students as a way to pre-test the measuring instrument. The researchers acknowledge here that international students may not necessarily be refugees, but they are close to fitting the experiences refugees may go through, especially by not being from South Africa and also seeking ways to adjust in a foreign land. The latter are traits viewed as common to those of refugees (Abkherz & McMahon, 2017). Secondly, to ensure credibility of data, all the interview data were recorded and transcribed verbatim within 24 h of the interview. Thirdly, after the data transcription process, a copy of the transcripts was sent to participants by mail or email to verify the accuracy thereof. This process took some time and was usually followed up by a telephone call. Finally, before and during the study, reflexivity was conducted to safeguard objectivity and avoid researcher bias, as well as to ensure sensitivity on how data were collected, analysed and represented (Taylor, Gibbs, & Lewins, 2005). In doing so, we also took comprehensive notes at all critical stages of the research for additional depth and quality.

Furthermore, to enhance transferability and dependability of the findings, a detailed description of the research methods, setting and sample size was provided. To ensure data authenticity and credibility, voluntary participation and rapport building were maintained to enhance open and honest responses. The interviewer being a woman and introducing herself as a foreign national made the participants feel at ease and communicate openly without being inhibited about their language skills. Confirmability of the findings was enhanced by using the participants' quotes in presenting our findings.

Data analysis

The interviews were all exported into QSR International's NVivo 11, a useful data analysis and management software package for dealing with masses of text, graphic, audio and video data (Reuben & Bobat, 2014). Narrative analysis procedure based on three levels of meaning-making was adopted, as used in previous narrative research (for example Chinyamurindi, 2012; 2016; McCormack, 2000). The researchers used level 1 to gain a good understanding of the career development experience of each of the women refugee's stories. This was done by re-reading each interview and listening to audio recordings. This process allowed for the identification of "markers" within the stories and developing an in-depth understanding of each interview (McCormack, 2000; Thornhill, Clare, & May, 2004). This process consisted of an evaluation of each transcript and grouping of each story based on the narrated experiences of the women refugees. The researchers then proceeded with level 2, which was achieved through classifying responses from participants into meaningful and useful categories (Nachmias & Nachmias, 1996). Classifying responses helped to derive themes and identify connecting themes from participants (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000; Nachmias & Nachmias, 1996). Quotes and stories were then used to provide an analysis of the themes gathered. Finally, on level 3, the researchers analysed the content of the gathered narrative accounts and themes by identifying themes and using quotes based on consistencies across the participant stories (McCormack, 2000).

Ethical consideration

Firstly, an ethical clearance was applied for and granted by the participating institution. Secondly, permission was sought from the refugee agencies. Furthermore, the research followed an ethical framework that entails voluntary participation, informed consent, the right to withdraw, anonymity and confidentiality.

 

Results

Three main findings emerged from the data analysis. Firstly, it appears that the women refugees were more concerned with their desire for short-term survival through acquiring basic commodities than a long-term focus to advance and develop their careers. Although most of the participants narrated their vocational aspirations, their careers are currently daunted by their refugee status, socio-histories and gender. Informal employment emerged as the most viable option for them, allowing them to at least meet their day-to-day survival needs, shifting their attention from the long-term focus to build careers to meeting basic needs for survival. This could be because of the changed standard of living in South Africa as opposed to their home countries. Secondly, we found the role of personal and structural constraints to be informing the career development processes as well as the lived experiences of the women refugees. Finally, gender was illustrated as playing a role in the women's career development and in their lived experiences.

Short-term desire for survival

Participants in the study expressed a desire for short-term survival as opposed to a long-term orientation to issues that affected them. This short-term desire was manifested through their expression to acquire and fulfil more of their physiological needs (mainly food, shelter and security) instead of being engaged in the long-haul on a career path. One participant, Brenda, pointed out her desperation to meet these everyday needs:

'When I got to South Africa from my home country, I studied a home based care course, not because I liked the course, but rather it was the cheapest and quickest I could get a job. The issue was to pay my bills and provide for the family. Though I was not a fan of the course and job.' (Brenda, Somalian, Translator & General Labourer)

The desire for meeting immediate short-term needs appeared to press on the lived experience of women refugees and affected their vocational choices. One participant, Prisca, also narrated her frustration of lack of a long-term career focus whilst opting for a short-term solution to acquire basic commodities:

'The struggle is on, I may know what I want, but I am more into what makes economic sense for now which is to have money to pay rent and survive for now. I want to think the future, but things are really challenging now affecting me and my baby … That's what the focus is for now, watching out for me and my baby.' (Prisca, Ugandan, Unemployed)

Part of the challenge and a possible explanation for the short-term survivalist mentality could be attributed to a language barrier. Refugees often find it difficult to express themselves in English, let alone the local South African languages. As a result of this, refugees like Deon prefer to stay in jobs with little or no career progression because of the language issue. Deon stated that within these jobs, she is able to have some money to meet his basic needs:

'Language is a challenge for refugees, especially us from Somalia, and also adjusting to the way of life here in South Africa. So we as Somalians are more focussed on careers where we have minimal or no progression whilst making a basic living to pay rent and buy food.' (Deon, Somalian, Translator)

The majority of the participants reported that they could not obtain employment as a result of their limited English proficiency and low level of formal education when they arrived in South Africa. Over time their language proficiency has improved and some have even obtained a formal qualification to gain entry into the labour force although they continue to face formidable barriers in obtaining employment. Mary who has a Social Work qualification narrated her ordeal as follows:

'My refugee status has affected big time … I have been turned down in positions l am qualified for because of refugee status. This makes me very helpless.' (Mary, Somalian, Researcher & Translator)

Some refugees admitted having established careers in their home countries. For instance, Jacqueline came from Uganda where she worked as a teacher, whilst in South Africa she is currently a domestic worker and also sells goods on the streets. Her desire is to further pursue her interest in a teaching career. However, this has challenges which make her focus more on the short-term options:

'It is very difficult to work here and sustain a long-term career focus. As refugees, we have dreams we wish realised. The journey to those dreams in a foreign country is not always easy. So leading to those dreams, if ever they get realised, one must find ways in the present to earn an income and sustain themselves.' (Jacqueline, Ugandan, Hawker)

In essence, a short-term focus for survival was prioritised by the women refugees who took part in this study, at the expense of a more long-term option, where a career path is envisioned. This short-term focus was mostly because of constraints that pressed on the women refugees and mostly beyond their control. These constraints placed a limit on the ability to enact career choices albeit the desire exists. Thus, the second finding from the analysis of the views of the women refugees reveals the structural constraints affecting both their career and their lived experiences.

Structural constraints as limitation to career and lived experiences

The results indicate that the structural constraints that affect women refugees are mostly socio-economic in nature. These constraints not only limit individual involvement in their careers, but also their lived experiences.

The pressing issue narrated by most of the participants is xenophobia. The xenophobic attacks do not only affect their vocational lives but also their personal lives, and this hinders their settlement process. One participant narrated her experience as follows:

'You just don't belong. Like there is an intense hatred for foreigners. At work one time I was shouted at by my colleagues who are South Africans. Basically, I was told to go back to my home country, and they don't want me here.' (Flora, Burundian, Home Based Carer)

Xenophobia affects career development of refugees because of a number of factors. Firstly, the local citizens see refugees as a threat to the economic security by stealing their jobs. Secondly, some employers are ignorant and reluctant to employ refugees because of their documentation:

'It is us against them. Everywhere you go, our foreign status and identity is a feature. Once you present refugee documentation to prospective employers, it's a no for them. This is usually followed by an intense hatred at what it means to be foreigner, a strangeness the locals detest.' (Ruth, Somalian, Spaza Shop Owner)

The participants narrated how they experience negative prejudices when seeking employment and how their applications are rejected because of their nationality. This has resulted in their lack of social and economic power.

'There was a vacant position and I was being considered for the post but when a new director was appointed and she consulted with other people only to learn that I am a refugee, they all reportedly said that I am just a refugee and the best position I can have is being an interpreter.' (Mary, Somalian. Researcher & Translator)

Another participant narrated her ordeal as follows:

'A refugee in South Africa has no power whatsoever. For instance, I went to apply for a job and the employer could not recognise and understand my refugee status and the accompanying documents.' (Trish, Congolese, Hairdressor)

Taking all the aforementioned narratives into account, it can be said that most of the women refugees have resorted to informal economy for their livelihood. However, they continue to encounter formidable barriers that continue to affect their well-being. One participant expressed how document accessibility hinders informal trading:

'I wanted to rent a place for my business but it was hard. They wanted proof of address and bank statement which I could not have because the bank did not allow me to open an account with my identity document.' (Jacqueline, Uganda, Hawker)

Another participant also recalled an incident where foreign traders were attacked by the local citizens:

'Foreigners face challenges in this country. A few years ago we noticed the xenophobic challenges especially here in Port Elizabeth. Foreigners were attacked and their property either looted or destroyed. South Africans at least to me just hate as foreigners, especially African foreigners.' (Queen, Congolese, Hawker)

Through the data analysis, some issues that relate to gender as affecting the career development processes and the lived experiences of the women refugees were also identified.

Issues exclusive to women refugees

The women refugees who took part in this study provided a frank disclosure of what it means to be a woman and also a refugee. In most cases, aspects of earning a living accompanied these experiences and comparison was made with their male counterparts:

'My situation would be different if I was a male; this world is a man's world. Male refugees often get a priority ahead of us females. They are perceived to be stronger than us women.' (Clara, Congolese, Hawker)

Some of the women, like Edith, narrated challenging experiences as part of their lived experiences that have subsequently affected them, for instance, rape:

'I used to have a shop, but I was robbed two times. I am now struggling to get a job or at least raise funds to open a shop again. One day robbers arrived at the shop and raped me. Since then I have never been the same and also have psychological problems.' (Clara, Somalian, Hawker)

Other challenges concerned seeking to strike a balance between commitments at work and taking care of their families. This was a quest for work-life balance, as confirmed by Brenda:

'I want to expand my career, but I know I cannot. I do need a job and at best a career but this is not possible. I am a mother and have to look after my baby. I am the mother and father together for my child.' (Brenda, Somalian, Translator & General Labourer)

 

Discussion

The purpose of this article was to explore the career development processes of women refugees in South Africa. The results of the current study contribute generally to an understanding of the issues that refugees face in the resettlement phase, especially within developing countries like South Africa, which is witnessing an increase in refugees. Narrating their career trajectories, refugee women cited markers of their personal environment factors, migration status and gender identity to explain the hardships they face in navigating their careers.

It is evident that the career development process of the women refugees is shaped by various factors, such as language proficiency and education, emanating from pre-migration career capital (Tharmaseelan et al., 2010), structural constraints such as xenophobia (Di Fabio & Maree, 2013) as well as gender (Doubell & Struwig, 2014). Of importance is that these challenges are not mutually exclusive but are interconnected and inextricably intertwined with their gender, history and immigration status (Mitchell, 2013).

As conceptualised by Tharmaseelan et al. (2010), the narratives that emerged in this study emphasise that career development is moderated by both pre- and post-migration factors. Firstly, as per prior studies (Nicolescu, 2017; Willott & Stevenson, 2013), refugees struggle to integrate into the host country because of language barriers. Secondly, organisations fail to recognise their documentation and their right to work (Magqibelo et al., 2016). Xenophobia, a recurrent and prevalent culture in the South Africa (Amataika, 2013), continues to see refugees vulnerable in their place of refuge.

Our work advances empirical work in South Africa, which shows refugees to be facing challenges in the resettlement phase (Gordon, 2015; International Organisation for Migration, 2012). Uniquely, our findings show that women refugees have a basic need for survival, rather than a long-term career focus. This desire is actuated by the situation and experience of being a refugee, which is complex and marred by uncertainty. Subsequently, this justifies the short-term focus as a basis for survival. Linked to this idea of a short-term focus is the role of structural constraints, especially those of a socio-economic nature, as hindering the growth of the women refugees. The latter finding places focus on the role of structural constraints in affecting the enactment of career choices (Di Fabio & Maree, 2013). Our findings support previous empirical work that identified the role of the environment in the lived experiences of refugees and the possible limitations they impose (Baranika et al., 2017). This work extends work on the role of gender and the structural constraints of career development outside the organisational lens in South Africa (Chinyamurindi, 2016; Doubell & Struwig, 2014).

Implication for practice, theory and research

This study makes four contributions to the literature. Firstly, by exploring the lived experiences and career issues affecting women refugees (the short-term focus, the structural constraints and the gender issues), we offer a nuanced view of refugee issues considering our socio-cultural milieu. Our results emphasise the vulnerable view of refugees, especially in the resettlement phase (Mothibi et al., 2015). Despite the view that the experience of being a refugee is gender neutral, our findings contradict this view and show struggles that potentially can exist within the resettlement phase of a refugee's life (Codell et al., 2011). In this regard, our study contributes to research on the career development processes of women refugees within a South African context, answering the call for studies that focus on such vulnerable groups (Chinyamurindi, 2016; Harry et al., 2017). Despite challenges that women refugees encounter, some remain hopeful and desire to have long-term career aspirations. This is evident from them (albeit the structural constraints) still seeking for survival and basic needs in view of a long-term aspiration.

Secondly, through the findings of the research, our work intensifies understanding of a range of factors and their influence on career development as well as the lived experience (Abkherz & McMahon, 2017). As depicted in Table 1, most of the women refugees indicated their vocational aspirations, but their growth is hindered by existing constraints. Ultimately, the only viable solution has been for the women refugees to take part in menial jobs, as a form of sustenance and to have a short-term career focus. This gives cadence to the theorising around the complexity of career issues affecting women (Cook et al., 2002). Importantly, our study illustrates how structural constraints impede individual experience and integration into society (Olliff, 2010). The previous theorising on such issues has been scant, especially within developing countries like South Africa. Thirdly, we advance the understanding of issues specific to women refugees and add to a collection of literature on the same topic internationally and within developing countries (Abkherz & McMahon, 2017; Harry et al., 2017). To this, we also illustrate the intersection of structural constraints and gender to the lived and career experiences of women refugees. All these factors could assist in how refugees re-establish their lives in a host country.

The research heightened focus on the role of a multi-stakeholder approach in assisting women refugees in their resettlement. Through barriers identified in this study, stakeholders can propose policy and practical interventions that assist women refugees. For instance, participants of this study reported barriers faced when trying to find work and they exposed the ignorance and prejudiced nature of society towards immigrants. It could be useful for organisations dedicated to assisting refugees to work with relevant government departments in educating organisations and employers to understand issues affecting refugees. Furthermore, educational and awareness programmes can be introduced to a targeted and broader society, given the challenges of xenophobia. Government support could also assist in all these efforts by creating an enabling environment that allows for the prosperity, not just of locals, but also of refugees.

Limitations and future research

Because of the explorative nature of our study, the research purposely consists of a limited number of women refugees, whereas there are also male refugees. The excerpts presented in the study provide rich data that are useful in creating interventions for career development of this neglected population group. Future research should also compare career development processes of men and explore the gender perspective from another angle.

The researchers believe that a good rapport was established owing to the feministic nature and acquaintances that the interviewer had with the participants. However, a possible drawback that cannot be overlooked is that the language utilised during the interviews is a second language to both the interviewer and participants. Certainly, there were moments of misunderstanding during the interviews and a few questions such as 'Do you think women's career development processes are different from those of men?' and 'Is your career developing as you anticipate?' went unanswered during one (Interview with Anna) of the interviews as they were not fully understood by the participant. However, the fact that the interviewer introduced herself as a foreigner and non-native English speaker enabled the participants to speak more openly without being inhibited about their language skills. The interviewer was also in a better position to understand some speakers who made errors as she is also used to hearing similar mistakes from her colleagues and some that she also makes herself. As such it is possible that each of the stories if told in a different context and another language would yield different meanings.

 

Conclusion

The study focussed on how career development processes of women refugees in South Africa are manifest, as well as the factors and barriers that influence such processes. The research drew attention to both the gendered nature of society and the structural constraints that impede the lived experiences of refugees, especially within the context of a developing country. It was evident from the women participants in the study that the experience of being a refugee has affected them, often resulting in irony. Firstly, the women refugees appear to have lost not only the source of livelihood they had in their home countries, but also the enactment of a career choice. However, an advantage is their experience of the environment which is favourable compared to their home countries. In essence, this favourable environment made South Africa a desired destination.

 

Acknowledgements

The researchers acknowledge the participating students who made this study worthwhile.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

Author's contributions

W.T.C. supervised T.N. for her PhD degree. The article was a joint effort between the supervisor and the student.

Funding

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability statement

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the authors.

 

References

Abkherz, P., & McMahon, M. (2017). Narrative career counselling for people with refugee backgrounds. International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling, 39(2), 99-111. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10447-017-9285-z        [ Links ]

Abkhezr, P., McMahon, M., Glasheen, K., & Campell, M. (2018). Finding voice through narrative storytelling: An exploration of the career development of young African females with refugee backgrounds. Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 105, 17-30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2017.09.007        [ Links ]

Allen, T. D., French, A. F., & Poteet, M. L. (2016). Women and career advancement. Organizational Dynamics, 45(3), 206-216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orgdyn.2016.07.006        [ Links ]

Amataika, A. D. (2013). Local Government in South Africa since: Leadership, democracy, development and service delivery in a post-apartheid era. Durham: Carolina Academic Press.         [ Links ]

Anderson, J. R., Stuart, A., & Rossen, I. (2015). Not all negative: Macro justice principles predict positive attitudes towards asylum seekers in Australia. Australian Journal of Psychology, 67(4), 207-213. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajpy.12085        [ Links ]

Arbel, E., Dauvergne, C., & Millbank, J. (Eds.). (2014). Gender in refugee law: From the margins to the centre. London: Routledge.         [ Links ]

Baranika, L. E., Hurst, C. S., & Eby, L. T. (2017). The stigma of being a refugee: a mixed-method study of refugees' experiences of vocational stress. Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 105, 116-130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2017.09.006        [ Links ]

Berger, R. (2004). Immigrant women tell their stories. New York: Haworth Press.         [ Links ]

Bleinjenbergh, I., Gremmen, I., & Peters, P. (2016). Timing ambition: How organisational actors engage with the institutionalised norms that affect the career development of part-time workers. Scandinavian Journal of Management, 32, 179-188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scaman.2016.08.004        [ Links ]

Campion, E. D. (2017). The career adaptive refugee: Exploring the structural and personal barriers to refugee resettlement. Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 105, 6-16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2017.10.008        [ Links ]

Carbado, D. W., Crenshaw, K. W., Mays, V. M., & Tomlinson, B. (2013). Intersectionality: Du-Bois review. Social Science Research on Race, 10, 303-312. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1742058X13000349        [ Links ]

Chinyamurindi, W. T. (2012). Stories of career change amongst distance learners in South Africa. South African Journal of Human Resources Management, 10(2), 1-11.         [ Links ]

Chinyamurindi, W. T. (2016). Using narrative analysis to understand factors influencing career choice amongst a sample of distance learning students in South Africa. South African Journal of Psychology, 46(3), 390-400. https://doi.org/10.1177/0081246315623662        [ Links ]

Choo, H. Y., & Ferree, M. M. (2010). Practicing intersectionality in sociological research: A critical analysis of inclusions, interactions, and institutions in the study of inequalities. Sociological Theory, 28(2), 129-149. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9558.2010.01370.x        [ Links ]

Codell, J. D., Hill, R. D., Woltz, D., & Paul, A. G. (2011). Predicting meaningful employment for refugees: The influence of personal characteristics and developmental factors on employment status and hourly wages. International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling, 33, 216-224. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10447-011-9125-5        [ Links ]

Cook, E. P., Heppner, M., & O'Brien, K. M. (2002). Career development of women of colour and white women: Assumptions, conceptualization, and interventions from an ecological perspective. The Career Development Quartely, 50(4), 291-305. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-0045.2002.tb00574.x        [ Links ]

Cormark, D. F. (2000). The research process in nursing. Oxford: Blackwell Science.         [ Links ]

Crenshaw, K. (1991). Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of women of color. Stanfors Law Review, 43(6), 1241-1299.         [ Links ]

Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.         [ Links ]

Crush, J. (2011). Complex movements, confused responses: Labour migration in South Africa. SAMP Policy Brief. www.queensu.ca/samp/sampsouces/samppublications/policybriefs/brief25.pdf.         [ Links ]

De Leon Siantz, M. L. (2013). Feminization of Migration. A global health challenge. Global Advances in Health Medicine, 2(5), 12-14. https://doi.org/10.7453/gahmj.2013.065        [ Links ]

Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2000). Handbook of qualitative research. London: Sage.         [ Links ]

Di Fabio, A., & Maree, J. G. (2013). Career construction and life design: Heralding a new begining to career counselling in the 21st century. In A. Di Fabio, & J. G. Maree (Eds.), Psychology of career counselling: New challanges for a new era. Hauppauge: Nova Science.         [ Links ]

Doubell, M., & Struwig, M. (2014). Perceptions of factors influencing the career success of professional and business women in South Africa. South African Journal of Economic and Management Sciences, 5, 31-43. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajems.v17i5.514        [ Links ]

Edwards, A. (2010). Transitioning gender: Feminist engagement with international refugee law and policy 1950-2010. Refugee Survery Quartely, 29, 21-45. https://doi.org/10.1093/rsq/hdq021        [ Links ]

Elez, T. (2014). Restoring hope: Responsing to career concerns of immigration clients. The Canadian Journal of Career Development, 13(1), 32-45.         [ Links ]

Felicano, C., & Lanuza, Y. R. (2017). An Immigrant Paradox? Contextual Attainment and Intergenerational Educational Mobility. American Sociological Review, 82(1), 211-241. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122416684777        [ Links ]

Feminist Africa. (2015). Feminism and Pan-Africanism. Feminist Africa. www.agi.ac.za/journal/feminist-africa-20-2015-pan-africanism-and-feminism#.         [ Links ]

Fernandes, L. (2013). Transnational feminism in United States: Knowledge, ethics, power. New York: New York University Press.         [ Links ]

Fletcher, A. (2006). The Real ID Act: Furthering Gender Bias in U.S. Asylum Law. Journal of Gender, Law & Justice, 21, 111-131. https://doi.org/10.15779/Z381J9769V        [ Links ]

Gordon, S. (2015). Xenophobia across the Class divide: South African attitudes towards foreigners 2002-2003. Journal of Contemporary African Studies, 33(4), 545-579. https://doi.org/10.1080/02589001.2015.1122870        [ Links ]

Greyling, T. (2015). The expected well-being of urban refugees and asylum seekers in Johannesburg. Johannesburg. www.econrsa.org/publications/working-papers/expected-well-being-urban-refugees-and-asylum-seekers-johannesburg.         [ Links ]

Harry, T. T., Dodd, N. M., & Chinyamurindi, W. T. (2017). Using narratives to understand the motivational factors and experience of being a self-initiated academic expatriate in South Africa. South African Journal of Human Resource Management, 15, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajhrm.v15i0.797        [ Links ]

Harry, T. T., Dodd, N. M., & Chinyamurindi, W. T. (2019). Telling tales: Using narratives and story-telling to understand the challenges faced by a sample of self-initiated expatriates in South Africa. Journal of Global Mobility, 7(1), 64-87. https://doi.org/10.1108/JGM-05-2018-0024        [ Links ]

Hyndman, J., & De Alwis, M. (2008). Reconstructing the subject: Feminist politics of humanitarian assistance. In M. Haidukowskei-Ahmed, N. Khanlou, & H. Moussa (Eds.), Not born refugee women: Contesting identities, rethinking practise (pp. 83-96). New York: Berghahn.         [ Links ]

International Labour Organization. (2015). Women in business and management: Gaining momentum. Geneva, Switzerland: International Labour Organisation.         [ Links ]

International Organisation for Migration. (2012). International Organisation for migration's strategic framework for the Republic of South Africa, 2012-2016. Pretoria: International Organisation for Migration.         [ Links ]

Islam, M. R., Ingham, V., Hicks, J., & Manock, I. (2017). The changing role of women in resilience, recovery and economic development at the intersection of recurrent disaster, A case study from Sirajgang, Bangladesh. Journal of Asian and African Studies, 52, 50-67. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021909614560244        [ Links ]

Jamshed, S. (2014). Qualitative research method interviewing and observation. Journal of Basic and Clinical Pharmacy, 5(4), 87-88. https://doi.org/10.4103/0976-0105.141942        [ Links ]

Kibiribiri, E. T., Moodley, D., Groves, A. K., & Sebitloane, M. H. (2016). Exploring disparities in prenatal care between refugees and local South African women. International Journal of Gynecology and Obsterics, 132, 151-155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgo.2015.07.007        [ Links ]

Kofman, E. (2012). Gender and skilled migration in Europe. Cuadernos de Relaciones Laborales, 30(1), 63-89.         [ Links ]

Legal Resource Centre. (2015). Rights and duties of asylum seekers and refugees in South Africa. Johannesburg: Legal Resource Centre.         [ Links ]

Lubis, F. K., Nasution, I., Rahimah, I., & Zein, T. (2016). The Women's Struggles for Islamic Feminism in the Shirazy'sAyat-Ayat Cinta (The Verses of Love). International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 6(1), 106-113.         [ Links ]

Magqibelo, L., Londt, M., September, S., & Roman, N. (2016). Challenges faced by unaccompanied minor-refugees in South Africa. Social Work, 52(1), 73-89. https://doi.org/10.15270/52-1-480        [ Links ]

Maree, J. G. (2015). Life themes and narratives. In P. J. Hurtung, M. L. Savickas, & W. B. Walsh (Eds.), APA handbook of career intervention. Washington, DC: American Psychology Association.         [ Links ]

Mason, G., & Pulvirenti, M. (2011). Resilience and survival: Refugee women and violence. Current Issues in Criminal Justice, 23(1), 52. https://doi.org/10.1080/10345329.2011.12035908        [ Links ]

McCall, L. (2005). The complexity of intersectionality. Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 30(3), 1771-1800.         [ Links ]

McCormack, C. (2000). From interview transcript to interpretative story: Part 1. Viewing the transcript through multiple lenses. Field Methods, 26(1), 282-297. https://doi.org/10.1177/1525822X0001200402        [ Links ]

McMahon, M., Watson, M., Chetty, C., & Hoelson, C. (2012). Examining process constructs of narrative career counselling: An exploratory case study. British Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 40, 127-141. https://doi.org/10.1080/03069885.2011.646949        [ Links ]

Mothibi, K. A., Roelofse, C. J., & Tshivhase, T. (2015). Xenophobic attacks on foreign shop owners and street vendors in Louis Trichardt central business district. The Journal for Transdisciplinary Research in Southern Africa, 11(4), 151-162. https://doi.org/10.4102/td.v11i4.51        [ Links ]

Mitchell, K. (2013). Love in Action: Noting Similarities between Lynching Then and Anti-LGBT Violence Now. Callaloo, 36(3), 688-717.         [ Links ]

Nachmias, F. C., & Nachmias, D. (1996). Research methods in the social sciences. New York: Worth Publishers.         [ Links ]

Newman, A., Brimrose, J., Nielsem, I., & Zacher, H. (2018). Vocational behavior of refugees: How do refugees seek employment, overcome work-related challenges, and navigate their careers? Journal of Vocational Behavior, 105 (2018), 1-5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2018.01.007        [ Links ]

Nicolescu, A. F. (2017). The intergration of refugees into host country labor markets: Barriers and best practices in the EU. Journal of Identity and Migration Studies, 11(1), 118-134.         [ Links ]

Noyori-Corbett, C., & Moxley, D. P. (2017). Resettlement issues among Myanmar refugee women in the early state of a community-based developmental research project. Journal of Community Practice, 25, 1-25. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705422.2017.1354240        [ Links ]

Olliff, L. (2010). What works: Employment strategies for refugee and humanitarian entrants: Research report prepared by Refugee Council of Australia: June 2010. Sydney, Australia: RCOA.         [ Links ]

Perera, H. N., & Mcllveen, P. (2014). The role of optimism and engagement coping college adaptation: A career construction model. Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 84, 395-404. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2014.03.002        [ Links ]

Ponelis, S. R. (2015). Using interpretive qualitative case studies for exploratory research in doctoral studies: A case of Information Systems research in small and medium enterprises. International Journal of Doctoral Studies, 10, 535-550. https://doi.org/10.28945/2339        [ Links ]

Reuben, S., & Bobat, S. (2014). Constructing racial hierarchies of skill-experiencing affirmative action in a South African organisation: A qualitative review. South African Journal of Industrial Psychology, 40(1), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v40i1.1158        [ Links ]

Richardson, J., Karam, C., & Afiouni, F. (2016). The impact of the global refugee crisis on the career ecosystem. Special Issue Call for Papers from Career Development International. http://www.emeraldgrouppublishing.com/products/journals/call_for_papers.htm?id=6978.         [ Links ]

Rydzik, A., Pritchard, A., Morgan, N., & Sedgley, D. (2017). Humanising migrant women's work. Annals of Tourism Research, 64, 13-23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2017.02.002        [ Links ]

Sandberg, S. (2013). Lean in: Women, work and the will to lead. London: Random House.         [ Links ]

Saunders, N. (2017). International political theory and the refugee problem. (Routledge research on the global politics of migration). London: Routledge.         [ Links ]

Savickas, M. L. (2005). The theory and practice of career construction. In S. D. Brown, & R. W. Lent (Eds.), Career development and counselling: Putting theory and research to work (pp. 42-70). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons Inc.         [ Links ]

Scotland, J. (2012). Exploring the philosophical underpinnings of research: Relating ontology and epistemology to the methodology and methods of the scientific, interpretive, and critical research paradigms. English Language Teaching, 5(9), 9-16. https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v5n9p9        [ Links ]

Shaik, N. (2016). Teachers' beliefs about child participation in Grade R. South African Journal of Childhood Education, 6(1), 1-10. http://doi.org/10.4102/sajce.v6i1.248        [ Links ]

Smith, L. R. (2013). Female refugee networks: Rebuilding post-conflict identity. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 37, 11-27. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2012.04.011        [ Links ]

Taylor, C., Gibbs, G. R., & Lewins, A. (2005). Quality of qualitative analysis. Retrieved from Learning Qualitative Data Analysis on the Web: http://onlineqda.hud.ac.uk/Intro_QDA/qualitative_analysis.php.         [ Links ]

Tharmaseelan, N., Inkson, K., & Carr, S. C. (2010). Migration and career success: Testing a time-sequenced model. Career Development International, 15(3), 218-238. https://doi.org/10.1108/13620431011053712        [ Links ]

Thornhill, H. L., Clare, L., & May, R. (2004). Escape, enlightenment and endurance: Narratives of recovery from Psychosis. Anthropology and Medicine, 11, 181-199. https://doi.org/10.1080/13648470410001678677        [ Links ]

United Nations High Comissioner of Refugees, United Nations Population Fund Agency & Women's Refugee Commission. (2016). Initial assessment report: Protection risks for women and girls in the European Refugee and Migrant Crisis. Greece: United Nations High Comissioner of Refugees.         [ Links ]

United Nations High Commission for Refugees. (2015). Worldwide displacement hits all-time high as war and persecution increase. Geneva: United Nations High Comissioner of Refugees. Retrieved from http://www.unhcr.org/news/latest/2015/6/558193896/worldwide-displacement-hits-all-time-high-war-persecution-increase.html.         [ Links ]

United Nations High Commission of Refugees. (2016). Initial assessment report: Protection risks for women and girls in European Refugees and migrant crisis. Greece: United Nations High Comissioner of Refugees.         [ Links ]

Vagenshtein, Y. F., & Yemini, L. A. (2016). Migration, gender, and mobility: Ethiopian-Israeli women's narratives of career trajectories, African and Black Diaspora. An International Journal, 9(2), 257-273. https://doi.org/10.1080/1758631.2015.1083185        [ Links ]

Willott, J., & Stevenson, J. (2013). Attitudes to employment of professionally-qualified refugees in the UK. International Migration, 51(5), 120-132. https://doi.org/10.1111/imig.12038        [ Links ]

Woodley, X. M., & Lockard, M. (2016). Womanism and snowball sampling: Engaging marginalized populations in holistic research. The Qualitative Report, 21(2), 321-329.         [ Links ]

Xie, B., Xia, M., Xin, X., & Zhou, W. (2016). Linking calling to work engagement and subjective career success: The perspective of career construction theory. Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 94, 70-78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2016.02.011        [ Links ]

Yakushko, O., Backhaus, A., Watson, M., Ngaruiya, K., & Gonzalez, J. (2008). Career development concerns of recent immigrants and refugees. Journal of Career Development, 34(4), 362-396. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894845308316292        [ Links ]

Yilmaz, K. (2013). Comparison of Quantitative and qualitative research traditions: Epistemological, theoretical, and methodological differences. European Journal of Education, 48(2), 311-324. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejed.12014        [ Links ]

 

 

Correspondence:
Willie Chinyamurindi
chinyaz@gmail.com

Received: 22 Mar. 2019
Accepted: 01 July 2019
Published: 20 Aug. 2019

 

 

Appendix 1

Interview guide:

1. Tell me about yourself. (Background information-education level and employment history; marital status; children; country of origin)

2. May you tell me about the circumstances that forced you to leave your home country? (When did you arrive in South Africa; why did you choose to come to South Africa)

3. What experiences and challenges did you face during your journey from your country of origin to South Africa?

4. Tell me a story of your arrival in South Africa, (Which border gate did you use to enter South Africa, did you know anyone in the country when you arrived?)

5. Did you receive assistance from the government or humanitarian organisations when you arrived? (What kind of assistance? explain how this assisted you?)

6. Did you encounter any challenges in adapting to the new environment? (How did you deal with the situations)

7. Tell me about your profession and career when you were in your home country.

8. Upon arrival, how long did it take you to get a job, did you get assistance from job agents? (What are some of the challenges that you encountered when looking for employment, is your current job in line with your area of expertise?)

9. Is the organisation that you are working for accommodative of refugees? (Did they play a role in the way you adjusted to the new environment?)

10. Tell me about the most stressful situation that you faced when you started working in South Africa and how you handled the situation?

11. In your own understanding, what is meant by the term career development? (What factors do you think influence career development)

12. Do you think women's career development is different from that of men? (Please tell me a story that explains why it is different)

13. Is your career developing as you anticipate? (What factors that are influencing the success of your career? what aspects are within your control and which are beyond your control?)

14. How do you think the government and organisations should assist with some of the challenges that you are facing? (What do you think should be done to help women refugees?)

^rND^sAbkherz^nP.^rND^sMcMahon^nM.^rND^sAbkhezr^nP.^rND^sMcMahon^nM.^rND^sGlasheen^nK.^rND^sCampell^nM.^rND^sAllen^nT. D.^rND^sFrench^nA. F.^rND^sPoteet^nM. L.^rND^sAnderson^nJ. R.^rND^sStuart^nA.^rND^sRossen^nI.^rND^sBaranika^nL. E.^rND^sHurst^nC. S.^rND^sEby^nL. T.^rND^sBleinjenbergh^nI.^rND^sGremmen^nI.^rND^sPeters^nP.^rND^sCampion^nE. D.^rND^sCarbado^nD. W.^rND^sCrenshaw^nK. W.^rND^sMays^nV. M.^rND^sTomlinson^nB.^rND^sChinyamurindi^nW. T.^rND^sChinyamurindi^nW. T.^rND^sChoo^nH. Y.^rND^sFerree^nM. M.^rND^sCodell^nJ. D.^rND^sHill^nR. D.^rND^sWoltz^nD.^rND^sPaul^nA. G.^rND^sCook^nE. P.^rND^sHeppner^nM.^rND^sO'Brien^nK. M.^rND^sCrenshaw^nK.^rND^sDe Leon Siantz^nM. L.^rND^sDi Fabio^nA.^rND^sMaree^nJ. G.^rND^sDoubell^nM.^rND^sStruwig^nM.^rND^sEdwards^nA.^rND^sElez^nT.^rND^sFelicano^nC.^rND^sLanuza^nY. R.^rND^sFletcher^nA.^rND^sGordon^nS.^rND^sHarry^nT. T.^rND^sDodd^nN. M.^rND^sChinyamurindi^nW. T.^rND^sHarry^nT. T.^rND^sDodd^nN. M.^rND^sChinyamurindi^nW. T.^rND^sHyndman^nJ.^rND^sDe Alwis^nM.^rND^sIslam^nM. R.^rND^sIngham^nV.^rND^sHicks^nJ.^rND^sManock^nI.^rND^sJamshed^nS.^rND^sKibiribiri^nE. T.^rND^sMoodley^nD.^rND^sGroves^nA. K.^rND^sSebitloane^nM. H.^rND^sKofman^nE.^rND^sLubis^nF. K.^rND^sNasution^nI.^rND^sRahimah^nI.^rND^sZein^nT.^rND^sMagqibelo^nL.^rND^sLondt^nM.^rND^sSeptember^nS.^rND^sRoman^nN.^rND^sMaree^nJ. G.^rND^sMason^nG.^rND^sPulvirenti^nM.^rND^sMcCall^nL.^rND^sMcCormack^nC.^rND^sMcMahon^nM.^rND^sWatson^nM.^rND^sChetty^nC.^rND^sHoelson^nC.^rND^sMothibi^nK. A.^rND^sRoelofse^nC. J.^rND^sTshivhase^nT.^rND^sMitchell^nK.^rND^sNewman^nA.^rND^sBrimrose^nJ.^rND^sNielsem^nI.^rND^sZacher^nH.^rND^sNicolescu^nA. F.^rND^sNoyori-Corbett^nC.^rND^sMoxley^nD. P.^rND^sPerera^nH. N.^rND^sMcllveen^nP.^rND^sPonelis^nS. R.^rND^sReuben^nS.^rND^sBobat^nS.^rND^sRydzik^nA.^rND^sPritchard^nA.^rND^sMorgan^nN.^rND^sSedgley^nD.^rND^sSavickas^nM. L.^rND^sScotland^nJ.^rND^sShaik^nN.^rND^sSmith^nL. R.^rND^sTharmaseelan^nN.^rND^sInkson^nK.^rND^sCarr^nS. C.^rND^sThornhill^nH. L.^rND^sClare^nL.^rND^sMay^nR.^rND^sVagenshtein^nY. F.^rND^sYemini^nL. A.^rND^sWillott^nJ.^rND^sStevenson^nJ.^rND^sWoodley^nX. M.^rND^sLockard^nM.^rND^sXie^nB.^rND^sXia^nM.^rND^sXin^nX.^rND^sZhou^nW.^rND^sYakushko^nO.^rND^sBackhaus^nA.^rND^sWatson^nM.^rND^sNgaruiya^nK.^rND^sGonzalez^nJ.^rND^sYilmaz^nK.^rND^1A01 A02^nEmir^sEfendic^rND^1A01 A03^nLlewellyn E.^svan Zyl^rND^1A01 A02^nEmir^sEfendic^rND^1A01 A03^nLlewellyn E.^svan Zyl^rND^1A01 A02^nEmir^sEfendic^rND^1A01 A03^nLlewellyn E^svan Zyl

OPINION PAPER

 

On reproducibility and replicability: Arguing for open science practices and methodological improvements at the South African Journal of Industrial Psychology

 

 

Emir Efendic^{I, II}; Llewellyn E. van Zyl^{I, III}

^IDepartment of Human Performance Management, University of Eindhoven, Eindhoven, Netherlands
^IIPsychological Sciences Research Institute, University of Louvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
^IIIOptentia Research Programme, Faculty of Humanities, North-West University, Vaal Triangle Campus, Vanderbijlpark, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

---

ABSTRACT

PROBLEMATISATION: In recent years, psychology has been going through a crisis of sorts. Research methods and practices have come under increased scrutiny, with many issues identified as negatively contributing to low replicability and reproducibility of psychological research.
IMPLICATIONS: As a consequence, researchers are increasingly called upon to overhaul and improve their research process. Various stakeholders within the scientific community are arguing for more openness and rigor within industrial and organisational (I-O) psychological research. A lack of transparency and openness further fuels criticisms as to the credibility and trustworthiness of I-O psychology which negatively affects the evidence-based practices which it supports. Furthermore, traditional gate-keepers such as grant agencies, professional societies and journals, are adapting their policies, reflecting an effort to curtail these trends.
PURPOSE: The purpose of this opinion paper is, therefore, to stimulate an open dialogue with the South African Journal of Industrial Psychology (SAJIP) contributing authors, its editorial board and readership about the challenges associated with the replication crisis in psychology. Furthermore, it attempts to discuss how the identified issues affect I-O psychology and how these could be managed through open science practices and other structural improvements within the SAJIP.
RECOMMENDATIONS: We enumerate several easily implementable open science practices, methodological improvements and editorial policy enhancements to enhance credibility and transparency within the SAJIP. Relying on these, we recommend changes to the current practices that can be taken up by researchers and the SAJIP to improve reproducibility and replicability in I-O psychological science.

Keywords: Open science; replication; reproducibility; industrial psychology; organisational psychology; academic publishing.

---

 

 

Introduction

In recent years, psychology has been facing challenges to its scientific integrity. These have ranged from low replicability, methodological flaws and misapplied statistical practices (Camerer et al., 2018; Simmons, Nelson, & Simonsohn, 2011). The apex of this criticism came with the Open Science Collaboration's (2015) attempt to replicate 100 empirical studies published in three high-ranking psychology journals. They found that only 36% of the replications produced statistically significant results with the mean effect sizes in the replications being approximately half the magnitude of the mean effect sizes in the original studies. Comparing this with the initial state, where 97% of the original 100 studies had produced significant results, it was evident that something was amiss.

Arguably, the failed replications which received the most (media) attention stem from social and cognitive psychology. However, in other sub-disciplines of psychology similar trends have been noted. Findings from management psychology, consumer psychology, psychophysics, psycho-linguistics and positive psychology are increasingly being questioned and/or refuted (Bergh, Sharp, Aguinis, & Li, 2017; Brown, Sokal & Friedman, 2014a, 2014b; Dimitrov, 2014; Doyen, Klein, Pichon, & Cleeremans, 2012; Hubbard & Vetter, 1996; Lehrer, 2010; McDaniel & Whetzel, 2005; Ritchie, Wiseman, & French, 2012; Rouder & Morey, 2011). In many cases where studies in these sub-disciplines were subjected to replications, findings did not support those found in the original publications (Martin & Clarke, 2017). These trends have justifiably led to claims that the entire discipline of psychology is undergoing a 'crisis of confidence' or a 'replication crisis' (Pashler & Wagenmakers, 2012).

This crisis also casts doubt on applied psychological sub-disciplines such as industrial and organisational (I-O) psychology (Grand et al., 2018; Kepes & McDaniel, 2013). In the past 5 years, we have seen a significant increase in critiques of the research practices which I-O psychological researchers employ, as well as critiques of the validity and trustworthiness of I-O psychological research (Banks & O'Boyle, 2013; Banks et al., 2016a, 2016b; Bosco, Aguinis, Field, Pierce, & Dalton, 2016; Grand et al., 2018; O'Boyle, Banks, & Gonzalez-Mule, 2017). There is a growing body of evidence which shows that I-O psychologists employ questionable research practices (Banks et al., 2016a; Bedeian, Taylor, & Miller, 2010), are guilty of misconduct (Atwater, Mumford, Schriesheim, & Yammarino, 2014), and that the evidence base for its practices are questionable (Bosco et al., 2016; McDaniel, Kepes, Hartman, & List, 2017). For instance, Kepes, Banks, McDaniel, and Whetzel (2012) have found evidence of sample suppression in that only samples with significant effect sizes tend to get published. Furthermore, Bedeian et al.'s (2010) survey of management faculties (where I-O psychologists constitute a large number of personnel) examined knowledge of so-called methodological flexibility (cf., Simmons et al., 2011). They found that 60% of faculty knew of a colleague who 'dropped observations of data points from analyses' and 50% knew of a colleague who 'withheld data that contradicted their previous research'. In a comparison between I-O student dissertations and the articles which were eventually published from them, McDaniel et al. (2017) found that sample sizes, covariates and hypotheses differed in 63% of the cases. They also found that while 64% of the hypotheses in the academic papers were statistically significant, only 31.8% were reported as such in the student dissertations. A clear sign that a significant amount of conscious effort has been invested to rework analyses, to change the aims of papers (based on the statistical analyses' results) and to alter the data to ensure that support was found for the hypotheses.

Similarly, Kepes and McDaniel (2013) argued that I-O's structural problems,¹ various issues in the conduct of research² and the editorial processes of journals³ have led to a lack in credibility and trustworthiness of its findings. This led Kepes and McDaniel (2013) to conclude that 'the I-O research literature may likely contain an uncomfortably high rate of false-positive results and other misestimated effect sizes' (p. 256).

Adding to this, it has also been established that: (1) exact replication studies tend to be discouraged by I-O psychology journals (Makel, Plucker, & Hegarty, 2012; Martin & Clarke, 2017; Simmons et al., 2011), (2) that null (and negative) findings are rarely published or actively discouraged⁴ (Martin & Clarke, 2017), (3) that I-O psychology is prone to HARKing⁵ (Bosco et al., 2016) (4) that reanalysis on the same datasets by other I-O researchers produces different results from the original articles (Kepes, Banks, & Oh, 2014), (5) that I-O psychologists themselves question the credibility, validity and trustworthiness of their own discipline's research (Kepes & McDaniel, 2013), (6) that researchers think the discipline has lost its ability to self-correct and to produce accurate cumulative knowledge (Giner-Sorolla, 2012; Ioannidis, 2005, 2012; Kepes & McDaniel, 2013) and (7) that practitioners, organisations and the general public fail to see the relevance- or that they even question the validity of I-O psychological theories or 'tools' (Earp & Trafimow, 2015; Pashler & Wagenmakers, 2012; Wong & Roy, 2017). If one considers the above, the only reasonable conclusion left is that I-O psychology is facing the same crisis in confidence/replication as other areas of psychology. Thus, debates relating to the credibility or trustworthiness of I-O have moved away from general critiques of how data are processed and interpreted or the 'relevance to practice' (Field, Baker, Bosco, McDaniel, & Kepes, 2016; Mazzola & Deuling, 2013), into specific critiques of the analysis, interpretation, replication and application of findings (Grand et al., 2018; Roll, Van Zyl, & Griep, in press).

Although the causes of the replication crisis and the associated crisis in confidence vary, several overarching contributing factors have been identified. These are common to all areas of psychological research, including I-O and it is imperative that both the South African Journal of Industrial Psychology (SAJIP) and its contributors take proactive action to address them. As such, the purpose of this opinion paper is to stimulate an open dialogue with prospective SAJIP authors, its editorial board and readership around the challenges associated with the replication/confidence crisis and how these could be managed through open science practices and other structural improvements within the SAJIP. Specifically, the focus is two-fold: (1) on providing a brief overview of the underlying challenges associated with the replication crisis and (2) proposing recommendations and practical guidelines to authors and the SAJIP on how to address these through open science practices and other structural improvements. It is our hope that the scholarly commentaries from the SAJIP stakeholders on this opinion paper will aid in developing a clear strategy on how these matters could be managed, what the role of SAJIP is in this process, and how SAJIP and its contributors could proactively engage to address the issues.

 

Issues contributing to the crisis

Grand et al. (2018) argued that the replication crisis within I-O psychology is fundamentally a function of questionable research practices, editorial policies and processes, and conscious misconduct of researchers. However, in contrast to reports in the media, only a small number of failures to replicate are because of outward fraud or conscious data manipulation/fabrication (Atwater et al., 2014; De Boeck & Jeon, 2018). Instead, the crisis is most likely a result of a series of systemic issues that have converged and are now considered as 'standard research practices' (Nuijten, 2018). The main issues identified are (1) reliance on small sample sizes and low statistical power, (2) publication bias, (3) questionable research practices and publication pressure, (4) perverse incentives for publication and (5) lack of transparency (Simmons et al., 2011; Pashler & Wagenmakers, 2012).

Statistical power and small samples

A perennial issue is the lack of statistical power, defined as the probability of detecting an effect of interest when there is indeed an effect to be detected (Faul, Erdfelder, Lang, & Buchner, 2007). Historically, statistical power has been poor in psychological research (Fraley & Vazire, 2014). Compared with studies that have low power, highly powered studies are likely to detect valid effects, buffer the literature against false positives, and produce findings that other researchers can replicate. Statistical power is related to sample size and an acceptable statistical power for detecting an effect (conventionally set at 80%) often requires much larger sample sizes (Cohen, 1988). Justifying one's sample size and performing a power analysis to come at this number is arguably one of the easiest changes that can be implemented.

Publication bias

Another fundamental issue is the reporting of only significant effects because of publication bias - the phenomenon where statistically significant (rather than non-significant) findings have a higher probability of being published (Kepes & McDaniel, 2013). There is ample evidence that psychology is affected by publication bias (e.g. Kühberger, Fritz, & Scherndl, 2014). However, the reasons for such differ between sub-disciplines (Kepes et al., 2014). According to Banks and McDaniel (2011), within I-O psychology, publication bias is largely a function of decisions that authors consciously make regarding the design and analytics of their studies, the decision of the organisation from which the data are obtained, the editorial policies of a given I-O journal/conference, and reviewer suggestions. At the individual/author level, for example, McDaniel et al. (2017) found that more than 64% of researchers were likely to change hypotheses and the associative arguments between students' dissertations and the eventual academic publication which flows from it. This was more likely when the publications are in high-impact journals. At the organisational level, for example, companies are less likely to provide a release to publish studies, if the results shine a negative light on their products, services or organisational functioning (Kepes et al., 2014). At the editorial level, processes may make it difficult to publish null findings, as journals are pressured to chase high-impact factors and therefore only novel or innovative studies are accepted (McDaniel et al., 2017). Editors may also suggest the removal of hypotheses or changes to the original design/analytic strategy (Banks & McDaniel, 2011). Finally, at the reviewer level, reviewers may reject articles with null findings as, perceptively, it may not hold any value (Banks & McDaniel, 2011). More generally, Kepes et al. (2012) found that, in I-O meta-analytic reviews, authors seem to pay little or no attention to the possibility of publication bias. Needless to say, publishing only significant findings can give a distorted view of the literature.

Questionable research practices and publication pressure

Researchers are under increasing pressures to publish in high-impact journals (Bosco et al., 2016). This pressure is largely the result of universities wanting to enhance their global rankings and to generate more funds through grants and subsidies (Feeney, 2018; Mudrak et al., 2018). At an individual level, the pressure to publish is driven by a need to be promoted, to secure tenure, for academic awards and to enhance job mobility (Feeney, 2018; Kepes & McDaniel, 2013). Given this immense pressure to publish, I-O researchers are inclined to employ strategic initiatives to optimise their data, and to employ a variety of techniques or analytical practices to ensure that articles get published (Bosco et al., 2016). The flexibility in and availability of data analytical processes, practices and tools, affords researchers the opportunity to find creative means to proverbially 'make the model fit' in any circumstance.

The seminal paper by Simmons et al. (2011) enumerated many flexibilities in data analysis and how they can lead to an overrepresentation of false-positive findings. The implementation of these 'questionable research practices' can lead to the literature getting populated by noise. John, Loewenstein, and Prelec (2012) tried to measure the prevalence of these practices and found that a substantial number of researchers admitted to applying these techniques. The techniques identified in their paper are failing to report all of a study's dependent variables, deciding to collect more data after looking at the results, failing to report all conditions, stopping data collection early because a significant result was found, rounding of p-values, only reporting studies that worked, deciding whether to exclude data after looking at the results, reporting an unexpected finding as predicted from the start, claiming the results are unaffected by demographic variables when this is actually untrue, transforming data or removing cases/participants that skew results and falsifying data. Furthermore, from a systematic review of articles published within the domain of I-O psychology, Banks et al. (2016a) found that 91% of papers in their sample were guilty of a number of questionable research practices. They argued that:

Engagement in questionable research practices is occurring at rates that far surpass what should be considered acceptable. Thus, some type of action is clearly needed to improve the state of our science. (p. 328)

We must be careful and clear here that we are not implying some malice on the side of I-O researchers. Rather, the combination of a lack of awareness of these issues, capped with external, systematic pressures, can and have contributed to a widespread application of these behaviours.

Perversely incentivising research

Within the South African context, academic institutions and its affiliates are monetarily incentivised for each paper published in the Department of Higher Education and Training's (DHET) list of accredited journals (Woodiwiss, 2012). This sort of incentivisation, while increasing productivity, could lead to the materialisation of 'perverse incentives' (Tomaselli, 2018). When monetary awards are connected to research outputs, the temptation to engage in 'sloppy', yet fast-producing work is naturally heightened. Researchers may be more inclined to 'cut corners' in order to prioritise quantity over quality. This type of context could even lead to the proliferation of questionable research practices and a further de-valuing of negative research results - as these are inherently less likely to be published. Furthermore, monetarily incentivising research provides an opportunity for fraudulent research practices, data manipulation (Tomaselli, 2018) and even submissions to predatory journals to thrive and enhance one's personal research output⁶ (Smillie, 2014; Thomas, 2018).

Lack of transparency

The credibility of research and the scientific process it subscribes to rests on opportunities to transparently verify the research products upon which it is based (Conte & Landy, 2018). Up until very recently, I-O psychology journals did not require authors to provide access to their data or materials (Martin & Clarke, 2017). This has made it extremely difficult to independently probe, and understand the quality of the research outputs (Ioannidis, 2012). There are several benefits to a transparent workflow. Imagine reading about a statistical analysis that simply stated that an effect was found. Without details of the analysis method or any supporting information, one would be hard pressed to accept such reporting at face value. And yet, studies are often reported without much information that is crucial for the establishment of reproducibility and replicability. Furthermore, as papers often lack even the most basic statistical and/or methodological information, it is difficult to establish so-called analytic reproducibility by re-running the reported statistical analyses (Hardwicke et al., 2018). It is often also not possible to examine the analytic robustness of findings. One cannot, for instance, look at how conclusions depend on specific choices in data analysis. Finally, when stimuli or materials are made available, it makes it easier for researchers to conduct replications and also to build further research on the presented findings (Simons, 2014). There are many other benefits of transparency that have been enumerated in Klein et al. (2018) which we urge the reader to consult. An open science is a verifiable science which fulfils our core mission of producing and identifying truths. By embracing open practices and increasing the transparency of their work, I-O researchers would be making a concrete and positive step in the right direction for the discipline.

 

What can be done? - Recommendations for practice and policy

Although there is a lot of debate around the confidence/replication crisis, there is agreement that it can be addressed through employing more 'open science practices' (Brandt et al., 2014; Frankenhuis & Nettle, 2018; Klein et al., 2018) and improving our research methods (Simmons et al., 2011; Van't Veer & Giner-Sorolla, 2016). The same has been proposed for I-O psychology specifically (Banks & McDaniel, 2011; Feeney, 2018; Grand et al., 2018; Kepes et al., 2012; Kepes & McDaniel, 2013). Below, we enumerate several recommendations for researchers and the SAJIP in managing this systemic issue. Albeit not an exhaustive list, the aim here is to address the most imperative and prevalent issues which are directly relevant to the SAJIP⁷ and its authors.⁸

In order to highlight some of the problems and to support the recommendations which are proposed, a random sample of seven quantitative articles from the two most recent volumes (44 and 45) of the SAJIP was drawn for illustrative purposes. At the time of writing, 15 quantitative articles had been published in these two volumes. We checked the seven selected articles on several of the issues which were identified. Table 1 provides an overview of these checks.

Recommendations for authors

Authors can do much to promote transparent, replicable and ethical research practices. This means adapting one's research-process and investing more effort in the preparation phase of projects. Below, several recommendations are presented to aid active contributors to the SAJIP.

Tackling statistical issues

It is advised to properly power one's studies and experiments. Statistical power, sample size and p-values are related and one can use many free tools to calculate the sample sizes necessary for having adequate power to detect effects of interest. Tools like G*Power (Faul et al., 2007) can provide sample size calculations for most traditional types of analyses. Researchers' intuitions about effect sizes are usually wrong, with one study finding that 89% of researchers overestimated the power of specific research designs with a small expected effect size, and 95% underestimating the sample size needed to obtain 80% power for detecting a small effect (Bakker, Hartgerink, Wicherts, & Van der Maas, 2016). We recommend authors consult either Perugini, Gallucci, and Costantini (2018) or Westland (2010) on power analyses instructions.

In our sample of SAJIP articles, only one of the papers (P2) provided a justification of sample size and conducted a power analysis.⁹ Furthermore, based on the guidelines of Perugini et al. (2018), Guo and Pandis (2015), as well as the Westland's (2010) formula for sample size estimation in Structural Equation Modelling, it was found that five out of the seven sample articles was insufficiently powered, and that the sample size was too low to accurately determine an effect.

Many issues are also related to the use and reporting of statistics. A large number of papers have statistical errors which make them hard to reproduce and many of the errors seem to be caused by typographical errors (Nuijten, Hartgerink, Van Assen, Epskamp, & Wicherts, 2016). However, there are new tools that can be used as a sort of 'spell checker' for statistics. For instance, Statcheck (http://statcheck.io) can scan a paper, extract statistics reported in the American Psychological Association (APA) reporting style and check whether the reported p-values match the test statistics and degrees of freedom. It is recommended that researchers run their papers through Statcheck before submitting to the SAJIP. A note of caution: Statcheck is limited (as of now) to detecting only basic statistical reporting such as t-tests and the results of ANOVAs or regressions. It is our hope that this incredibly useful program will continue to add more statistic procedure checks (e.g. Latent Class Analysis) to be of more use to a wider audience.

Reducing analytical flexibility and systematic bias(es)

As Simmons et al. (2011) reported, 'flexibilities' in data reporting and analysis may lead to a staggering proliferation of false positives. One of the most effective ways to reduce this is preregistration. It implies that researchers specify, up front, certain aspects of a study, for example, the design, sampling, analysis technique and exclusions (if any). Preregistration makes a distinction between two modes of research: exploratory and confirmatory, and its benefits have been known for quite some time (de Groot, 2014). Researchers can preregister their studies which remain sealed so-to-speak, and unchangeable, once the final version is submitted. Researchers could even preregister their intended analytical plans or study protocols in order to enhance transparency and credibility. This should, of course, all be done in line with the local ethical guidelines and legislation governing the use and distribution of data. One of the easiest tools that can be used for this is the Open Science Framework (OSF) where many formats of preregistration are available as templates (Van't Veer & Giner-Sorolla, 2016).

In our sample of SAJIP articles, none of the papers reported any form of preregistration.

Employing best practice guidelines for statistical analyses and reporting

In recent years, there has been a push within the psychological community to standardise both the analytical processes being employed to analyse data, as well as the reporting guidelines (Appelbaum et al., 2018). Various 'best practice guidelines' or 'checklists' have been published on everything ranging from assessing bi-factor structures (c.f. Rodriguez, Reise, & Haviland, 2016) to measurement invariance (c.f. Van De Schoot, Lugtig, & Hox, 2012). It is suggested that authors refer to appropriate best practice guidelines in their articles to guide them in processing their data in a systematic and standardised manner. Furthermore, authors should ensure that their manuscripts are in line with the APA's new 'Journal Article Reporting Standards for Quantitative Research in Psychology' (Appelbaum et al., 2018).

In our sample of SAJIP articles, all of the articles only partially conformed to the requirements of the APA's Quantitative Research reporting standards. Furthermore, large discrepancies in reporting methods exist between articles with similar methodologies and outcomes (P1, P2, P4 and P7).

Transparency and openness

It is recommended to make a study's data and analysis scripts (syntaxes) openly available, so that one can establish a study's analytic reproducibility (Van Zyl, Efendic, Rothmann, & Shankland, in press). This could facilitate the detection and correction of any unintended errors before the manuscript is in press (Hardwicke et al., 2018). Wicherts, Bakker, and Molenaar (2011), for example, found that the reluctance to share data is associated with weak statistical evidence against the null hypothesis and errors in the reporting of statistical results. Furthermore, providing access to data and syntaxes could even aid younger researchers to learn from the expertise of others. The most comprehensive repository for sharing is developed by the OSF (https://osf.io/). Other repositories include PsychData (http://psychdata.zpid.de/) and GESIS (https://datorium.gesis.org/xmlui/).¹⁰

In our sample of SAJIP articles, none of the papers supplied supplementary material in terms of SPSS/MPlus/AMOS/R syntaxes, nor was open data provided.

Multi-institutional-/research unit collaborations

Research suggests that collaboration between researchers from different institutions, research units or laboratories reduces systemic biases and enhances the reproducibility of findings (Stevens, 2017). Through collaboration with others outside of one's own institution or research unit, studies are more thoroughly planned and executed, and the chances of mistakes in analyses are reduced. Authors can benefit from different viewpoints and access to larger resources. Indeed, some of the recommendations above, require larger resources. The recommendation to increase sample sizes usually mean cost bumps that many researchers are not able to sustain. Nevertheless, several initiatives have been developed and they focus on large-scale collaborations. One such initiative is 'StudySwap' (https://osf.io/view/StudySwap/) which is a platform for collaboration between different research units where researchers can find collaborators by posting descriptions of resources that they have available, resources that they need and others might have, or coordinating projects across teams. Another initiative is the 'Psychological Science Accelerator' (https://osf.io/93qpg/), where the idea is to increase robustness and reliability of Psychological Science through massive multi-institutional or research unit collaborations. The accelerator currently has over 350 participating laboratories, distributed over 45 countries worldwide.

In our sample of SAJIP articles, none of the authors collaborated with research partners from other institutions, research units or laboratories. Those collaborations which are present are either between students and supervisors (P1, P2 and P6) or between colleagues from the same institution (P5).

Recommendations for the South African Journal of Industrial Psychology

Although it is important to empower authors with practical guidelines on how to manage the replication crisis through open science initiatives, the SAJIP can play a vital role in dealing with these issues as a custodian of I-O psychology within South Africa. The SAJIP can thus develop and implement author guidelines and editorial policies which facilitate, acknowledge and reward transparent research processes. Below are several suggestions, based on international best practices, which could aid SAJIP to enhance credibility.

Transparency and openness promotion

Nosek et al. (2015) developed guidelines for journal policies and practices to empower journals, authors and reviewers to facilitate transparent and open science research practices. The transparency and openness promotion (TOP) guidelines currently have more than 5000 signatories, they have been adopted by more than 1500 top tier academic journals (including 'Science' and 'Nature'), and have become one of the indicators affecting acquisition into major journal indexers such as the Thomson Reuters Web of Knowledge Index (formerly ISI).

TOP guidelines (see Table 2) propose eight modular standards ranging between three levels (tiers) which incrementally facilitate scientific communication to greater openness. They propose that transparency and open science is the function of: (1) citation standards (citing shared data to incentivise publication), (2) data transparency (disclosing, requesting, requiring or verifying shared data), (3) analytical methods transparency (disclosing shared analysis syntaxes or codes), (4) research materials transparency (disclosure of research materials like intervention protocols), (5) design and analysis transparency (setting standards for research design disclosures), (6) preregistration of studies (specifying study details and hypotheses before data collection), (7) preregistration of analysis plans (specification of analytical details before data collection) and (8) replication (encourages the publication of replication studies). These eight standards range across three tiers or levels of implementation: Level 1 - Disclosure (e.g. authors must disclose whether or not materials are available), Level 2 - Requirement (e.g. authors are required to share materials during submission, within the review process or after publication) and Level 3 - Verification (e.g. materials are verified by a third party in order to ensure that standards are met). The SAJIP can modularly select the levels of transparency it requires in order to advance transparent research practices, while keeping the local laws, research ethics and associative author rights into consideration.

It is suggested that the SAJIP leads by example and adopts at least a Level 1 stance on all eight principles and systematically moves towards Level 2 through the education, training, and capacity development of its contributors. As one of the main drives of the journal is to be included into the main Thomson Reuters Web of Knowledge Index (Coetzee, 2018; Coetzee & Van Zyl, 2013, 2014), adopting the TOP guidelines would be a big step in the proverbial right direction.

It is also suggested that Principle 3 (Analytic Method Code Transparency), be positioned at Level 2, as the modifications to models in articles published in SAJIP is sometimes unreported and unclear. These can clearly be seen by looking at the reported degrees of freedom between different models, but explanations of model modifications and a theoretical justification of such are rarely provided by authors. For example, in our sample, Article P7 employed Structural Equation Modelling but did not report all the fit indices required to evaluate model fit. It also failed to mention the number of items on the Engagement scale employed and the direction of the Likert Scales. It is, therefore, difficult to not only understand the reasoning behind the choices the author made in the following analyses, but also to estimate the trustworthiness of the findings. When looking at the degrees of freedom reported (Model 1: df = 40 and Alternative Model: df = 39) and taking the sample size (n = 300), the item to latent factor loadings and the relationships the author tested into consideration, it is clear that there is a rather large discrepancy between the expected and reported degrees of freedom. If the author provided the AMOS syntaxes, it would provide more information as to which modifications were made to the model.

Submission process and incentives

Journals have the ability to set procedures that can signal the values they espouse. Some have started to implement and require authors to provide, during submission, justifications for their sample sizes and where (or why not - as there can be legitimate reasons for not being able to share) they are sharing data/materials. Simple directives like Psychological Science's 2014 decision to start awarding badges as rewards for papers that share data, have preregistered studies, etc. could incentivise researchers to engage in more open research practices. It was found that by the first half of 2015, the proportion of articles stating that data were available increased to around 40%, even when rates in four other psychology journals remained at below 10% (Baker, 2016; Kidwell et al., 2016). It is recommended that the SAJIP implement similar procedures during submission and also encourages authors to partake in open and transparent sharing of materials and data. Correct and extensive reporting of methods and statistics is sometimes constrained in journals because of space and word counts. Many journals now support the submission of online supplementary materials where more detail can be provided. This could play an important role in minimising publication bias (Banks & McDaniel, 2011) and is recommended for the SAJIP.

Registered reports

Recently, a new publishing option that may neutralise bad incentives, permit the publication of null results, and encourage replication attempts, has been proposed (Chambers, Feredoes, Muthukumaraswamy, & Etchells, 2014). Registered reports entail that the studies' rationale, introduction, hypotheses, experimental procedures and statistical power analysis are reviewed before any data are collected. Upon review, the article can be rejected or accepted in principle for publication. If in principle acceptance is received, the authors proceed with the study, adhering to the peer-reviewed procedures. The results are published independently of what they show. Currently, 168 journals use the registered reports format as either a regular submission option or as part of a special issue (https://cos.io/rr/). It is recommended that the SAJIP explores this publishing option.

Developing best practice guidelines and publication standards for the most frequently occurring analytical methods

To ensure further transparency, it is suggested that the SAJIP determine the most frequently occurring methods being employed by contributors and provide structured guidelines and reporting standards for such. The SAJIP could invite methodological experts to provide brief 'best practice guidelines' for these methods, in order to aid authors to conduct their analyses in a structured and standardised manner. Furthermore, the SAJIP could incorporate the APA's new reporting standards for quantitative research into its editorial policies, and systematically educate authors, and section editors as to its contents (Appelbaum et al., 2018).

Experimenting with an open, collaborative peer review process

A collaborative (open) peer review process involves facilitating an active dialogue between researchers, reviewers and editors throughout the review process. In contrast to the traditional peer review process, where an article is independently reviewed by two anonymous reviewers, the collaborative review makes reviewers, authors and editors publicly known in order to facilitate a collaborative discussion between the different parties until the paper is of a publishable nature. Reviewers have a chance to build up each other's views, and authors have an opportunity to discuss the reviews in a collaborative fashion. This type of review not only illuminates reviewer bias (Dobele, 2015; Miller, 2006) but also provides opportunities for inter-professional learning, transparently negotiated feedback and enhances the overall quality of the manuscript (Kriegeskorte, 2012). Various high-impact journals such as Frontiers in Psychology and Systems (a Nature publication) have successfully implemented open collaborative or open interactive review processes, which has led to improved transparency, improved citation ratios, higher impact factors and more international collaboration (Kriegeskorte, 2012).

 

Conclusion

The current confidence crisis plaguing Psychological Science is neither an isolated event, nor is it contained within a specific discipline. I-O psychological researchers, -journals and -publishers are adapting to this crisis by working on implementing major changes as to how research is conducted (Feeney, 2018). On both the individual, as well as the policy level, I-O psychological researchers are leading the charge in trying to solve the issues which have been identified, working on practical solutions and strategies directed at solving them (De Boeck & Jeon, 2018; Feeney, 2018; Grand et al., 2018; McDaniel et al., 2017). Individual researchers can increase their sample sizes, justify their analysis plans, preregister their studies, improve their statistical inferences and through openness, allow access to their data and materials, thus facilitating the growth of a reproducible and replicable science.

Academic journals, such as the SAJIP, could also actively contribute to the reforming of academic publication practices through encouraging and rewarding open and transparent science. For nearly half a century, SAJIP has been at the forefront of both scientific and editorial advancement within Africa (e.g. it was the first psychology-related open access journal in Africa; first to adopt a dual distribution channel; first journal in Africa to build the capacity of junior reviewers; the first to incentivise reviewers, etc.) and it may play an even more vital role with the further professionalising of I-O psychological research practices. The SAJIP may act as a thought leader in not only the discipline of psychology, but in academic publishing throughout Africa by advancing open and transparent research practices. Many of the issues reported above require more systematic support from the SAJIP, its editors and editorial board, its contributors, and AOSIS (Pty) Ltd in order to effectively manage them in the years to come.

Finally, the SAJIP can set the benchmark for what academic publishing in Africa should be, through incorporating the TOP guidelines and for providing the best practice guidelines on conducting and reporting analyses. It has the potential to drive the development of shared standards for open science practice, to translate scientific norms and values into concrete actions and to become the custodian of transparency and academic integrity within Africa.

 

Acknowledgements

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships which may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article. The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the authors.

Author's contributions

E.E. and L.E.v.Z. contributed equally to this project.

 

References

Appelbaum, M., Cooper, H., Kline, R. B., Mayo-Wilson, E., Nezu, A. M., & Rao, S. M. (2018). Journal article reporting standards for quantitative research in psychology: The APA Publications and Communications Board task force report. American Psychologist, 73(1), 3.         [ Links ]

Atwater, L. E., Mumford, M. D., Schriesheim, C. A., & Yammarino, F. J. (2014). Retraction of leadership articles: Causes and prevention. Leadership Quarterly, 25, 1174-1180.         [ Links ]

Baker, M. (2016). Digital badges motivate scientists to share data. Nature. Retrieved from http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?pid=S1415-65552018000400639&script=sci_arttext&tlng=pt and https://rac.anpad.org.br/index.php/rac/article/download/1282/1277; https://doi.org/10.1038/nature.2016.19907.         [ Links ]

Bakker, M., Hartgerink, C. H., Wicherts, J. M., & Van der Maas, H. L. (2016). Researchers' intuitions about power in psychological research. Psychological Science, 27(8), 1069-1077.         [ Links ]

Banks, G. C., & McDaniel, M. A. (2011). The kryptonite of evidence-based I-O psychology. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 4(1), 40-44.         [ Links ]

Banks, G. C., & O'Boyle, E. H. Jr. (2013). Why we need industrial-organizational psychology to fix industrial-organizational psychology. Industrial and Organizational Psychology: Perspectives on Science and Practice, 6, 284-287.         [ Links ]

Banks, G. C., O'Boyle, E. H. Jr., Pollack, J. M., White, C. D., Batchelor, J. H., Whelpley, C. E., … Adkins, C. L. (2016a). Questions about questionable research practices in the field of management: A guest commentary. Journal of Management, 42(1), 5-20.         [ Links ]

Banks, G. C., Rogelberg, S. G., Woznyj, H. M., Landis, R. S., & Rupp, D. E. (2016b). Editorial: Evidence on questionable research practices: The good, the bad, and the ugly. Journal of Business and Psychology, 31(3), 323-338.         [ Links ]

Bedeian, A. G., Taylor, S. G., & Miller, A. N. (2010). Management science on the credibility bubble: Cardinal sins and various misdemeanors. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 9, 715-725.         [ Links ]

Bergh, D. D., Sharp, B. M., Aguinis, H., & Li, M. (2017). Is there a credibility crisis in strategic management research? Evidence on the reproducibility of study findings. Strategic Organization, 15(3), 423-436.         [ Links ]

Bosco, F. A., Aguinis, H., Field, J. G., Pierce, C. A., & Dalton, D. R. (2016). HARKing's threat to organizational research: Evidence from primary and meta-analytic sources. Personnel Psychology, 69(3), 709-750.         [ Links ]

Brandt, M. J., Ijzerman, H., Dijksterhuis, A., Farach, F. J., Geller, J., Giner-Sorolla, R., … Van't Veer, A. (2014). The replication recipe: What makes for a convincing replication? Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 50, 217-224.         [ Links ]

Brown, N. J. L., Sokal, A. D., & Friedman, H. L. (2014a). Positive psychology and romantic scientism. American Psychologist, 69(6), 636-637.         [ Links ]

Brown, N. J. L., Sokal, A. D., & Friedman, H. L. (2014b). The persistence of wishful thinking. American Psychologist, 69(6), 629-632.         [ Links ]

Camerer, C. F., Dreber, A., Holzmeister, F., Ho, T. H., Huber, J., Johannesson, M., … Altmejd, A. (2018). Evaluating the replicability of social science experiments in Nature and Science between 2010 and 2015. Nature Human Behaviour, 2(9), 637.         [ Links ]

Chambers, C. D., Feredoes, E., Muthukumaraswamy, S. D., & Etchells, P. (2014). Instead of 'playing the game' it is time to change the rules: Registered Reports at AIMS Neuroscience and beyond. AIMS Neuroscience, 1(1), 4-17.         [ Links ]

Coetzee, M. (2018). South African Journal of Industrial Psychology: Annual editorial overview 2018. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 44(1), 3.         [ Links ]

Coetzee, M., & Van Zyl, L. E. (2013). Advancing research in industrial and organisational psychology: A brief overview of 2013. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 39(1), 1-4.         [ Links ]

Coetzee, M., & Van Zyl, L. E. (2014). A review of a decade's scholarly publications (2004-2013) in the South African Journal of Industrial Psychology. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 40(1), 1-16.         [ Links ]

Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioural sciences (2nd ed.), Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.         [ Links ]

Conte, J. M., & Landy, F. J. (2018). Work in the 21st century: An introduction to industrial and organizational psychology. London: Wiley Publications.         [ Links ]

De Boeck, P., & Jeon, M. (2018). Perceived crisis and reforms: Issues, explanations, and remedies. Psychological Bulletin, 144(7), 757-777.         [ Links ]

de Groot, A. D. (2014). The meaning of 'significance' for different types of research [translated and annotated by Eric-Jan Wagenmakers, Denny Borsboom, Josine Verhagen, Rogier Kievit, Marjan Bakker, Angelique Cramer, Dora Matzke, Don Mellenbergh, and Han LJ van der Maas]. Acta Psychologica, 148, 188-194.         [ Links ]

Dimitrov, K. (2014). Geert Hofstede et al.'s set of national cultural dimensions: Popularity and criticisms. Economic Alternatives, 1(2), 30-60.         [ Links ]

Dobele, A. R. (2015). Assessing the quality of feedback in the peer-review process. Higher Education Research & Development, 34(5), 853-868.         [ Links ]

Doyen, S., Klein, O., Pichon, C. L., & Cleeremans, A. (2012). Behavioral priming: It's all in the mind, but whose mind?. PLoS One, 7(1), e29081.         [ Links ]

Earp, B. D., & Trafimow, D. (2015). Replication, falsification, and the crisis of confidence in social psychology. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 621.         [ Links ]

Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Lang, A.-G., & Buchner, A. (2007). G*Power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behavior Research Methods, 39(2), 175-191        [ Links ]

Feeney, J. R. (2018). Robust science: A review of journal practices in Industrial-Organizational Psychology. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 11(1), 48-54.         [ Links ]

Field, J. G., Baker, C. A., Bosco, F. A., McDaniel, M. A., & Kepes, S. (2016, April). The extent of p-hacking in I-O psychology. Paper presented at the 31st Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Anaheim, CA.         [ Links ]

Fraley, R. C., & Vazire, S. (2014). The N-pact factor: Evaluating the quality of empirical journals with respect to sample size and statistical power. PLoS One, 9(10), e109019.         [ Links ]

Frankenhuis, W. E., & Nettle, D. (2018). Open science is liberating and can foster creativity. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 13(4), 439-447.         [ Links ]

Giner-Sorolla, R. (2012). Science or art? How aesthetic standards grease the way through the publication bottleneck but undermine science. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7, 562-571. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691612457576        [ Links ]

Grand, J. A., Rogelberg, S. G., Allen, T. D., Landis, R. S., Reynolds, D. H., Scott, J. C., … Truxillo, D. M. (2018). A systems-based approach to fostering robust science in industrial-organizational psychology. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 11(1), 4-42.         [ Links ]

Guo, Y., & Pandis, N. (2015). Sample-size calculation for repeated-measures and longitudinal studies. American Journal of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics, 147(1), 146-149.         [ Links ]

Hardwicke, T. E., Mathur, M. B., MacDonald, K. E., Nilsonne, G., Banks, G. C., … Frank, M. C. (2018, March 19). Data availability, reusability, and analytic reproducibility: Evaluating the impact of a mandatory open data policy at the journal Cognition. Retrieved from https://osf.io/preprints/bitss/39cfb/        [ Links ]

Hubbard, R., & Vetter, D. E. (1996). An empirical comparison of published replication research in accounting, economics, finance, management, and marketing. Journal of Business Research, 35(2), 153-164.         [ Links ]

Ioannidis, J. P. A. (2005). Why most published research findings are false. PLoS Medicine, 2(8), e124. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.0020124        [ Links ]

Ioannidis, J. P. A. (2012). Why science is not necessarily self-correcting. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7, 645-654. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691612464056        [ Links ]

John, L. K., Loewenstein, G., & Prelec, D. (2012). Measuring the prevalence of questionable research practices with incentives for truth telling. Psychological Science, 23(5), 524-532.         [ Links ]

Kepes, S., & McDaniel, M. A. (2013). How trustworthy is the scientific literature in industrial and organizational psychology? Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 6(3), 252-268. https://doi.org/10.1111/iops.12045        [ Links ]

Kepes, S., Banks, G. C., & Oh, I. S. (2014). Avoiding bias in publication bias research: The value of 'null' findings. Journal of Business and Psychology, 29(2), 183-203.         [ Links ]

Kepes, S., Banks, G. C., McDaniel, M., & Whetzel, D. L. (2012). Publication bias in the organizational sciences. Organizational Research Methods, 15(4), 624-662.         [ Links ]

Kidwell, M. C., Lazarević, L. B., Baranski, E., Hardwicke, T. E., Piechowski, S., Falkenberg, L. S., … Errington, T. M. (2016). Badges to acknowledge open practices: A simple, low-cost, effective method for increasing transparency. PLoS Biology, 14(5), e1002456.         [ Links ]

Klein, O., Hardwicke, T. E., Aust, F., Breuer, J., Danielsson, H., Mohr, A. H., … Frank, M. C. (2018). A practical guide for transparency in psychological science. Collabra: Psychology, 4(1), 20. https://doi.org/10.1525/collabra.158        [ Links ]

Kriegeskorte, N. (2012). Open evaluation: A vision for entirely transparent post-publication peer review and rating for science. Frontiers in Computational Neuroscience, 6, 79.         [ Links ]

Kühberger, A., Fritz, A., & Scherndl, T. (2014). Publication bias in psychology: A diagnosis based on the correlation between effect size and sample size. PLoS One, 9(9), e105825.         [ Links ]

Lehrer, J. (2010). The truth wears off. The New Yorker, 86, 53-57.         [ Links ]

Makel, M. C., Plucker, J. A., & Hegarty, B. (2012). Replications in psychology r: How often do they really occur? Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7(6), 537-542. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691612460688        [ Links ]

Martin, G. N., & Clarke, R. M. (2017). Are psychology journals anti-replication? A snapshot of editorial practices. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 523.         [ Links ]

Mazzola, J. J., & Deuling, J. K. (2013). Forgetting what we learned as graduate students: HARKing and selective outcome reporting in I-O journal articles. Industrial and Organizational Psychology: Perspectives on Science and Practice, 6(3), 279-284. https://doi.org/10.1111/iops.12049        [ Links ]

McDaniel, M. A., & Whetzel, D. L. (2005). Situational judgment test research: Informing the debate on practical intelligence theory. Intelligence, 33(5), 515-525.         [ Links ]

McDaniel, M. A., Kepes, S., Hartman, N. S., & List, S. K. (2017, April). Questionable research practices among researchers in top management programs. Paper presented at the 32nd Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology. Orlando, FL.         [ Links ]

Miller, C. C. (2006). Peer review in the organizational and management sciences: Prevalence and effects of reviewer hostility, bias, and dissensus. Academy Management Journal, 49(3), 425-431.         [ Links ]

Mudrak, J., Zabrodska, K., Kveton, P., Jelinek, M., Blatny, M., Solcova, I., & Machovcova, K. (2018). Occupational well-being among university faculty: A job demands-resources model. Research in Higher Education, 59(3), 325-348.         [ Links ]

Nosek, B. A., Alter, G., Banks, G. C., Borsboom, D., Bowman, S. D., Breckler, S. J., … Contestabile, M. (2015). Promoting an open research culture. Science, 348(6242), 1422-1425.         [ Links ]

Nuijten, M. B., Hartgerink, C. H. J., Van Assen, M. A. L. M, Epskamp, S, & Wicherts, J. M. (2016). The prevalence of statistical reporting errors in psychology (1985-2013). Behavior Research Methods, 48(4), 1205-1226.         [ Links ]

Nuijten, M. B. (2018). Practical tools and strategies for researchers to increase replicability. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 61(5), 535-539. https://doi.org/10.1111/dmcn.14054        [ Links ]

O'Boyle, E. H. Jr., Banks, G. C., & Gonzalez-Mule, E. (2017). The chrysalis effect: How ugly initial results metamorphosize into beautiful articles. Journal of Management, 43(2), 376-399.         [ Links ]

Open Science Collaboration. (2015). Estimating the reproducibility of psychological science. Science, 349(6251), 943-954.         [ Links ]

Pashler, H., & Wagenmakers, E. J. (2012). Editors' introduction to the special section on replicability in psychological science A crisis of confidence? Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7(6), 528-530.         [ Links ]

Perugini, M., Gallucci, M., & Costantini, G. (2018). A practical primer to power analysis for simple experimental designs. International Review of Social Psychology, 31(1), 157-180.         [ Links ]

Ritchie, S. J., Wiseman, R., & French, C. C. (2012). Failing the future: Three unsuccessful attempts to replicate Bem's 'Retroactive Facilitation of Recall' Effect. PLoS One, 7(3), e33423.         [ Links ]

Rodriguez, A., Reise, S. P., & Haviland, M. G. (2016). Evaluating bifactor models: Calculating and interpreting statistical indices. Psychological Methods, 21(2), 137.         [ Links ]

Roll, L., Van Zyl, L. E., & Griep, Y. (in press). Brief positive psychological interventions within multi-cultural organisational contexts: A systematic literature review. In L. E. Van Zyl & S. Rothmann (Eds.), Theoretical approaches to multi-cultural positive psychological interventions. Cham: Springer.         [ Links ]

Rouder, J. N., & Morey, R. D. (2011). A Bayes factor meta-analysis of Bem's ESP claim. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 18(4), 682-689.         [ Links ]

Shrout, P. E., & Rodgers, J. L. (2018). Psychology, science, and knowledge construction: Broadening perspectives from the replication crisis. Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 487-510.         [ Links ]

Simmons, J. P., Nelson, L. D., & Simonsohn, U. (2011). False-positive psychology: Undisclosed flexibility in data collection and analysis allows presenting anything as significant. Psychological Science, 22(11), 1359-1366.         [ Links ]

Simons, D. J. (2014). The value of direct replication. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 9(1), 76-80. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691613514755        [ Links ]

Smillie, S. (2014, October 13). Journal 'fails the test'. Retrieved from https://www.timeslive.co.za/news/south-africa/2014-10-13-journal-fails-the-test/.         [ Links ]

Stevens, J. R. (2017). Replicability and reproducibility in comparative psychology. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 862.         [ Links ]

Thomas, A. (2018, September 05). African academics are being caught in the predatory journal trap. Retrieved from http://theconversation.com/african-academics-are-being-caught-in-the-predatory-journal-trap-48473.         [ Links ]

Tomaselli, K. G. (2018). Perverse incentives and the political economy of South African academic journal publishing. South African Journal of Science, 114(11-12), 1-6.         [ Links ]

Van de Schoot, R., Lugtig, P., & Hox, J. (2012). A checklist for testing measurement invariance. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 9(4), 486-492.         [ Links ]

Van Zyl, L. E., Efendic, E., Rothmann, S., & Shankland, R. (in press). Best practice guidelines for positive psychological research designs. In L. E. Van Zyl & S. Rothmann (Eds.), Positive psychological intervention design and protocols for multi-cultural contexts. Cham: Springer.         [ Links ]

Van't Veer, A. E., & Giner-Sorolla, R. (2016). Pre-registration in social psychology - A discussion and suggested template. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 67, 2-12.         [ Links ]

Westland, J. C. (2010). Lower bounds on sample size in structural equation modeling. Electronic Commerce Research and Applications, 9(6), 476-487.         [ Links ]

Wicherts, J. M., Bakker, M., & Molenaar, D. (2011). Willingness to share research data is related to the strength of the evidence and the quality of reporting of statistical results. PLoS One, 6(11), e26828.         [ Links ]

Wong, P. T. P., & Roy, S. (2017). Critique of positive psychology and positive interventions. In N. J. L. Brown, T. Lomas, & F. J. Eiroa-Orosa (Eds.), The Routledge international handbook of critical positive psychology. London: Routledge.         [ Links ]

Woodiwiss, A. J. (2012). Publication subsidies: Challenges and dilemmas facing South African researchers. Cardiovascular Journal of Africa, 23(8), 421.         [ Links ]

 

 

Correspondence:
Llewellyn van Zyl
llewellyn101@gmail.com

Received: 10 Nov. 2018
Accepted: 23 Apr. 2019
Published: 30 May 2019

 

 

1 . For instance, 97% of articles in I-O psychology journals rejected the null hypothesis; the 'reward structure' of journals leads to more value being placed on supported hypotheses; I-O researchers manipulate data to get model fit and to support their claims; in attempts to validate consulting products like psychometric tools, or interventions, I-O practitioners/consultants may also manipulate data to show that their products 'worked well'.
2 . For instance, if one analytical methodology doesn't provide the desired results, researchers are flexible to employ others who could provide support for their ideas; researchers stop data collection early, or collect more data, ex post facto; dropping outliers; abandon hypotheses or change the hypotheses to match the results.
3 . For instance, editors and reviewers encourage HARKing, and changing hypotheses based on the data; editorial policies result in or encourage publication bias.
4 . In their study, Martin and Clarke (2017) found that only one I-O psychology journal accepted null results and replications.
5 . HARKing refers to the practice where researchers' hypothesise after the results are known.
6 . For example, in 2014, some academics at higher education institutions in South Africa published in predatory journals, such as the Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences (Smillie, 2014; Thomas, 2018). Some of these academics have previously published manuscripts in SAJIP and its sister journal the SAHRM.
7 . For an extensive list of recommendations, kindly consult Shrout and Rodgers (2018)
8 . These recommendations are based on current trends noticed within the SAJIP.
9 . For illustrative purposes, Article P7 (see Table 1) reported a sample size of 300. About 42 observed variables were reported, leading to six first-order latent variables. The author reported a p-value of 0.01 for the structural models. Assuming that the author employed the lowest possibly acceptable power level of 0.80 (i.e. there is an 80% probability that the researcher did not commit a Type II error), based on Westland's (2010) formula, they would need a minimum of 400 participants to accurately estimate model fit, and 2171 in order to determine a specific effect.
10 . For a comprehensive list of repositories see the 'How to Share?' section reported in Klein et al. (2018).

^rND^sAppelbaum^nM.^rND^sCooper^nH.^rND^sKline^nR. B.^rND^sMayo-Wilson^nE.^rND^sNezu^nA. M.^rND^sRao^nS. M.^rND^sAtwater^nL. E.^rND^sMumford^nM. D.^rND^sSchriesheim^nC. A.^rND^sYammarino^nF. J.^rND^sBaker^nM.^rND^sBakker^nM.^rND^sHartgerink^nC. H.^rND^sWicherts^nJ. M.^rND^sVan der Maas^nH. L.^rND^sBanks^nG. C.^rND^sMcDaniel^nM. A.^rND^sBanks^nG. C.^rND^sO'Boyle^nE. H. Jr.^rND^sBanks^nG. C.^rND^sO'Boyle^nE. H. Jr.^rND^sPollack^nJ. M.^rND^sWhite^nC. D.^rND^sBatchelor^nJ. H.^rND^sWhelpley^nC. E.^rND^sAdkins^nC. L.^rND^sBanks^nG. C.^rND^sRogelberg^nS. G.^rND^sWoznyj^nH. M.^rND^sLandis^nR. S.^rND^sRupp^nD. E.^rND^sBedeian^nA. G.^rND^sTaylor^nS. G.^rND^sMiller^nA. N.^rND^sBergh^nD. D.^rND^sSharp^nB. M.^rND^sAguinis^nH.^rND^sLi^nM.^rND^sBosco^nF. A.^rND^sAguinis^nH.^rND^sField^nJ. G.^rND^sPierce^nC. A.^rND^sDalton^nD. R.^rND^sBrandt^nM. J.^rND^sIjzerman^nH.^rND^sDijksterhuis^nA.^rND^sFarach^nF. J.^rND^sGeller^nJ.^rND^sGiner-Sorolla^nR.^rND^sVan't Veer^nA.^rND^sBrown^nN. J. L.^rND^sSokal^nA. D.^rND^sFriedman^nH. L.^rND^sBrown^nN. J. L.^rND^sSokal^nA. D^rND^sFriedman^nH. L.^rND^sCamerer^nC. F.^rND^sDreber^nA.^rND^sHolzmeister^nF.^rND^sHo^nT. H.^rND^sHuber^nJ.^rND^sJohannesson^nM.^rND^sAltmejd^nA.^rND^sChambers^nC. D.^rND^sFeredoes^nE.^rND^sMuthukumaraswamy^nS. D.^rND^sEtchells^nP.^rND^sCoetzee^nM.^rND^sCoetzee^nM.^rND^sVan Zyl^nL. E.^rND^sCoetzee^nM.^rND^sVan Zyl^nL. E.^rND^sDe Boeck^nP.^rND^sJeon^nM.^rND^sde Groot^nA. D.^rND^sDimitrov^nK.^rND^sDobele^nA. R.^rND^sDoyen^nS.^rND^sKlein^nO.^rND^sPichon^nC. L.^rND^sCleeremans^nA.^rND^sEarp^nB. D.^rND^sTrafimow^nD.^rND^sFaul^nF.^rND^sErdfelder^nE.^rND^sLang^nA.-G.^rND^sBuchner^nA.^rND^sFeeney^nJ. R.^rND^sField^nJ. G.^rND^sBaker^nC. A.^rND^sBosco^nF. A.^rND^sMcDaniel^nM. A.^rND^sKepes^nS.^rND^sFraley^nR. C.^rND^sVazire^nS.^rND^sFrankenhuis^nW. E.^rND^sNettle^nD.^rND^sGiner-Sorolla^nR.^rND^sGrand^nJ. A.^rND^sRogelberg^nS. G.^rND^sAllen^nT. D.^rND^sLandis^nR. S.^rND^sReynolds^nD. H.^rND^sScott^nJ. C.^rND^sTruxillo^nD. M.^rND^sGuo^nY.^rND^sPandis^nN.^rND^sHubbard^nR.^rND^sVetter^nD. E.^rND^sIoannidis^nJ. P. A.^rND^sIoannidis^nJ. P. A.^rND^sJohn^nL. K.^rND^sLoewenstein^nG.^rND^sPrelec^nD.^rND^sKepes^nS.^rND^sMcDaniel^nM. A.^rND^sKepes^nS.^rND^sBanks^nG. C.^rND^sOh^nI. S.^rND^sKepes^nS.^rND^sBanks^nG. C.^rND^sMcDaniel^nM.^rND^sWhetzel^nD. L.^rND^sKidwell^nM. C.^rND^sLazarević^nL. B^rND^sBaranski^nE.^rND^sHardwicke^nT. E.^rND^sPiechowski^nS^rND^sFalkenberg^nL. S.^rND^sErrington^nT. M.^rND^sKlein^nO.^rND^sHardwicke^nT. E.^rND^sAust^nF.^rND^sBreuer^nJ.^rND^sDanielsson^nH.^rND^sMohr^nA. H.^rND^sFrank^nM. C.^rND^sKriegeskorte^nN.^rND^sKühberger^nA.^rND^sFritz^nA.^rND^sScherndl^nT.^rND^sLehrer^nJ.^rND^sMakel^nM. C.^rND^sPlucker^nJ. A.^rND^sHegarty^nB.^rND^sMartin^nG. N.^rND^sClarke^nR. M.^rND^sMazzola^nJ. J.^rND^sDeuling^nJ. K.^rND^sMcDaniel^nM. A.^rND^sWhetzel^nD. L.^rND^sMcDaniel^nM. A.^rND^sKepes^nS.^rND^sHartman^nN. S.^rND^sList^nS. K.^rND^sMiller^nC. C.^rND^sMudrak^nJ.^rND^sZabrodska^nK.^rND^sKveton^nP.^rND^sJelinek^nM.^rND^sBlatny^nM.^rND^sSolcova^nI.^rND^sMachovcova^nK.^rND^sNosek^nB. A.^rND^sAlter^nG.^rND^sBanks^nG. C.^rND^sBorsboom^nD.^rND^sBowman^nS. D.^rND^sBreckler^nS. J.^rND^sContestabile^nM.^rND^sNuijten^nM. B.^rND^sHartgerink^nC. H. J.^rND^sVan Assen^nM. A. L. M,^rND^sEpskamp^nS,^rND^sWicherts^nJ. M.^rND^sNuijten^nM. B.^rND^sO'Boyle^nE. H. Jr.^rND^sBanks^nG. C.^rND^sGonzalez-Mule^nE.^rND^sPashler^nH.^rND^sWagenmakers^nE. J.^rND^sPerugini^nM.^rND^sGallucci^nM.^rND^sCostantini^nG.^rND^sRitchie^nS. J.^rND^sWiseman^nR.^rND^sFrench^nC. C.^rND^sRodriguez^nA.^rND^sReise^nS. P.^rND^sHaviland^nM. G.^rND^sRoll^nL.^rND^sVan Zyl^nL. E.^rND^sGriep^nY.^rND^sRouder^nJ. N.^rND^sMorey^nR. D.^rND^sShrout^nP. E.^rND^sRodgers^nJ. L.^rND^sSimmons^nJ. P.^rND^sNelson^nL. D.^rND^sSimonsohn^nU.^rND^sSimons^nD. J.^rND^sStevens^nJ. R.^rND^sTomaselli^nK. G.^rND^sVan de Schoot^nR.^rND^sLugtig^nP.^rND^sHox^nJ.^rND^sVan Zyl^nL. E.^rND^sEfendic^nE.^rND^sRothmann^nS.^rND^sShankland^nR.^rND^sVan't Veer^nA. E.^rND^sGiner-Sorolla^nR.^rND^sWestland^nJ. C.^rND^sWicherts^nJ. M.^rND^sBakker^nM.^rND^sMolenaar^nD.^rND^sWong^nP. T. P.^rND^sRoy^nS.^rND^sWoodiwiss^nA. J.^rND^1A01^nElizabeth C.^sNel^rND^1A01^nElizabeth C.^sNel^rND^1A01^nElizabeth C^sNel

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

The impact of workplace bullying on flourishing: The moderating role of emotional intelligence

 

 

Elizabeth C. Nel

Department of Industrial and Organisational Psychology, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

---

ABSTRACT

ORIENTATION: Workplace bullying has detrimental effects on employee well-being. Emotional intelligence may moderate the relationship between workplace bullying and flourishing.
RESEARCH PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to examine the nature of the relationship between workplace bullying and flourishing and to investigate the moderating role of emotional intelligence in the workplace bullying-flourishing relationship
MOTIVATION FOR THE STUDY: There is a paucity of studies exploring the moderating role of personal resources such as emotional intelligence in the relationship between workplace bullying and flourishing.
RESEARCH APPROACH/DESIGN AND METHOD: The study used a cross-sectional design, quantitative approach and a convenience sampling method. Employees from a higher education institution (N = 1102) participated in this research. Descriptive, correlation and moderation analysis was used to analyse the data.
MAIN FINDINGS: The results showed that there was a significant negative relationship between workplace bullying and flourishing. Emotional intelligence significantly moderated the relationship between workplace bullying and flourishing
PRACTICAL/MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS: Organisations should develop and/or strengthen the level of emotional intelligence in employees in order to reduce the negative effect of workplace bullying on well-being.
CONTRIBUTION/VALUE-ADD: The findings of this research contribute to the limited body of research investigating personal resources such as emotional intelligence as a moderator in the bullying-well-being relationship.

Keywords: Industrial and organisational psychology; workplace bullying; well-being; flourishing; emotional intelligence; higher education.

---

 

 

Introduction

Workplace bullying is an extremely prevalent and relevant issue in modern working life, with devastating effects on employees and organisations (Smit & Du Plessis, 2016). Exposure to workplace bullying is associated not only with reduced levels of well-being among victims but also with negative individual, group and organisational outcomes (Mathisen, Einarsen, & Mykletun, 2008). Given the significant costs associated with workplace bullying and the array of negative employee outcomes, it is imperative for organisations to both prevent the onset of bullying and to reduce its negative effects. Despite the wealth of research on the prevalence and antecedents of workplace bullying, little research has been undertaken on understanding the potential moderators in the relationship between bullying and well-being (Nielsen & Einarsen, 2018; Rai & Agarwal, 2018). Theoretically, research suggests that the effects of bullying are dependent upon a range of personal resources such as resilience, coping, psychological capital and self-efficacy (Rai & Agarwal, 2018; Zapf & Einarsen, 2005). As such, it is proposed that personal resources may reduce the damaging effects of bullying at work on a person's well-being (Bernstein & Trimm, 2016; Carter & Loh, 2017; Indoo & Ajeya, 2012; Upton, 2010). Drawing from the job demands-resources theory (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007, 2014, 2018), personal resources refer to individuals' personal beliefs regarding the amount of control they have over their work environment (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007, 2014, 2018). Subsequently, individuals who possess high levels of personal resources have the ability to effectively approach and manage their job demands (Bakker & Demerouti, 2018), thereby reducing work-related stress and health problems. In terms of the key focus of this study, emotional intelligence was identified as a key personal resource that could act as a protective factor with regard to the negative effects on well-being associated with bullying interactions.

 

Research purpose

The purpose of the study is twofold. Firstly, the study seeks to examine the nature of the relationship between workplace bullying and flourishing. Secondly, the study seeks to investigate whether emotional intelligence significantly moderates the relationship between workplace bullying and flourishing. By conducting this research, the study may potentially contribute to a workplace bullying and well-being theory by shedding light on how personal resources such as emotional intelligence may be helpful in reducing the negative effects of workplace bullying. These findings could further inform employee well-being practices for individuals employed in the diverse South African work environment.

 

Literature review

Workplace bullying

Workplace bullying is an umbrella term encompassing a range of subtle or obvious negative behaviours, including aggression, hostility, intimidation and harm (Baillien, Neyens, De Witte, & De Cuyper, 2009; Bartlett & Bartlett, 2011; Einarsen, Hoel, Zapf, & Cooper 2011; Escartín, Zapf, Arrieta, & Rodriquez-Carballeira, 2010; Spagnoli, Spagnoli, Balducci, & Balducci, 2017; Tehrani, 2012). Einarsen et al. (2011) define workplace bullying as follows:

… harassing, offending, or socially excluding someone or negatively affecting someone's work. In order for the label bullying (or mobbing) to be applied to a particular activity, interaction, or process, the bullying behavior has to occur repeatedly and regularly (e.g. weekly) and over a period of time (e.g. about six months). Bullying is an escalating process in the course of which the person confronted ends up in an inferior position and becomes the target of systematic negative social acts. A conflict cannot be called bullying if the incident is an isolated event or if two parties of approximately equal strength are in conflict. (p. 22)

This definition identifies five key elements associated with workplace bullying, which include: (1) negative or aggressive behaviour; (2) the frequency of the behaviour; (3) imbalance of power; (4) harmful effect; and (5) prolonged duration. The first key element, as defined by a number of authors (Baillien et al., 2009; Bartlett & Bartlett, 2011; Einarsen et al., 2011; Escartín et al., 2010; Spagnoli, Spagnoli, Balducci, & Balducci, 2017; Tehrani, 2012), can include overt or covert negative behaviours, including harassment, social exclusion, emotional abuse, spreading rumours or physical attacks. Thus, workplace bullying may be person-related (i.e. isolation, social exclusion, false accusations, undermining, harassment, humiliation, threats, intimidation, manipulation, and personal criticism) or work-related (i.e. work overload, removing of responsibility, overruling decisions, controlling resources, unfair criticism and blocking promotion and development opportunities). The second key element emphasises the frequent nature of bullying behaviours. According to Einarsen et al. (2011), Kalamdien (2013) and Leymann (1996), workplace bullying should occur at least once a week because isolated incidents are typically excluded from the defining elements of bullying behaviour (Di Martino, Hoel, & Cooper, 2003; Einarsen, Hoel, Zapf, & Cooper 2003; Einarsen et al., 2011). However, several authors indicate that single incidents of extreme hostile behaviour may be classified as bullying if the behaviour causes severe negative consequences for an individual's well-being (Baldry, Farrington, & Sorrentino, 2017; Lee, 2002; Tehrani, 2012). The third key element describes a power imbalance between the parties, leaving the victim vulnerable (Baillien, Escartín, Gross, & Zapf, 2017). Remarkably, this imbalance of power between parties is not limited to position or authority (Branch et al., 2013; Cowie, Naylor, Rivers, Smith, & Pereira, 2002) and can occur downwards, upwards (Branch, Ramsay, & Barker, 2007, 2008, 2013), horizontally (Einarsen et al., 2011) and across levels (D'Cruz, 2012). The fourth key element highlights the negative physical and psychological effects on victims' health and well-being. On the one hand, psychological problems may include poor mental health, post-traumatic stress, burnout, depression and suicide (Brewer & Whiteside, 2012; Martin & Klein, 2013; Nielsen & Einarsen, 2012; Nielsen et al., 2013; Soares, 2012). On the other hand, physical problems include chronic disease, headaches, higher body mass, increased substance abuse, sleep disruption and an increase in cardiovascular disease (Bartlett & Bartlett, 2011; Kivimaki et al., 2003). The last key element of workplace bullying underscores the prolonged duration of negative or aggressive behaviour. As such, workplace bullying typically occurs over a long period of time and escalates and intensifies with time (Einarsen et al., 2011; Zapf, Escartín, Einarsen, Hoel, & Vartia, 2011). To support this view, Einarsen et al. (2011) specify a timeframe of at least 6 months, while Salin (2001) stipulate a duration of at least 12 months within which bullying behaviour should occur.

Flourishing

Flourishing is commonly used to describe high levels of well-being (Diener, Wirtz, Tov, Kim-Prieto, Choi, Oishi, & Biswas-Diener, 2010; Hone, Jarden, Schofield, & Duncan, 2014; Seligman, 2011). The concept of flourishing was developed by Keyes (2002, 2005, 2007) and refers to a pattern of positive feelings and positive functioning in life, encompassing emotional, psychological and social aspects of well-being. Flourishing can be linked to several theoretical models that conceptualise flourishing aspects through research conducted by Keyes (2002), Diener et al. (2010), Seligman (2011) and Huppert and So (2013). Keyes (2002) developed the mental health continuum (MHC). The MHC focuses on the way individuals function, both personally and socially, and labels individuals as languishing (i.e. low levels of emotional, psychological and social well-being), moderately mentally healthy (i.e. neither flourishing nor languishing) and flourishing (i.e. high levels of emotional, psychological and social well-being). According to the MHC (Keyes, 2002), flourishing comprises three main components, namely, psychological well-being, social well-being and emotional well-being. Psychological well-being involves aspects of an individual's psychological functioning, namely self-acceptance, autonomy, personal growth, positive relations, environmental mastery and purpose in life. Social well-being refers to how an individual functions in a social manner and includes social coherence, social actualisation, social integration, social acceptance and social contribution. Emotional well-being entails the presence of positive emotions, interest in life and satisfaction with life (Keyes, 2002, 2005, 2006). Diener et al. (2010) conceptualised flourishing as the presence of positive relationships, engagement, purpose and meaning, self-acceptance and self-esteem, competence, optimism and social contribution. This model is based on humanistic and positive psychology traditions and includes an individual's psychological and social functioning (Diener et al., 2010). Seligman (2011) conceptualised flourishing in terms of five dimensions: positive emotions, engagement, positive relationships, meaning and accomplishments (the PERMA model). According to Seligman (2011), the PERMA model may assist individuals to find happiness, fulfilment and meaning in their lives. Huppert and So (2013) conceptualised flourishing as the presence of feeling good and functioning effectively. This model highlights mental states rather than physical states and describes flourishing in terms of positive characteristics (i.e. emotional stability, vitality, optimism, resilience and self-esteem); positive functioning (i.e. engagement, competence, meaning and positive relationships); and positive appraisal (i.e. life satisfaction and positive emotion).

Emotional intelligence

Emotional intelligence was originally developed by Salovey and Mayer (1990) as the appraisal and regulation of emotions and the utilisation thereof to facilitate one's behaviour. Generally defined as an intelligence that involves problem-solving and social relationships (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2008), emotional intelligence enables individuals to successfully cope and adapt to workplace stressors (Gunavathy & Ayswarya, 2012; Van Zyl & De Bruin, 2012). According to Mayer and Salovey's (1997) four-branch model, emotional intelligence consists of four areas of cognitive abilities: (1) emotional perception; (2) emotional understanding; (3) emotional facilitation; and (4) emotion management. Emotional perception refers to the ability to accurately perceive and express emotions. Emotional understanding involves the use of emotions to facilitate thinking and problem-solving. Emotional facilitation refers to the ability to recognise and analyse complex emotions, while emotion management involves the ability to manage emotions for goal accomplishment (Mayer & Salovey, 1997). Providing a different perspective of emotional intelligence, the Bar-On (1997, 2000, 2006) model defines emotional intelligence as a range of non-cognitive abilities, social competencies and skills that affect an individual's ability to flourish when faced with daily demands and pressures. The Bar-On (1997, 2000, 2006) model includes five key components of effective emotional and social functioning: intrapersonal skills; interpersonal skills; stress management; adaptability; and general mood. Intrapersonal skills refer to emotional self-awareness, self-regard, assertiveness and the ability to express one's feelings and be self-directed. Interpersonal skills involve the ability to be aware of, understand and appreciate others' feelings and to establish and maintain mutually satisfying relationships with other people. Stress management refers to the ability to actively and positively cope with stressful situations and the ability to act and control one's emotions. Adaptability involves the ability to remain flexible in changing situations and conditions and to identify and solve personal and social problems. General mood is the ability to maintain a positive attitude towards life, to feel satisfied with one's life and to express positive emotions (Bar-On, 2000). Combining cognitive and personality competencies, Goleman (2001) developed the mixed model of emotional intelligence competencies. According to Goleman (1996), emotional intelligence is not fixed and develops as individuals learn and grow over time. The model is based on the recognition and regulation of emotions in oneself and others, and outlines the following four categories of skills: (1) self-awareness; (2) self-management; (3) social awareness; and (4) relationship management. Self-awareness refers to the ability to recognise emotions in oneself, as well as their impact on decision-making. Self-management involves the ability to control one's own emotions and to successfully adjust to changing situations. Social awareness involves the ability to be aware of, understand and react to others' emotions. Relationship management includes the ability to effectively communicate, influence and develop others while building collaboration and managing conflict (Goleman, 2001).

Workplace bullying, flourishing and emotional intelligence

Numerous studies (Coetzee & Oosthuizen, 2017; Hansen, Hogh, & Persson, 2011; Lutgen-Sandvik, Namie, & Namie, 2009; Nielsen, Magerøy, Gjerstad, & Einarsen, 2014; Nielsen et al., 2012; Notelaers, 2010) provide support for a relationship between workplace bullying and well-being. More specifically, workplace bullying has been recognised as a major source of workplace stress that is associated with negative well-being outcomes, including poor psychological health, post-traumatic stress, burnout, depression (Brewer & Whiteside, 2012; Martin & Klein, 2013; Nielsen et al., 2014; Nielsen, Glaso, Matthiesen, Eid, & Einarsen, 2013; Verkuil, Atasayi, & Molendijk, 2015) and even suicide (Bartlett & Bartlett, 2011). Although a considerable amount of literature is available on the relationship between workplace bullying and various well-being outcomes, limited research efforts have been dedicated towards examining the concept of flourishing as a measure of well-being in relation to workplace bullying. According to the researcher's knowledge, only a single study linking workplace bullying to flourishing has been conducted (Coetzee & Oosthuizen, 2017).

In terms of emotional intelligence, only a few studies have examined individual personality traits and dispositions as moderating variables in the relationship between workplace bullying and well-being. Previous research found that individuals' personal resources such as coping, self-esteem, psychological capital, self-efficacy and resilience moderated the relationship between workplace bullying and various well-being outcomes (Ashraf & Khan, 2014; Bernstein & Trimm, 2016; Jackson, Firtko & Edenborough, 2007; Moreno-Jimenez, Rodriguez-Munoz, Moreno, & Garrosa, 2007; Nielsen & Einarsen, 2018; Rai & Agarwal, 2018; Upton, 2010). With specific reference to emotional intelligence, only a small number of studies have suggested a link between workplace bullying and emotional intelligence. These studies suggest that employees high in emotional intelligence are more capable of coping with bullying (Ashraf & Khan, 2014; Bennett & Sawatzky, 2013; Cartwright & Pappas, 2008; Giorgi et al., 2016; Hutchinson & Hurley, 2013; Oluyinka, 2009). Studies also indicate that individuals high in emotional intelligence tend to experience fewer negative well-being effects resulting from workplace bullying than those with a lower emotional intelligence (EI) (Cartwright & Pappas, 2008; Slaski & Cartwright, 2003). This indicates that highly emotionally intelligent individuals appear to be more capable of effectively coping with bullying at work (Raman, Sambasivan, & Kumar, 2016).

Based on the foregoing discussion, it is evident that workplace bullying causes severe psychological distress (Reknes & Einarsen, 2018). Personal resources, specifically emotional intelligence, have been found to significantly improve individuals' psychological well-being (Schutte & Loi, 2014) and their ability to cope with demanding work situations such as bullying (Hutchinson & Hurley, 2013). Unlike inherent personality traits, emotional intelligence is not fixed and can be enhanced with minimal training (Hutchinson, Hurley, Kozlowski, & Whitehair, 2018). As such, organisations should consider emotional intelligence training as part of their antibullying strategies.

 

Conceptual model

Based on previous research, a conceptual model was developed indicating the hypothesised relationship between workplace bullying and flourishing and the moderating role of emotional intelligence. Workplace bullying is depicted as the dependent variable, while flourishing is the independent variable, whereas emotional intelligence is shown as the moderating variable. The main purpose of this study was to investigate the moderating effect of emotional intelligence on the relationship between workplace bullying and flourishing. The conceptual model, illustrated in Figure 1, indicates the moderating role of emotional intelligence in the relationship between workplace bullying and flourishing.

 

 

Statement of hypotheses

Hypothesis 1

H₀: Workplace bullying is not significantly and negatively related to flourishing.

H₁: Workplace bullying is significantly and negatively related to flourishing.

Hypothesis 2

H₀: Emotional intelligence is not a significant moderator of the relationship between workplace bullying and flourishing.

H₁: Emotional intelligence is a significant moderator of the relationship between workplace bullying and flourishing.

The next section of the article will focus on the research design, which comprises the research approach and method, followed by the presentation of the results and a discussion of the findings. The article concludes with a brief summary of the key conclusions, implications for practice and recommendations for potential future research.

 

Research design

Research approach

A cross-sectional quantitative research approach was followed in order to achieve the research objective.

Research method

 

Research participants

A convenience sample of 1102 employees working within a higher education institution situated in South Africa participated in the study. The participants were colleagues to whom the researcher had access. They were mostly employed at the academic level (65%) and comprised predominantly 49% white people and 64% females in their maintenance career stage (65% ≥ 41 years). The mean age of the participants was 45 years (SD = 11.31). Table 1 presents the profile of the participants.

 

 

Measuring instruments

The Negative Acts Questionnaire - Revised: The Negative Acts Questionnaire - Revised (NAQ-R) developed by Einarsen et al. (2009) is a self-report measurement instrument. The NAQ-R contains 22 items that include three subscales: work-related bullying (7 items; e.g. being ordered to do work below your level of competence), person-related bullying (12 items; e.g. being ignored or excluded) and physically intimidating bullying (3 items; e.g. threats of violence or physical abuse or actual abuse). A five-point Likert-type scale was used for subject responses to each of the items. In terms of reliability (internal consistency), Cronbach's alpha coefficients for each subscale range from 0.90 to 0.95 (high) (Carter et al., 2013; Einarsen, Hoel, & Notelaers, 2009; Kakoulakis et al., 2015; Tsuno, Kawakami, Inoue, & Abe, 2010). In terms of the present study, the overall NAQ-R scale obtained a reliability coefficient of 0.95. The internal consistency reliability coefficients for the three subscales ranged between 0.79 (physically intimidating bullying) and 0.94 (person-related bullying).

The Flourishing Scale: The Flourishing Scale (FS) developed by Diener et al. (2010) is a self-report measurement instrument. The FS contains eight items relating to positive relationships (e.g. my social relationships are supportive and rewarding), meaning and purpose (e.g. I lead a purposeful and meaningful life), engagement (e.g. I am engaged and interested in my daily activities), social contribution (e.g. I actively contribute to the happiness and well-being of others), competence (e.g. I am competent and capable in the activities that are important to me), self-respect (e.g. I am a good person and live a good life), optimism (e.g. I am optimistic about my future) and social relationships (e.g. people respect me). A seven-point Likert-type scale was used for subject responses to each of the items. In terms of reliability (internal consistency), Diener et al. (2010) established high internal consistency reliability (0.87). In terms of the present study, the overall FS obtained a reliability coefficient of 0.91.

The Assessing Emotions Scale: The Assessing Emotions Scale (AES) developed by Schutte, Malouff and Bhullar (2009) is a self-report measurement instrument. The AES contains 33 items that include four subscales: perception of emotions (10 items; e.g. I am aware of my emotions as I experience them), managing own emotions (9 items; e.g. I have control over my emotions), managing others' emotions (8 items; e.g. I like to share my emotions with others) and utilisation of emotions (6 items; e.g. when my mood changes, I see new possibilities). A five-point Likert-type scale was used for subject responses to each of the items. In terms of reliability (internal consistency), Cronbach's alpha coefficients for each subscale range from 0.76 to 0.84 (high) (Coetzee & Schreuder, 2011). In terms of the present study, the overall AES scale obtained a reliability coefficient of 0.91. The internal consistency reliability coefficients for the four subscales ranged between 0.72 (managing others' emotions) and 0.83 (managing own emotions).

In addition, a biographical questionnaire was used to determine the sociodemographic characteristics (race, gender, age, qualification, job level and tenure) of the participants.

 

Research procedure and ethical considerations

A total of 5477 questionnaires were distributed, with 1102 usable questionnaires returned (N = 1102), yielding a response rate of 20.12%. The participants were invited to voluntarily participate in the study. The questionnaires were electronically distributed via an e-mail link. Each questionnaire included a cover letter inviting employees to participate in the study and assuring them that their responses would remain anonymous and confidential. The cover letter also stated that completing and returning the questionnaire would be regarded as informed consent and would constitute agreement to use the information for research purposes only.

 

Statistical analysis

Statistical analysis was conducted by means of the Statistical Analysis System (SAS) Version 9.4 program (SAS Institute Inc., 2013). Descriptive statistics (means, standard deviations and Cronbach's alpha coefficients), correlation analysis (Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients) and moderation analysis (using Hayes' PROCESS procedure for SPSS version 2.16.3 and Version 3.0 software) were conducted to achieve the objectives of the study. The 0.05 level of significance was selected to determine the presence of significant effects.

 

Ethical consideration

Ethical clearance was obtained from the University of South Africa's Ethics Committee (Ref: 2014/CEMS/IOP/017), and permission to conduct the study was obtained from the institution.

 

Results

Descriptive statistics and correlations

The reliability coefficients reported in Table 2 show acceptable internal consistency reliability of the three scales and subscales. The overall reliability coefficient of the NAQ-R was very high (α = 0.95) as well as the reliability coefficient for the FS (α = 0.91) and AES (α = 0.95). These reliability coefficients showed strong overall internal consistency for the three scales.

Hypothesis 1 was analysed by using Pearson's correlation analysis. The results of the analysis are presented in Table 2.

Table 2 shows that all the NAQ-R variables were negatively and significantly associated with the FS (-0.20 ≤ r ≤ -0.11; p ≤ 0.001; small practical effect). Table 2 further shows that the overall NAQ-R scale significantly and negatively correlated with the overall AES (r = -0.07; p ≤ 0.001; small practical effect) and managing own emotions variable (r = -0.13; p ≤ 0.001; small practical effect).

The overall FS positively and significantly correlated with the overall AES variables (r = 0.52; p ≤ 0.001; large practical effect). Furthermore, positive and significant correlations were observed between the FS variable and all four AES variables (0.34 ≥ r ≤ 0.58; p ≤ 0.001; medium to large practical effect). Overall, the correlation range was below the threshold of r ≤ 0.85) for multicollinearity concerns.

Moderation analysis

The study proposed that emotional intelligence would moderate the relationship between workplace bullying and flourishing. A statistically significant interaction was found (Fp = 140.33; p = 0.001; R²= 0.28) for the model of emotional intelligence, workplace bullying and the interaction between workplace bullying and emotional intelligence. The model predicts 28% of the variance in flourishing. As illustrated in Tables 3-6, the results show that workplace bullying had a significant negative main effect on flourishing (b = -0.97; p < 0.001; lower level confidence interval [LLCI] = -1.34; upper level confidence interval [ULCI] = -0.60). Emotional intelligence also had a significant positive main effect on flourishing (b = 0.53; p < 0.001; LLCI = 0.35; ULCI = 0.71). In addition, workplace bullying was negatively related to flourishing at low (b = -0.23; p < 0.001) and moderate levels of emotional intelligence (b = -0.12; p < 0.001) but not at high levels of emotional intelligence (b = -0.01; p = 0.79). There was a significant interactive effect between workplace bullying and emotional intelligence in predicting flourishing (b = 0.21; p < 0.001; LLCI = 0.12; ULCI = 0.30; f² = 0.39 - large practical effect).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Tables 3-6 further reveal that two levels of the conditional indirect effects of workplace bullying were significantly negative, as supported by the bias-corrected bootstrap LLCI and ULCI, not including zero in the values range. Tables 3-6 show that when participants experience high levels of workplace bullying and low levels of emotional intelligence, perceptions of flourishing are significantly lower than for those participants with higher levels of emotional intelligence. In contrast, when participants experience low levels of workplace bullying in interaction with emotional intelligence, perceptions of flourishing are significantly higher for both participants with high and low levels of emotional intelligence. The pattern derived from the results diagrammed in Figure 2 confirms the existence of an interactive effect between workplace bullying and emotional intelligence in the prediction of flourishing.

 

 

Discussion

The aim of this study was to investigate whether emotional intelligence moderated the relationship between workplace bullying and flourishing. The results indicated a significant interactive effect been workplace bullying and emotional intelligence in predicting flourishing. Overall, emotional intelligence lowered the effect of workplace bullying in the prediction of flourishing. The findings corroborate previous research that showed a moderating effect of emotional intelligence on the relationship between workplace bullying and employee well-being. More specifically, Raman et al. (2016) argue that highly emotionally intelligent individuals have the capacity to manage the negative experience of workplace bullying more effectively. The findings are also in agreement with previous research studies that suggest that individuals high in emotional intelligence tend to be more capable of coping with bullying at work (Cartwright & Pappas, 2008). As such, highly intelligent individuals have greater mastery that enables them to manage demanding situations such as workplace bullying more effectively, which in turn prevents them from experiencing negative well-being outcomes (e.g. low levels of flourishing). Thus, emotional intelligence as a personal resource appears to play a significant role in buffering workplace bullying and enhancing the well-being (flourishing) of individuals.

 

Conclusion

In conclusion, this research has added to the body of literature on workplace bullying within the South African context by noting that emotional intelligence plays a significant role in moderating the effects of bullying on employees' levels of flourishing. Emotional intelligence includes emotional and social competencies and may thus influence employees' well-being by enabling them to cope effectively with bullying situations at work. The development of emotional intelligence is therefore critical to buffer the negative effects of workplace bullying on employees' well-being.

Practical implications

The current higher education environment places extra demands on employees and involves various workplace stressors, especially workplace bullying. One practical implication of this research is that workplace bullying has a significant impact on employees' well-being. As a result, organisations should develop and implement a workplace bullying policy and ensure a positive and bully-free culture. Organisations should also evaluate whether specific practices and workplace policies accommodate or contribute to workplace bullying, and if necessary, possible modifications to work design and leadership practices should be considered. For example, industrial psychologists could present diversity and awareness training related to workplace bullying, enhance individuals' problem-solving and interpersonal skills in order to manage conflict more effectively, and provide counselling to both the victims and perpetrators of bullying. The second practical implication is the importance of personal resources such as emotional intelligence in reducing the negative effects of workplace bullying on employees' levels of flourishing. In terms of enhancing emotional intelligence, organisations could implement strategies to improve individuals' emotional intelligence through formal or informal training initiatives. More specifically, industrial psychologists could implement emotion-focused training interventions based on Mayer and Salovey's (1997) four-branch model of emotional intelligence. For example, a three-day seminar, based on various work-related emotional intelligence skills (e.g. emotional development, emotional regulation, emotional management and emotional resilience), could be presented. Training and education in emotional intelligence could help reduce the vulnerability of bullying targets and/or assist victims to recover and bounce back from bullying incidents.

Limitations and recommendations

Although the focus of the study was on the moderating role of emotional intelligence in the bullying-flourishing relationship, it had a number of limitations. Firstly, the sample was obtained from a single higher education institution and can therefore not be generalised to other industries. Prospective studies could collect data from participants employed in other industries to study the generalisability of these findings. Secondly, because of the cross-sectional nature of the research design, this study could make no statements about causality. Future studies could make use of longitudinal studies to overcome this limitation. Thirdly, the possibility of other explanations cannot be ruled out; thus, prospective studies could examine the moderating role of other personal resources, such as psychological capital or coping strategies in the relationship between workplace bullying and well-being. Lastly, future studies using a mixed-method approach could also be used to gain more in-depth data from interviews.

 

Acknowledgements

Disclaimer: The views expressed in this article are the author's own and not an official position of the institution.

Competing interests

The author declares that there were no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced her in writing this article.

 

References

Ashraf, F., & Khan, M.S. (2014). Does emotional intelligence moderate the relationship between workplace bullying and job performance? Asian Business and Management, 13(2), 171-190. https://doi.org/10.1057/abm.2013.5        [ Links ]

Baillien, E., Escartín, J., Gross, C., & Zapf, D. (2017). Towards a conceptual and empirical differentiation between workplace bullying and interpersonal conflict. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 26(6), 870-881. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359432X.2017.1385601        [ Links ]

Baillien, E., Neyens, I., De Witte, H., & De Cuyper, N. (2009). A qualitative study on the development of workplace bullying: Towards a three-way model. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 19(1), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1002/casp.977        [ Links ]

Bakker, A. B., & Demerouti, E. (2007). The Job Demands-Resources model: State of the art. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 22(3), 309-328. https://doi.org/10.1108/02683940710733115        [ Links ]

Bakker, A. B., & Demerouti, E. (2014). Job demands-resources theory. In C. Cooper, & P. Chen (Eds.), Wellbeing: A complete reference guide (pp. 37-64). Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell.         [ Links ]

Bakker, A. B., & Demerouti, E. (2018). Multiple levels in job demands-resources theory: Implications for employee well-being and performance. In E. Diener, S. Oishi, & L. Tay (Eds.), Handbook of well-being (pp. 1-13). Salt Lake City, UT: DEF.         [ Links ]

Baldry, A. C., Farrington, D. P., & Sorrentino, A. (2017). School bullying and cyberbullying among boys and girls: Roles and overlap. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma, 26(9), 937-951. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2017.1330793        [ Links ]

Bar-On, R. (1997). The Bar-On emotional quotient inventory (EQ-i): A test of emotional intelligence. Toronto: Multi-Health Systems.         [ Links ]

Bar-On, R. (2000). Emotional and social intelligence: Insights from the emotional quotient inventory (EQ-i). In R. Bar-On, & J. D. A. Parker (Eds.), Handbook of emotional intelligence: Theory, development, assessment and application at home, school and in the workplace (pp. 363-388). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.         [ Links ]

Bar-On, R. (2006). The Bar-On model of emotional-social intelligence (ESI). Psicothema, 18, 13-25.         [ Links ]

Bartlett, J. E., & Bartlett, M. E. (2011). Workplace bullying: An integrative literature review. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 13(1), 69-84. https://doi.org/10.1177/1523422311410651        [ Links ]

Bennett, K., & Sawatzky, J. V. (2013). Building emotional intelligence: A strategy for emerging nurse leaders to reduce workplace bullying. Nursing Administration Quarterly, 37(2), 144-151. https://doi.org/10.1097/NAQ.0b013e318286de5f        [ Links ]

Bernstein, C., & Trimm, L. (2016). The impact of workplace bullying on individual wellbeing: The moderating role of coping. South African Journal of Human Resource Management, 14(1), 1-12, https://doi.org/10.4102/sajhrm.v14i1.792/        [ Links ]

Branch, S., Ramsay, S., & Barker, M. (2007). Managers in the firing line: Contributing factors to workplace bullying by staff - An interview study. Journal of Management and Organization, 13(3), 264-281. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1833367200003734        [ Links ]

Branch, S., Ramsay, S., & Barker, M. (2008). The bullied boss: A conceptual exploration of upwards bullying. In A. Glendon, B. Thompson, & B. Myors (Eds.), Advances in organisational psychology (pp. 93-112). Bowen Hills: Australian Academic Press.         [ Links ]

Branch, S., Ramsay, S., & Barker, M. (2013). Workplace bullying, mobbing and general harassment: A review. International Journal of Management Review, 15(3), 280-299. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2370.2012.00339.x        [ Links ]

Brewer, G., & Whiteside, E. (2012). Workplace bullying and stress within the prison service. Journal of Aggression, Conflict and Peace Research, 4(2), 76-85. https://doi.org/10.1108/17596591211208283        [ Links ]

Carter, L., & Loh, J. (2017). What has emotional intelligence got to do with it: The moderating role of EI on the relationships between workplace incivility and mental health? International Journal of Work Organisation and Emotion, 8(1), 41-58. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJWOE.2017.083791        [ Links ]

Carter, M., Thompson, N., Crampton, P., Morrow, G., Burford, B., Gray, C., & Illing, J. (2013). Workplace bullying in the UK NHS: A questionnaire and interview study on prevalence, impact and barriers to reporting. BMJ Open, 3(6), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2013-002628        [ Links ]

Cartwright, S., & Pappas, C. (2008). Emotional intelligence, its measurement and implications for the workplace. International Journal of Management Reviews, 10(2), 149-171. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2370.2007.00220.x        [ Links ]

Coetzee, M., & Oosthuizen, R. M. (2017). Work-role psychosocial flourishing: Its mediation role on workplace bullying and employee turnover intention. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 27(3), 211-215. https://doi.org/10.1080/14330237.2017.1321826        [ Links ]

Coetzee, M., & Schreuder, D. (2011). The relation between career anchors, emotional intelligence and employability satisfaction among workers in the service industry. Southern African Business Review, 15(3), 76-97.         [ Links ]

Cowie, H., Naylor, P., Rivers, I., Smith, P. K., & Pereira, B. (2002). Measuring workplace bullying. Aggression and Violent Behaviour, 7, 33-51. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1359-1789(00)00034-3        [ Links ]

D'Cruz, P. (2012). Workplace bullying in India. New Delhi: Routledge.         [ Links ]

Di Martino, V., Hoel, H., & Cooper, C. L. (2003). Preventing violence and harassment in the workplace. Dublin: European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions.         [ Links ]

Diener, E., Wirtz, D., Tov, W., Kim-Prieto, C., Choi, D., Oishi, S., & Biswas-Diener, R. (2010). New wellbeing measures: Short scales to assess flourishing and positive and negative feelings. Social Indicators Research, 97, 143-156. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-009-9493-y        [ Links ]

Einarsen, S., Hoel, H., & Notelaers, G. (2009). Measuring exposure to bullying and harassment at work: Validity, factor structure and psychometric properties of the negative acts questionnaire-revised. Work and Stress, 23(1), 24-44. https://doi.org/10.1080/02678370902815673        [ Links ]

Einarsen, S., Hoel, H., Zapf, D., & Cooper, C. L. (2003). The concept of bullying at work: The European tradition. In S. Einarsen, H. Hoel, D. Zapf, & C. L. Cooper (Eds.), Bullying and emotional abuse in the workplace: International perspectives in research and practice (pp. 3-30). London: Taylor & Francis.         [ Links ]

Einarsen, S., Hoel, H., Zapf, D., & Cooper, C. L. (2011). Bullying and harassment in the workplace: Developments in theory, research, and practice (2nd edn.). Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis.         [ Links ]

Escartin, J., Zapf, D., Arrieta, C., & Rodriquez-Carballeira, A. (2010). Workers' perception of workplace bullying: A cross-cultural study. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 20(2), 1-28. https://doi.org/10.1080/13594320903395652        [ Links ]

Giorgi, G., Mancuso, S., Fiz Perez, F., Castiello D'Antonio, A., Mucci, N., Cupelli, V., & Arcangeli, G. (2016). Bullying among nurses and its relationship with burnout and organizational climate. International Journal of Nursing Practice, 22(2), 160-168. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijn.12376        [ Links ]

Goleman, D. (2001). An EI-based theory of performance. In C. Cherniss & D. Goleman (Eds.), The emotionally intelligent workplace: How to select for, measure, and improve emotional intelligence in individual, groups, and organizations (pp. 27-44). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.         [ Links ]

Gunavathy, J. S., & Ayswarya, R. (2012). Emotional intelligence and job satisfaction as correlates of job performance: A study among women employed in the Indian software industry. Paradigm, 15(1-2), 58-65. https://doi.org/10.1177/0971890720110109        [ Links ]

Hansen, A. M., Hogh, A., & Persson, R. (2011). Frequency of bullying at work, physiological response and mental health. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 70(1), 19-27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2010.05.010        [ Links ]

Hone, L. C., Jarden, A., Schofield, G. M., & Duncan, S. (2014). Measuring flourishing: The impact of operational definitions on the prevalence of high levels of wellbeing. International Journal of Wellbeing, 4(1), 62-90.         [ Links ]

Huppert, F. A., & So, T. (2013). Flourishing across Europe: Application of a new conceptual framework for defining well-being. Social Indicators Research, 110(3), 837-861. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-011-9966-7        [ Links ]

Hutchinson, M., & Hurley, J. (2013). Exploring leadership capability and emotional intelligence as moderators of workplace bullying. Journal of Nursing Management, 21(3), 553-562. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2834.2012.01372.x        [ Links ]

Hutchinson, M., Hurley, J., Kozlowski, D., & Whitehair, L. (2018). The utilisation of emotional intelligence capabilities in clinical reasoning and decision making: A qualitative, exploratory study. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 27(3-4), 600-610.         [ Links ]

Indoo, S., & Ajeya, J. (2012). Emotional intelligence and occupational stress among the faculty members of private medical and engineering colleges of Uttar Pradesh: A comparative study. Advances in Management, 5(7), 52-57.         [ Links ]

Jackson, D., Firtko, A., & Edenborough, M. (2007). Personal resilience as a strategy for surviving and thriving in the face of workplace adversity: A literature review. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 60(1), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2007.04412.x        [ Links ]

Kakoulakis, C., Galanakis, M., Bakoula-Tzoumaka, C., Darvyri, P., Chroussos, G., & Darvyri, C. (2015). Validation of the Negative Acts Questionnaire (NAQ) in a sample of Greek teachers. Psychology, 6, 63-74. https://doi.org/10.4236/psych.2015.61007        [ Links ]

Kalamdien, D. J. (2013). The nature and prevalence of workplace bullying in the Western Cape: A South African study (Unpublished Master's dissertation). University of Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch, South Africa.         [ Links ]

Keyes, C. L. M. (2002). The mental health continuum: From languishing to flourishing in life. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 43(2), 207-222. https://doi.org/10.2307/3090197        [ Links ]

Keyes, C. L. M. (2005). Mental illness and/or mental health? Investigating axioms of the complete state model of health. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73(3), 539-548.         [ Links ]

Keyes, C. L. M. (2007). Promoting and protecting mental health as flourishing: A complementary strategy for improving mental health. American Psychologist, 62(2), 95-108.         [ Links ]

Kivimaki, M., Virtanen, M., Vartia, M., Elovainio, M., Vahtera, J., & Keltikangas-Jarvinen, L. (2003). Workplace bullying and the risk of cardiovascular disease and depression. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 60(10), 779-783. https://doi.org/10.1136/oem.60.10.779        [ Links ]

Lee, D. (2002). Gendered workplace bullying in the restructured UK civil service. Personnel Review, 31(2), 205-227. https://doi.org/10.1108/00483480210416874        [ Links ]

Leymann, H. (1996). The content and development of mobbing at work. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 5(2), 165-184. https://doi.org/10.1080/13594329608414853        [ Links ]

Lutgen-Sandvik, P., Namie, G., & Namie, R. (2009). Workplace bullying: Causes, consequences, and corrections. In P. Lutgen-Sandvik, & B. D. Sypher (Eds.), Destructive organizational communication (pp. 41-87). New York: Routledge.         [ Links ]

Martin, S., & Klein, A. (2013). The presumption of mutual influence in occurrences of workplace bullying: Time for change. Journal of Aggression, Conflict and Peace Research, 5(3), 147-155. https://doi.org/10.1108/JACPR-03-2013-0008        [ Links ]

Mathisen, G. E., Einarsen, S., & Mykletun, R. (2008). The occurrences and correlates of bullying and harassment in the restaurant sector. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 49(1), 59-68. 10.1111/j.1467-9450.2007.00602.x        [ Links ]

Mayer, J. D., Salovey, P., & Caruso, D. R. (2008). Emotional intelligence: New ability or electric traits? American Psychologist, 63(6), 503-517. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.63.6.503        [ Links ]

Moreno-Jimenez, B., Rodriguez-Munoz, A., Moreno, Y., & Garrosa, E. (2007). The moderating role of assertiveness and social anxiety in workplace bullying: Two empirical studies. Psychology in Spain, 11(1), 85-94.         [ Links ]

Nielsen, M. B., & Einarsen, S. (2018). What we know, what we do not know, and what we should and could have known about workplace bullying: An overview of the literature and agenda for future research. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 42, 71-83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2018.06.007        [ Links ]

Nielsen, M. B., & Einarsen, S. (2012). Outcomes of exposure to workplace bullying: A meta-analytic review. Work and Stress, 26(4), 309-332. https://doi.org/10.1080/02678373.2012.734709        [ Links ]

Nielsen, M. B., Glaso, L., Matthiesen, S. B., Eid, J., & Einarsen, S. (2013). Bullying and risk-perception as health hazards on oil rigs. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 28(4), 367-383. https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-12-2012-0395        [ Links ]

Nielsen, M. B., Magerøy, N., Gjerstad, J., & Einarsen, S. (2014). Workplace bullying and subsequent health problems. The Journal for the Norwegian Medical Association, 134(12-13), 1233-1238. https://doi.org/10.4045/tidsskr.13.0880        [ Links ]

Notelaers, G. (2010). Workplace bullying: A risk control perspective (Unpublished doctoral thesis). University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway.         [ Links ]

Oluyinka, O. A. (2009). Mediatory role of emotional intelligence on the relationship between self-reported misconduct and bullying behaviour among secondary school students. IFE Psychologia, 17(2). https://doi.org/10.4314/ifep.v17i2.45305        [ Links ]

Rai, A., & Agarwal, U. A. (2018). Workplace bullying and employee silence: A moderated mediation model of psychological contract violation and workplace friendship. Personnel Review, 47(1), 226-256. https://doi.org/10.1108/PR-03-2017-0071        [ Links ]

Raman, P., Sambasivan, M., & Kumar, N. (2016). Counterproductive work behavior among frontline government employees: Role of personality, emotional intelligence, affectivity, emotional labor, and emotional exhaustion. Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 32, 25-37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rpto.2015.11.002        [ Links ]

Reknes, A., & Einarsen, H. S. (2018). The role of hardiness in the bullying-mental health relationship. Occupational Medicine, 68(1), 64-66. https://doi.org/10.1093/occmed/kqx183        [ Links ]

Salin, D. (2001). Prevalence and forms of bullying among business professionals: A comparison of two different strategies for measuring bullying. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 10, 425-441. https://doi.org/10.1080/13594320143000771        [ Links ]

Salovey, P., & Mayer, J. D. (1990). Emotional intelligence. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 9(3), 185-211. https://doi.org/10.2190/DUGG-P24E-52WK-6CDG        [ Links ]

Schutte, N. S., Malouff, J. M., & Bhullar, N. (2009). The assessing emotions scale. In C. Stough, D. Saklofske, & J. Parker (Eds.), The assessment of emotional intelligence (pp. 119-135). New York: Springer.         [ Links ]

Schutte, N. S., & Loi, N. (2014). Connections between emotional intelligence and workplace flourishing. Personality and Individual Differences, 66, 134-139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.03.031        [ Links ]

Seligman, M. E. P. (2011). Flourish: A visionary new understanding of happiness and well-being. New York: Free Press.         [ Links ]

Slaski, M., & Cartwright, S. (2003). Emotional intelligence training and its implications for stress, health and performance. Stress and Health, 19(4), 233-239. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.979        [ Links ]

Smit, D. M. D., & Plessis, J. V. D. (2016). Why should we care? Bullying in the American and South African workplace. International Journal of Comparative Labour Law and Industrial Relations, 32(2), 161-196.         [ Links ]

Soares, A. (2012). When darkness comes: Workplace bullying and suicidal ideation. In N. Tehrani (Ed.), Workplace bullying: Symptoms and solutions (pp. 67-80). Hove: Routledge.         [ Links ]

Spagnoli, P., Spagnoli, P., Balducci, C., & Balducci, C. (2017). Do high workload and job insecurity predict workplace bullying after organizational change? International Journal of Workplace Health Management, 10(1), 2-12. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJWHM-05-2016-0038        [ Links ]

Tehrani, N. (2012). Workplace bullying: Symptoms and solutions. London: Routledge.         [ Links ]

Tsuno, K., Kawakami, N., Inoue, A., & Abe, K. (2010). Measuring workplace bullying: Reliability and validity of the Japanese version of the Negative Acts Questionnaire. Journal of Occupational Health, 52(4), 216-260. https://doi.org/10.1539/joh.L10036        [ Links ]

Upton, L. (2010). The impact of workplace bullying on individual and organisational wellbeing in a South African context and the role of coping as a moderator in the bullying-wellbeing relationship (Unpublished Master's dissertation). University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa.         [ Links ]

Van Zyl, C. J. J., & De Bruin, K. (2012). The relationship between mixed model emotional intelligence and personality. South African Journal of Psychology, 42(4), 532-542. https://doi.org/10.1177/008124631204200407        [ Links ]

Verkuil, B., Atasayi, S., & Molendijk, M. L. (2015). Workplace bullying and mental health: A meta-analysis on cross-sectional and longitudinal data. PLoS One, 10(8), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0135225        [ Links ]

Zapf, D., Escartin, J., Einarsen, S., Hoel, H., & Vartia, M. (2011). Empirical findings on prevalence and risk groups of bullying in the workplace. In S. Einarsen, H. Hoel, D. Zapf, & C. Cooper (Eds.), Bullying and harassment in the workplace: Developments in theory, research, and practice (pp. 75-106). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.         [ Links ]

Zapf, D., & Einarsen, S. (2005). Mobbing at work: Escalated conflicts in organizations. In S. Fox & P. E. Spector (Eds.), Counterproductive work behaviour: Investigations of actors and targets (pp. 237-237). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.         [ Links ]

 

 

Correspondence:
Elizabeth Nel
coetzec1@unisa.ac.za

Received: 31 Oct. 2018
Accepted: 29 Jan. 2019
Published: 04 Apr. 2019

^rND^sAshraf^nF.^rND^sKhan^nM.S.^rND^sBaillien^nE.^rND^sEscartín^nJ.^rND^sGross^nC.^rND^sZapf^nD.^rND^sBaillien^nE.^rND^sNeyens^nI.^rND^sDe Witte^nH.^rND^sDe Cuyper^nN.^rND^sBakker^nA. B.^rND^sDemerouti^nE.^rND^sBakker^nA. B.^rND^sDemerouti^nE.^rND^sBakker^nA. B.^rND^sDemerouti^nE.^rND^sBaldry^nA. C.^rND^sFarrington^nD. P.^rND^sSorrentino^nA.^rND^sBar-On^nR.^rND^sBar-On^nR.^rND^sBartlett^nJ. E.^rND^sBartlett^nM. E.^rND^sBennett^nK.^rND^sSawatzky^nJ. V.^rND^sBernstein^nC.^rND^sTrimm^nL.^rND^sBranch^nS.^rND^sRamsay^nS.^rND^sBarker^nM.^rND^sBranch^nS.^rND^sRamsay^nS.^rND^sBarker^nM.^rND^sBranch^nS.^rND^sRamsay^nS.^rND^s& Barker^nM.^rND^sBrewer^nG.^rND^sWhiteside^nE.^rND^sCarter^nL.^rND^sLoh^nJ.^rND^sCarter^nM.^rND^sThompson^nN.^rND^sCrampton^nP.^rND^sMorrow^nG.^rND^sBurford^nB.^rND^sGray^nC.^rND^sIlling^nJ.^rND^sCartwright^nS.^rND^sPappas^nC.^rND^sCoetzee^nM.^rND^sOosthuizen^nR. M.^rND^sCoetzee^nM.^rND^sSchreuder^nD.^rND^sCowie^nH.^rND^sNaylor^nP.^rND^sRivers^nI.^rND^sSmith^nP. K.^rND^sPereira^nB.^rND^sDiener^nE.^rND^sWirtz^nD.^rND^sTov^nW.^rND^sKim-Prieto^nC.^rND^sChoi^nD.^rND^sOishi^nS.^rND^sBiswas-Diener^nR.^rND^sEinarsen^nS.^rND^sHoel^nH.^rND^sNotelaers^nG.^rND^sEinarsen^nS.^rND^sHoel^nH.^rND^sZapf^nD.^rND^sCooper^nC. L.^rND^sEscartin^nJ.^rND^sZapf^nD.^rND^sArrieta^nC.^rND^sRodriquez-Carballeira^nA.^rND^sGiorgi^nG.^rND^sMancuso^nS.^rND^sFiz Perez^nF.^rND^sCastiello D'Antonio^nA.^rND^sMucci^nN.^rND^sCupelli^nV.^rND^sArcangeli^nG.^rND^sGoleman^nD.^rND^sGunavathy^nJ. S.^rND^sAyswarya^nR.^rND^sHansen^nA. M.^rND^sHogh^nA.^rND^sPersson^nR.^rND^sHone^nL. C.^rND^sJarden^nA.^rND^sSchofield^nG. M.^rND^sDuncan^nS^rND^sHuppert^nF. A.^rND^sSo^nT.^rND^sHutchinson^nM.^rND^sHurley^nJ.^rND^sHutchinson^nM.^rND^sHurley^nJ.^rND^sKozlowski^nD.^rND^sWhitehair^nL.^rND^sIndoo^nS.^rND^sAjeya^nJ.^rND^sJackson^nD.^rND^sFirtko^nA.^rND^sEdenborough^nM.^rND^sKakoulakis^nC.^rND^sGalanakis^nM.^rND^sBakoula-Tzoumaka^nC.^rND^sDarvyri^nP.^rND^sChroussos^nG.^rND^sDarvyri^nC.^rND^sKeyes^nC. L. M.^rND^sKeyes^nC. L. M.^rND^sKeyes^nC. L. M.^rND^sKivimaki^nM.^rND^sVirtanen^nM.^rND^sVartia^nM.^rND^sElovainio^nM.^rND^sVahtera^nJ.^rND^sKeltikangas-Jarvinen^nL.^rND^sLee^nD.^rND^sLeymann^nH.^rND^sLutgen-Sandvik^nP.^rND^sNamie^nG.^rND^sNamie^nR.^rND^sMartin^nS.^rND^sKlein^nA.^rND^sMathisen^nG. E.^rND^sEinarsen^nS.^rND^sMykletun^nR.^rND^sMayer^nJ. D.^rND^sSalovey^nP.^rND^sCaruso^nD. R.^rND^sMoreno-Jimenez^nB.^rND^sRodriguez-Munoz^nA.^rND^sMoreno^nY.^rND^sGarrosa^nE.^rND^sNielsen^nM. B.^rND^sEinarsen^nS.^rND^sNielsen^nM. B.^rND^sEinarsen^nS.^rND^sNielsen^nM. B.^rND^sGlaso^nL.^rND^sMatthiesen^nS. B.^rND^sEid^nJ^rND^sEinarsen^nS.^rND^sNielsen^nM. B.^rND^sMagerøy^nN.^rND^sGjerstad^nJ.^rND^sEinarsen^nS.^rND^sOluyinka^nO. A.^rND^sRai^nA.^rND^sAgarwal^nU. A.^rND^sRaman^nP.^rND^sSambasivan^nM.^rND^sKumar^nN.^rND^sReknes^nA.^rND^sEinarsen^nH. S.^rND^sSalin^nD.^rND^sSalovey^nP.^rND^sMayer^nJ. D.^rND^sSchutte^nN. S.^rND^sMalouff^nJ. M.^rND^sBhullar^nN.^rND^sSchutte^nN. S.^rND^sLoi^nN.^rND^sSlaski^nM.^rND^sCartwright^nS.^rND^sSmit^nD. M. D.^rND^sPlessis^nJ. V. D.^rND^sSoares^nA.^rND^sSpagnoli^nP.^rND^sSpagnoli^nP.^rND^sBalducci^nC.^rND^sBalducci^nC.^rND^sTsuno^nK.^rND^sKawakami^nN.^rND^sInoue^nA.^rND^sAbe^nK.^rND^sVan Zyl^nC. J. J.^rND^sDe Bruin^nK.^rND^sVerkuil^nB.^rND^sAtasayi^nS.^rND^sMolendijk^nM. L.^rND^sZapf^nD.^rND^sEscartin^nJ.^rND^sEinarsen^nS.^rND^sHoel^nH.^rND^sVartia^nM.^rND^sZapf^nD.^rND^sEinarsen^nS.^rND^1A01^nMelissa^sdu Plessis^rND^1A02^nNico^sMartins^rND^1A01^nMelissa^sdu Plessis^rND^1A02^nNico^sMartins^rND^1A01^nMelissa^sdu Plessis^rND^1A02^nNico^sMartins

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Developing a measurement instrument for coping with occupational stress in academia

 

 

Melissa du Plessis^I; Nico Martins^II

^IDepartment of Human Resource Management, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa
^IIDepartment of Industrial and Organisational Psychology, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

---

ABSTRACT

ORIENTATION: Occupational stress leads to devastating consequences for academia, which include teaching below standard, conflict with students and seeking employment elsewhere. The stressors that academics experience will continue to increase unless they adopt strategies to cope with these demands
RESEARCH PURPOSE: The objective of this research was to construct a valid and reliable measurement instrument which could be used to explore how academics cope with occupational stress
Motivation for the study: There is no clear consensus about the conceptualisation of the coping construct and the categorisation and measurement of numerous coping strategies. Also, as working in academia is highly stressful, there is a need for developing a measuring instrument that holistically measures coping with occupational stress in South African higher education institutions.
RESEARCH APPROACH/DESIGN AND METHOD: A three-phase instrument development process was followed. A quantitative, cross-sectional online survey was administered to a convenience sample of 305 employees employed in a higher education institution in the Gauteng province of South Africa.
MAIN FINDINGS: A nine-dimensional, 33-item measuring instrument was developed for exploring how academics cope with occupational stressors
PRACTICAL/MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS: If industrial and organisational psychologists could appreciate the consequences of occupational stress and comprehend the complexities of the coping process, then they would be able to design and implement wellness practices that should not only promote the health and well-being of academics but also the institution.
CONTRIBUTION/VALUE-ADD: A psychometrically sound measuring instrument, The Comprehensive Coping Strategies Questionnaire, was developed within the South African higher education context that would allow industrial and organisational psychologists to determine which coping strategies academics adopt in response to occupational stressors.

Keywords: Occupational stress; coping; academia; higher education institutions; scale development.

---

 

 

Introduction

Background of and rationale for the study

Despite incredible advancements in science and technology, employees across the world still seem to experience high degrees of psychological stress in the workplace (Kinnunen-Amoroso & Liira, 2016). Academics are no exception, with research confirming that they experience high to very high levels of occupational stress (Darabi, Macaskill, & Reidy, 2017; Malik, Björkqvist, & Österman, 2017). The rising levels of occupational stress could be ascribed to the substantial growth in student numbers and higher education institutions, increased emphasis on research, adapting to ever-changing curricula and quality assurance measures, and keeping abreast with rapid technological advances (Catano et al., 2010; Martins & Ungerer, 2014; Slišković & Maslic Seršič, 2011). The consequences of occupational stress among academics include teaching below standard, conflict with students and seeking employment elsewhere (Barkhuizen & Rothmann, 2008; Stevenson & Harper, 2006). Darabi et al. (2017) warn that the stressors that academics experience will continue to increase unless they adopt strategies and mechanisms to cope with these demands.

Coping is a continuous, goal-directed process in which individuals consciously and unconsciously engage to adjust their cognitive and behavioural efforts to maintain personal control during specific stressful situations. The coping effort is thus central to the psychological discipline in that it allows individuals to: (1) regulate distressing emotions (Pascual, Conejero & Etxebarria, 2016), (2) do something about situations that are causing psychological distress (Folkman & Lazarus, 1985) and (3) maintain their physiological and psychological health and well-being (Aldao, Nolen-Hoeksema & Schweizer, 2010). Researchers have therefore proposed several coping strategies for individuals to adopt in response to environmental demands. However, in an analysis of research on coping, Skinner, Edge, Altman and Sherwood (2003) identified more than 400 types of coping strategies, which indicate that there is no consensus among researchers on the best way to conceptualise the coping effort and categorise coping strategies. In addition, there is no clear consensus on how the coping effort should be measured, as existing coping questionnaires do not measure all the domains that are relevant to the coping process (Dewe, O'Driscoll, & Cooper, 2010). The existing literature further outlines various conceptual and methodological concerns regarding the measurement of coping (Folkman, 2010; Stemmet, 2013). Lastly, because academia is a highly stressful occupation, there is a need for academics to identify occupational stressors in their institutions and develop solutions to eliminate them. There is thus a need to develop a measuring instrument that could holistically measure coping with occupational stress in South African higher education institutions. This study aimed at developing a measuring instrument that could: (1) acknowledge the entire coping process, from when an occupational stressor is perceived until a coping response is adopted (2) consolidate the major types of coping strategies into one measuring instrument and (3) holistically measure coping with occupational stress in South African higher education institutions.

Research purpose

The purpose of this research was to construct a valid and reliable measurement instrument for measuring coping with occupational stress in academia.

Potential value added by the study

It was anticipated that the results of this study would not only lead to the development of a more holistic or consolidated coping measurement instrument, but also provide insights into the coping strategies that academics adopt in response to occupational stressors. The results obtained would further allow industrial and organisational psychologists in higher education institutions to design and implement wellness interventions that should not only promote the health and well-being of academics but also that of the institution.

Literature review

Conceptualisation

The concept of stress has been a source of immense interest over the past few decades and has gradually evolved to the seminal work of Lazarus and Folkman (1984) in the 20th century. These researchers noted that stress is process oriented and transactional, encompassing appraisals, coping and emotions. From this perspective, stress is defined as the relationship between the person and the environment that is appraised as taxing or exceeding their coping resources (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984, p. 19). Occupational stress results from individuals' inability to cope with pressures of the job because of a poor fit between their abilities and work requirements (Beheshtifar & Nazarian, 2013). The perception of stress increases until the individual has made a conscious decision to cope with the stressor. Consequently, coping is defined as conscious efforts that individuals adopt to manage specific internal and/or external demands that are appraised as taxing or exceeding their coping resources (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Similarly, Skinner and Wellborn (1994, p. 112) and Compas et al. (2014, p. 72) conceptualise coping as 'regulation under stress' and defined it as how individuals regulate their behaviour, cognition, emotion and physiology under conditions of psychological stress. Coping efforts therefore fall under the broad definition of self-regulation, as individuals are continuously adjusting their thoughts and behaviours, and regulating their emotions to change their perceptions of the stressor.

Coping dimensions and questionnaires

Coping is an important regulatory process, but the literature reveals that there is no clear consensus about the conceptualisation of the coping construct and the categorisation of the numerous coping strategies (Allen & Leary, 2010; Folkman, 2010). The coping concept is also not adequately represented by a single measure, and numerous inventories have been proposed to assess coping (Knight & Sayegh, 2010). Consequently, for the purposes of this study, a number of coping questionnaires were reviewed (see Table 1). The researcher's intention was not only to outline each questionnaire's basic composition, but also to analyse its psychometric properties and the critique it received from other researchers.

Most coping instruments ask participants to recall how they have reacted or responded to a stressful situation. These instruments therefore focus on past events or situations. The Proactive Coping Inventory (PCI) is the only future-oriented coping instrument (Greenglass et al., 1999). Coping instruments further measure coping styles, resources, responses and behaviours.

The most widely used dimensions of coping are problem- versus emotion-focused coping (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Alternative categorisations include engagement versus disengagement coping (Carver & Connor-Smith, 2010), adaptive versus maladaptive coping (Aldao et al., 2010) and avoidance coping (Carver et al., 1989). The identified strategies range from 2 (e.g. emotional processing and emotional expression in the Emotional Approach Coping Scale [EACS]) to 20 in the Adult Coping Scale (Frydenberg & Lewis, 2011). Coping strategies generally include four basic types: problem-solving or active planning, emotion-oriented coping, social support coping and avoidance coping.

Most coping instruments were deductively developed and administered to undergraduate students. A number of conceptual and methodological concerns were identified (Folkman, 2010; Stemmet, 2013). These included:

· developing measurement instruments with no clear purpose in mind

· utilising only literature and feedback from expert reviews to generate items

· generating items that are vague and undefined

· including items that are too situation specific or inappropriate for the population under investigation

· using ambiguous response formats

· poor reliability and validity estimates

· extracting too many factors, which results in undesirable error variance

· failing to conduct or report on the results of the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and empirical validation of the instrument.

From the discussion above, it is evident that the continued refinement of existing coping instruments is required.

Proposed theoretical framework for measuring coping with occupational stress in academia

A thorough literature review was conducted, in which: (1) the constructs under investigation were conceptualised, (2) the dimensions and subdimensions of coping were reviewed, (3) existing measuring instruments were analysed (see Table 1) and (4) literature trends in occupational stress and coping among academics were considered for developing a conceptual framework for coping with occupational stress among academics. This framework allowed the researcher to generate questions and items for the intended measuring instrument. The conceptual framework is briefly discussed in the remainder of this section.

Occupational stressors

Higher education institutions are perceived by academics as a source of stress (Darabi et al., 2017). Academics experience occupational stress once a workplace stressor is appraised as a threat, challenge and/or harmful to their health and well-being. There is thus a perceived discrepancy between the demands in the workplace and the academics' ability to cope with these demands.

Emotional response

Once a workplace stressor is appraised (through primary appraisal) as taxing and/or exceeding the academics' coping resources, an emotion is elicited. Primary appraisal is an individual's evaluation of an event as potentially hazardous to his or her well-being (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984) and is essential for eliciting an emotional response. Once an emotion arises, it has to be regulated to modify the magnitude and type of emotional experience. Coping or regulatory strategies are adopted to respond to the felt emotion and modulate the academic's perception of the stressor.

Coping strategies

A coping strategy is an adaptive or maladaptive response to a workplace stressor which causes the individual to experience reduced or heightened emotions. Six theoretically derived coping strategies are proposed for this study:

· Cognitive coping: The cognitive processes of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought and experiences to manage the intake of emotion-arousing stimuli. Five subdimensions were identified: cognitive restructuring, acceptance, problem-solving coping, planning and critical thinking.

· Emotional coping: The subjective, psychological and physiological expressions and reactions to stressful encounters that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the academic's coping resources. Emotional expression and emotional processing were identified as subdimensions (Stanton et al., 2000).

· Social support coping: The perceived support that individuals receive from their social support network to regulate heightened emotions in response to environmental demands. Four subdimensions were identified: emotional support, network support, information support and tangible support.

· Leisure coping: The physical activities that academics engage in to regulate heightened emotions to respond to environmental demands. Four subdimensions were identified: passive leisure, active leisure, social leisure and vacation time.

· Religious coping: The 'ways of understanding and dealing with negative life events that are related to the sacred' (Pargament & Raiya, 2007, p. 743). Organisational religious activities (ORA) and non-organisational religious activities (NORA) were recognised as proposed subdimensions.

· Experiential avoidance (EA): A maladaptive coping strategy that academics adopt to alter the form and frequency of aversive experiences and distress. Four subdimensions were identified: expressive suppression, thought suppression, avoidant coping and rumination.

The first five strategies were categorised as adaptive coping strategies, which are positively associated with affect modulation, physiological and psychological health and well-being, and organisational success (Aldao et al., 2010). Experiential avoidance was categorised as a maladaptive strategy, in that it is associated with increased psychological distress, occupational stress and disorders such as anxiety and depression (Karekla & Panayiotou, 2011). Academics who adopt EA are likely to continue to experience heightened emotions and distress until they are able to adopt adaptive coping strategies.

 

Research design

Research approach

In this study, an instrument for measuring how academics cope with occupational stress was developed by following a combination of steps (see Figure 1) proposed by various scale development authors (Barry, Chaney, Stellefson & Chaney, 2011; DeVellis, 2017; Netemeyer Bearden, & Sharma, 2003; Schmiedel, Vom Brocke, & Recker, 2014; Worthington & Whittaker, 2006). To achieve this objective, a non-experimental, cross-sectional, quantitative survey design was used.

 

 

Phase 1: Theoretical investigation

Step 1: Conceptualisation and item generation

A deductive approach was used to develop the instrument. As previously mentioned, a thorough literature review was conducted to gain an understanding of the constructs under investigation. The literature review allowed the researcher to develop four questions that measure occupational stress among academics, and generate 82 items that measure the proposed coping strategies. To achieve the objective of this study, the theoretically derived coping items were further assessed and purified.

Step 2: Content adequacy assessment and item selection

The item pool representing the coping items was subjected to an expert review. A panel of nine subject matter experts participated in the review. The experts were instructed to validate the items in terms of item content, content style and comprehensiveness. The information obtained was then used to calculate the content validity index (CVI) at both item level (I-CVI) and scale level (S-CVI). The I-CVI was calculated as the number of reviewers providing a score of 3 or 4 divided by the total number of reviewers. With more than five reviewers, the I-CVI should not be lower than 0.78 (Polit & Beck, 2006). To calculate the S-CVI, two different indices were calculated: (1) scale-level content validity index, universal agreement (S-CVI/UA), which is the proportion of the items on one scale that the reviewers scored essential, and (2) S-CVI/AVE, which is the average proportion of the items on one scale rated 3 or 4. The results of the CVI revealed that 31 items had an I-CVI score of between 0.33 and 0.67. The acceptable standard for I-CVI is 0.80 (Polit & Beck, 2006). The content validity of the instrument (S-CVI) yielded a score of 0.75, which was below the recommended criterion of 0.80 (Polit, Beck, & Owen, 2007). The content validity of the instrument was thus not adequate, suggesting that items had to be revised or removed. Unclear or vague items were further highlighted by the reviewers and suggestions for improvement were made. Consequently, of the 82 items that had been subjected to an expert review, 51 were retained, 13 were revised and 18 were removed, while 4 new items were included.

Sixty-eight coping items were subjected to a cognitive interview, which allowed for direct input from a sample of 11 academics on the item content, format of the statements and understandability of the statements (Irwin, Varni, Yeatts, & DeWalt, 2009). Informed consent was obtained and the purpose of the cognitive interview was explained to the participants. They were instructed to complete the questionnaire according to the instructions provided. Respondent debriefing was used to obtain specific information about unclear and/or difficult items. The participants were further asked to provide open-ended feedback on the clarity and comprehensibility of the instructions, the meaning of individual items, the response format and the relevance of each item. Throughout the interview, the researcher used cognitive probing to gain a better understanding of the participants' interpretation of the items. The findings of the interview were positive, revealing that the instructions were clear and the questionnaire was easy to complete. However, suggestions for improvement were made. Consequently, eight items were revised and one new item was included. Sixty-nine coping items were included in the final instrument. Figure 2 presents the item development and selection process.

Phase 2: Instrument purification

Step 1: Pilot study

A pilot study was initiated. The paper-and-pencil questionnaire was administered to a sample of academics (n = 30) that were representative of the actual population. A sample of 30 participants was deemed appropriate to: (1) provide insights into unclear or misleading questions or items, (2) determine which questions or items should be retained or deleted and (3) test for evidence of reliability (Hill, 1998; Isaac & Michael, 1995). Several respondents expressed concern about the meaning of the 'social support network' concept. Respondents indicated that their social support network at home differs from their network in the workplace. However, the item was retained because according to Hämmig (2017), social support comes from a variety of sources, such as family, friends, partners and co-workers or colleagues. If the items had been revised to include only co-workers or colleagues, they would have become restrictive. A comprehensive definition of the concept was included in the questionnaire.

Step 2: Internal consistency and item reliability

The Cronbach's alpha values of the pilot study were considered adequate for the purposes of the study, with alpha values higher than 0.70 (DeVellis, 2017). The inter-item correlation mean scores for the cognitive (0.23), leisure (0.22), religion (0.38) and EA (0.34) coping dimensions fell within the suggested threshold of 0.20 and 0.40 (Piedmont, 2014). However, the emotional (0.44) and social support (0.63) coping dimensions fell above the suggested threshold of 0.40, suggesting that the items might have only captured a small bandwidth of the construct (Cohen & Swerdlik, 2005). The psychometric properties of the coping items were deemed acceptable.

Research participants

Data were obtained from a non-probability convenience sample of permanently employed academics in a higher education institution in the Gauteng province of South Africa (N = 4016). The sample of participants (n = 305) consisted of female (64.3%) and male (35.7%) employees who were predominantly between the ages of 40 and 55 years (44.3%). The majority of the sample (81.6%) had a postgraduate qualification, with 34.4% having a doctoral degree, 35.7% a master's degree, 11.5% an honours degree and 6.6% a bachelor's degree. Only a small proportion (11.8%) of participants had a diploma, higher certificate or matric certificate. The distribution of the sample further showed that 34.1% of the sample were employed as academic support staff and 65.9% as academics. The academic component comprised 16 (5.2%) junior lecturers, 74 (24.3%) lecturers, 65 (21.3%) senior lecturers, 21 (6.9%) associate professors and 25 (8.2%) professors. Lastly, the sample consisted of participants who had predominantly been employed for 10 years or more (62.0%).

Research procedure

Data were collected by means of a self-administered online questionnaire, which was uploaded onto an online survey application. The URL link to the questionnaire and instructions were provided to the participants through an electronic mail. The link redirected the respondents to the online platform, where their responses were captured. Informed consent was obtained and participation in the survey was voluntary.

Statistical analysis

IBM SPSS Statistics version 24 software was utilised to perform the statistical analysis.

Data screening and descriptive analysis

The first phase in the data analysis process involved cleaning and organising the data. The data were scrutinised for unresponsive and unengaged responses. As there were no cases that showed no variation across the items, the data were deemed sufficient for further analysis. Next, the frequency statistics for each item were calculated and scrutinised in terms of minimum and maximum values, as well as means and standard deviations. These calculations were conducted to determine if there were any outliers. No outliers were detected.

Lastly, assumptions about the normality of the data were assessed. The ratios of kurtoses were reviewed against the standard errors of the kurtoses, and all ratios larger than three were identified and the distribution of responses was inspected. Overall, the data were deemed within acceptable limits of deviation, except for two items that showed excessive ratios of 68.01 (item 55) and 21.89 (item 64). These items were further assessed in terms of their face and/or construct validity and appropriateness. Although a decision was made to retain the items for further analysis, it was anticipated that these items would be removed from the questionnaire. In addition, given the large sample size (n > 100), the underlying sampling distribution was deemed to be normally distributed, in line with the central limit theorem (Field, 2013).

Inferential analysis

To validate the underlying structure of the coping items, a combination of exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and CFA was performed.

Exploratory factor analysis: For the purposes of identifying the underlying structure of the coping items, an EFA was performed on the sample comprising 305 academics. According to the requirements set by Worthington and Whittaker (2006), the sample size (≥300) was sufficient for conducting a factor analysis. Before commencing with the EFA, the strengths of the intercorrelations between the items were determined. The visual inspection of the correlation matrix revealed evidence of coefficients equal to or greater than 0.30 (Hair, Black, Babin, & Anderson, 2010). Secondly, the factorability of the correlation matrix was determined by applying Bartlett's test for sphericity and the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy.

In the EFA, maximum-likelihood extraction and principal axis factoring (PAF) with oblique rotation (promax) were used to correlate and rotate the factor structure. An oblique rotation was used because: (1) factor intercorrelations are the norm in social sciences, (2) both approaches yield the same result if the factors happen to be uncorrelated and (3) it is recommended by instrument development researchers (Furr, 2011). Kaiser's criterion (eigenvalues for each factor), a screen test and percentage of variance explained were used to determine the number of factors that would be considered suitable for further retention. In order to create a parsimonious and simple structure, only items that clearly loaded on a single appropriate factor were retained. All items with factor loadings less than 0.35 or cross-loadings less than 0.20 difference from the item's highest factor were thus removed (Hair et al., 2010). The percentage of total item variance was also considered. A percentage of 60 was considered acceptable.

In this study, EFA was used to reduce the number of coping items into smaller, more parsimonious factors and to determine the construct validity of the instrument.

Confirmatory factor analysis: Confirmatory factor analysis was used to validate the underlying structure and assess the internal consistency of the instrument. Aside from the chi-square goodness-of-fit test, a number of goodness-of-fit indices (GFIs) were used to determine the degree to which the theoretical model was consistent with the empirical data.

Reliability and validity assessment

The reliability of the instrument was assessed by calculating the Cronbach's alpha coefficient. DeVellis (2017) suggests that a Cronbach's alpha coefficient of 0.70 should serve as an absolute minimum for a newly designed instrument. Dimensionality and reliability are important aspects of an instrument's psychometric properties and quality, but without validation any inferences made from the instrument are meaningless, inappropriate and of limited usefulness (Furr, 2011). In this study, the content validity and construct validity of the coping items were assessed.

Content validity: The content validity was assessed in the first phase (step 2) of the instrument development process by means of an expert review and cognitive interviews (Figure 1).

Construct validity: Evidence of construct validity was provided by conducting EFA and CFA, and assessing the convergent and discriminant validity of the instrument. An instrument demonstrates convergent and discriminant validity when it correlates highly with other variables with which it should theoretically correlate, and correlates minimally with variables from which it should differ (Foxcroft & Roodt, 2013). For the purpose of this study, the correlation coefficient was used to estimate the degree to which any two measures were related to each other. Hair et al. (2010) further advocate the use of composite reliability (CR) (>0.70), average variance extracted (AVE) (>0.50), maximum shared squared variance (MSV) (<AVE) and average shared squared variance (ASV) (<AVE) to measure convergent and discriminant validity.

 

Ethical consideration

Ethical clearance (2014/CEMS/IOP/025) and permission (2017_RPSC_011) to conduct the research were obtained from the University of South Africa's Research and Ethics Committee.

 

Results

The statistical processes used to evaluate the performance of the individual items and to further refine the instrument are discussed in this section.

Exploratory factor analysis

Exploratory factor analysis of the 69 coping items

Initially, the factorability of the 69 items was examined. Firstly, the sample size of 305 was in accordance with the guidelines established by Worthington and Whittaker (2006), in that a sample size of at least 300 is sufficient for factor analysis. Secondly, the strengths of the intercorrelations between the items were determined by assessing the factorability of the correlation matrix. The visual inspection of the correlation matrix revealed evidence of coefficients equal to or greater than 0.30 (Hair et al., 2010). Lastly, the KMO measure of sampling adequacy was 0.845, which was well above the commonly recommended value of 0.60 (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2013), and Bartlett's test of sphericity was significant (p ≤ 0.05). Given these indicators, factor analysis was deemed to be suitable.

The responses of the 69 items were correlated and rotated using maximum-likelihood extraction with oblique rotation (promax). Initial eigenvalues indicated that the first 15 factors explained 67.54% of the total variance. When compared to the dimensions proposed in the literature review, the results of the initial EFA clearly overestimated the number of factors for the data set. Several items in the rotated-factor matrix cross-loaded on more than one factor. These were removed, starting with the highest loadings. In addition, items with low factor loadings (≤0.35) and high cross-loadings (less than 0.20 difference) in each factor were also removed (Hair et al., 2010). Only 42 items were retained, which were subjected to a second round of EFA.

Exploratory factor analysis of the 42 items

A statistically significant Bartlett's test of sphericity (p ≤ 0.05) and a KMO measure of sample adequacy of 0.859 confirmed that the overall significance of the correlations within the correlation matrix was suitable for factor analysis. Principal axis factoring with oblique rotation (promax) was conducted on the 42 items. The scree plot (see Figure 3) and parallel analysis indicated that nine significant factors could be identified from the originally defined six coping dimensions. The nine significant factors explained 70.38% of the total variance, which is in accordance with the guidelines established by Hair et al. (2010), namely that a solution that accounts for 60% of the total variance is satisfactory. The nine-factor solution was accepted because: (1) it is theoretically supported by the existing literature, (2) the minimum cumulative percentage of variance explained, was higher than 60% (Plonsky & Gonulal, 2015), (3) the nine factors' eigenvalues were greater than 1.0, (4) the scree plot started decreasing and straightened after the ninth factor and (5) all the items had factor loadings of 0.40 and higher, indicating the significance of these items for interpretative purposes. The rotated pattern matrix for the 42-item instrument is summarised in Table 2.

 

 

 

 

The nine factors were labelled social support coping (SOC [eight items]), religious coping (REL [seven items]), cognitive coping (COG [eight items]), active leisure coping (ACT LEI [four items]), avoidant coping (AVOID, four items), social disengagement (SOC DIS [three items]), vacation time (VAC TIME [three items]), rumination (RUM [three items]) and emotional coping (EMO [two items]).

The factor correlation matrix summarised in Table 3 shows low or weak correlations between the factors, indicating that the factors are not interrelated (Hair et al., 2010). However, factors 5 (avoidant coping; R = 0.451) and 6 (social disengagement; R = 0.458) moderately correlated with factor 8 (rumination), indicating that these constructs are interrelated. Similarly, factor 4 (active leisure; R = 0.419) moderately correlated with factor 7 (vacation time).

Confirmatory factor analysis

The original model revealed a mediocre to poor fit, indicating that there was a significant discrepancy between the correlations proposed and the correlations observed. The goodness-of-fit (GFI) obtained was 0.78 (prescribed threshold > 0.90) and the adjusted goodness-of-fit (AGFI) was 0.75 (prescribed threshold > 0.90). The normed fit index (NFI), relative fit index (RFI), comparative fit index (CFI) and Tucker Lewis index (TLI) were 0.79, 0.77, 0.87 and 0.85, respectively, compared to the recommended level of above 0.90 (Baumgartner & Homburg, 1996). The root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) was 0.07, which was above the recommended limit of 0.06 (Hu & Bentler, 1999), and the root mean square residual (RMR) was above the recommended threshold of 0.02 at 0.16 (Hu & Bentler, 1999). The theorised model therefore did not fit well with the observed data.

The modification indices and standardised residual covariance were assessed to remedy the discrepancies between the proposed and estimated models. Residuals greater than 2.5 suggested an unacceptable degree of error and resulted in the deletion of items (Field, 2013). Nine additional items with residuals equal to or greater than 2.5 were removed to account for the correlations between variables in the data set.

The Santorra-Bentler chi-square statistic of 820.75, based on 459 degrees of freedom (p = 0.00), was significant and revealed an acceptable model fit. The CMIN/DF ratio was 1.79 (CMIN/DF ≤ 5.0), which indicates a good model fit (Garson, 2002). According to these guidelines, the revised model appeared to fit the data well. Bentler (2007), however, advises that the CMIN value should be used with caution and other fit indices, such as the CFI, RMSEA and standardised root mean square residual (SRMR), should be used to assess the model's fit.

The GFI obtained was 0.87, and the AGFI was 0.84. The NFI, RFI, CFI and TLI were 0.87, 0.85, 0.94 and 0.93, respectively, compared to the recommended level of above 0.90. Both the RMSEA and SRMR values were 0.05, which were in accordance with the guidelines established by Hair et al. (2010), in that RMSEA values between 0.05 and 0.08 and SRMR values of less than 0.50 are indicative of an acceptable model fit. The CMIN/DF value, CFI, RMSEA and SRMR values, therefore, met the minimum requirements for model fit. The revised model for the nine dimensions is shown in Figure 4.

 

 

Reliability and validity assessment

The dimensions were retained because the reliability (CR) for all the dimensions was above the recommended threshold of 0.70 (RUM α = 0.79; SOC α = 0.91; REL α = 0.92; COG α = 0.87; ACT LEI α = 0.88; VAC TIME α = 0.86; AVOID α = 0.78; SOC DIS α = 0.85; EMO α = 0.72) (Hair et al., 2010). The convergent reliability (AVE) for the dimensions was above the recommended threshold of 0.50 prescribed by Hair et al. (2010) and was thus retained. The discriminant validity (MSV and ASV) for all the dimensions fell within the recommended threshold, where MSV < AVE and ASV < AVE (Hair et al., 2010). Considering the goodness-of-fit results and reliability and validity results, the revised model (Figure 4) was accepted. Table 4 outlines the standard regression weights between the nine coping strategies and individual items, as well as the correlations between the coping strategies.

 

Discussion

The purpose of this study was to construct a measuring instrument that holistically measures coping with occupational stress in academia by consolidating the major types of coping strategies identified in the literature into one measuring instrument, namely The Comprehensive Coping Strategies Questionnaire (CCSQ). Although the theoretical dimensions proposed comprised six coping strategies: (1) cognitive, (2) emotional, (3) social support, (4) leisure, (5) religious and (6) EA - the results of the development process confirmed nine empirically validated coping strategies: (1) social support coping, (2) religious coping, (3) cognitive coping, (4) active leisure coping, (5) avoidant coping, (6) social disengagement, (7) vacation time, (8) rumination and (9) emotional coping. Although the theoretically derived leisure coping and EA items loaded on a new latent structure, the results of the factor correlation matrix indicated that active leisure coping (R = 0.419) moderately correlated with vacation time, indicating that these constructs were interrelated. Kim and McKenzie (2014) identified four leisure categories, namely, passive leisure, active leisure, social leisure and vacation time. Although these four categories were considered in formulating the leisure coping strategy, the empirical results confirmed Kim and McKenzie's (2014) categorisation, indicating that these four strategies should not be categorised under one dimension. Passive leisure and social leisure were, however, not regarded as coping strategies that academics adopt in response to an occupational stressor. It is therefore recommended that the active leisure and vacation time items should be reviewed to form one dimension.

Regarding the EA coping strategy, only two of the theoretically proposed subdimensions (avoidant coping and rumination) survived the stages of scale development. Although the literature considered both avoidant coping and rumination as EA strategies (Karekla & Panayiotou, 2011), the results of the empirical study confirmed two separate factors. The findings were thus inconsistent with the literature. Secondly, a subdimension of the proposed avoidant coping strategy also loaded on a new factor, namely, social disengagement. This finding was also inconsistent with the literature, which stated that social disengagement is a form of avoidant coping (Karekla & Panayiotou, 2011). The results of the factor correlation matrix, however, revealed that avoidant coping (R = 0.451) and social disengagement (R = 0.458) are moderately correlated with rumination. Lastly, the six items that constituted the self-destructive behaviour subdimension did not load on a factor. According to Nolen-Hoeksema, Wisco and Lyubomirsky (2008), self-destructive behaviour is a maladaptive coping strategy that individuals adopt to redirect their attention away from a stressor and includes behaviours such as reckless driving, excessive drinking, drug abuse or aggressive behaviour. It was concluded that the respondents either did not adopt self-destructive behaviour as a mechanism of coping, or the items were of such a sensitive nature that the respondents answered the question dishonestly even though anonymity and confidentially were assured. According to De Schrijver (2012), socially undesirable behaviour is often under-reported and includes behaviour such as substance use and alcohol consumption. The self-destructive behaviour subdimension should thus be reviewed.

Strong support exists for the psychometric properties of the instrument. Firstly, the questionnaire was deductively developed after conducting a thorough literature review. Secondly, empirical support was shown for construct and content validity (determined through an expert review, cognitive interviews and a pilot study), internal consistency reliability (α = 0.87) and CR (between 0.72 and 0.92). The instrument further demonstrated convergent (≥0.50) and discriminant validity (MSV < AVE and ASV < AVE). Lastly, the factor structure of the instrument was confirmed using CFA.

Practical implications

This study could prove useful for industrial and organisational psychologists because a valid and reliable measuring instrument was developed for determining which coping strategies academics adopt to regulate heightened emotions in response to an occupational stressor. The instrument could thus be used as a diagnostic tool for determining how academics respond to occupational stressors. The results obtained from administering the instrument should further allow industrial and organisational psychologists to gain an in-depth understanding of: (1) the occupational stressors that academics perceive as taxing and/or exceeding their coping resources, (2) the emotions elicited when a workplace stressor is perceived as stressful and (3) the coping strategies academics adopt to modulate the felt emotion. If industrial and organisational psychologists are able to appreciate the consequences of occupational stress and comprehend the complexities of the coping process, then they will be able to design and implement wellness practices that should not only promote the health and well-being of the academics, but also that of the institution.

Limitations of the study and recommendations

No study of this nature is without limitations, especially because the coping process is a complex phenomenon. The following limitations were encountered in this study: firstly, the sources consulted were mostly of international origin, and there is little agreement among researchers about the best way to conceptualise these concepts. Secondly, the literature on the categorisation and measurement of coping strategies is limited, obsolete and incongruent. Thirdly, although the sample size was adequate to conduct the statistical analysis, further research needs to be conducted among a broader spectrum of participants. Lastly, a non-probability convenience sample was selected.

Despite having acceptable psychometric properties, continued refinement of the instrument is suggested. Modifications to the questionnaire could include the following: firstly, although a deductive approach was followed to generate items, the researcher recommends that both deductive and inductive approaches should be considered to increase the instrument's content validity further (Hinkin, 1995). Secondly, while granting that the final instrument obtained provides adequate support for reliability and validity, the dimensions with three or fewer items should be revised and new items should be considered for inclusion. Thirdly, the emotional coping items should be reviewed because only one subdimension with two items (emotional expression) survived the stages of scale development. Lastly, future researchers should consider the inclusion of distraction as a subdimension of coping with occupational stress among academics. Distraction, which could be categorised as an adaptive coping strategy, is often used as a technique to divert oneself from an emotion-eliciting stimulus (Lehto, Park, Fu, & Lee, 2014).

 

Conclusion

A nine-dimensional, 33-item coping instrument, The Comprehensive Coping Strategies Questionnaire (CCSQ), was developed for South African higher education institutions. Although the findings were encouraging, it should be borne in mind that the validation of an instrument is an ongoing process. Continued refinement of the instrument is thus recommended for other industries in South Africa.

 

Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge the participating institution and Dr Dion van Zyl for his guidance with the statistical analysis.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships which may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

Author's contributions

M.d.P. was a PhD student of N.M. Both authors contributed to the writing and finalisation of the article for submission.

Funding

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability statement

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the authors.

 

References

Aldao, A., Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Schweizer, S. (2010). Emotion-regulation strategies across psychopathology: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 30(2), 217-237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2009.11.004        [ Links ]

Allen, A. B., & Leary, M. R. (2010). Self-compassion, stress and coping. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 4(2), 107-118. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2009.00246.x        [ Links ]

Amirkhan, J. H. (1990). A factor analytically derived measure of coping: The coping strategy indicator. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59(5), 1066-1074. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.59.5.1066        [ Links ]

Barkhuizen, N., & Rothmann, S. (2008). Occupational stress of academic staff in South African higher education institutions. South African Journal of Psychology, 38(2), 321-336. https://doi.org/10.1177/008124630803800205        [ Links ]

Barry, A. E., Chaney, E. H., Stellefson, M. L., & Chaney, J. D. (2011). So you want to develop a survey: Practical recommendations for scale development. American Journal of Health Studies, 26(2), 97-105.         [ Links ]

Baumgartner, H., & Homburg, C. (1996). Applications of structural equation modelling in marketing and consumer research: A review. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 13(2), 139-161. https://doi.org/10.1016/0167-8116(95)00038-0        [ Links ]

Beheshtifar, M., & Nazarian, R. (2013). Role of occupational stress in organisations. Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business, 4(9), 648-657.         [ Links ]

Bentler, P. M. (2007). On tests and indices for evaluating structural models. Personality and Individual Differences, 42(5), 825-829. http://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1016/j.paid.2006.09.024        [ Links ]

Carver, C. S., & Connor-Smith, J. (2010). Personality and coping. Annual Review of Psychology, 61, 679-704. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.093008.100352        [ Links ]

Carver, C. S., Scheier, M. F., & Weintraub, J. K. (1989). Assessing coping strategies: A theoretically based approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56(2), 267-283. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.56.2.267        [ Links ]

Catano, V., Francis, L., Haines, T., Kripalani, H., Shannon, H., Stinger, B., & Lozanzki, L. (2010). Occupational stress in Canadian universities: A national survey. International Journal of Stress Management, 17(3), 232-258. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018582        [ Links ]

Cohen, R. J., & Swerdlik, M. E. (2005). Psychological testing and assessment: An introduction to tests and measurement (6th edn.). New York: McGraw-Hill.         [ Links ]

Compas, B. E., Jaser, S. S., Dunbar, J. P., Watson, K. H., Bettis, A. H., Gruhn, M. A., & Williams, E. K. (2014). Coping and emotion regulation from childhood to early adulthood: Points of convergence and divergence. Australian Journal of Psychology, 66(2), 71-81. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajpy.12043        [ Links ]

Darabi, M., Macaskill, A., & Reidy, L. (2017). A qualitative study of the UK academic role: Positive features, negative aspects and associated stressors in a mainly teaching-focused university. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 41(4), 566-580. https://doi.org/10.1080/0309877X.2016.1159287        [ Links ]

De Schrijver, A. (2012). Sample survey on sensitive topics: Investigating respondents' understanding and trust in alternative versions of the randomised response technique. Journal of Research Practice, 8(1), Article M1, 1-17. Retrieved from http://jrp.icaap.org/index.php/jrp/article/view/277/250        [ Links ]

DeVellis, R. F. (2017). Scale development: Theory and applications (4th edn.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.         [ Links ]

Dewe, P., O'Driscoll, M. P., & Cooper, C. L. (2010). Coping with work stress: A review and critique. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.         [ Links ]

Endler, N. S., & Parker, J. D. A. (1990). Multidimensional assessment of coping: A critical evaluation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58(5), 844-854. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.58.5.844        [ Links ]

Endler, N. S., & Parker, J. D. A. (1999). Coping inventory for stressful situations: Manual (2nd edn.). Toronto: Multi-Health Systems.         [ Links ]

Field, A. P. (2013). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics (4th edn.). London: Sage.         [ Links ]

Folkman, S. (2010). Handbook of stress, health and coping. New York: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195375343.001.0001        [ Links ]

Folkman, S., & Lazarus, R. S. (1985). If it changes it must be a process: Study of emotion and coping during three stages of a college examination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48(1), 150-170. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.48.1.150        [ Links ]

Foxcroft, C., & Roodt, G. (2013). Introduction to psychological assessment in the South African context (4th edn.). Cape Town: Oxford University Press.         [ Links ]

Frydenberg, E., & Lewis, R. (2011). The adolescent coping scale (2nd edn.). (ACS-2). Melbourne: Australian Council for Educational Research. Retrieved from https://catalogue.jvrpsychometrics.co.za        [ Links ]

Furr, R. M. (2011). Evaluating psychometric properties: Dimensionality and reliability. In R. Furr (Ed.). Sage library of methods in social and personality psychology: Scale construction and psychometrics for social and personality psychology (pp. 25-52). London: Sage. Retrieved from https://0-doi.org.oasis.unisa.ac.za/10.4135/9781446287866.n4        [ Links ]

Gámez, W., Chmielewski, M., Kotov, R., Ruggero, C., & Watson, D. (2011). Development of a measure of experiential avoidance: The multidimensional experiential avoidance questionnaire. Psychological Assessment, 23(3), 692-713. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023242        [ Links ]

Garson, G. D. (2002). PA765 Statnotes: An online textbook. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/247093481_PA_765_Statnotes_An_online_textbook.         [ Links ]

Greenglass, E. R., Schwarzer, R. Jakubiec, D., Fiksenbaum, L., & Taubert, S. (1999). The proactive coping inventory (PCI): A multidimensional research instrument, paper presented at the 20th International Conference of the Stress and Anxiety Research Society (STAR), Cracow, Poland [Online publication]. Retrieved from http://estherg.info.yorku.ca/greenglass-pci/.         [ Links ]

Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2010). Multivariate data analysis (7th edn.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.         [ Links ]

Hämmig, O. (2017). Health and well-being at work: The key role of supervisor support. SSM - Population Health, 3, 393-402. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2017.04.002        [ Links ]

Hayes, S. C., Strosahl, K., Wilson, K. G., Bissett, R. T., Pistorello, J., Toarmino, D., … McCurry, S. M. (2004). Measuring experiential avoidance: A preliminary test of a working model. The Psychological Record, 54(4), 553-578. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03395492        [ Links ]

Hill, R. (1998). What sample size is 'enough' in internet survey research? Interpersonal Computing and Technology: An Electronic Journal for the 21st Century, 6(3-4), 1-12.         [ Links ]

Hinkin, T. R. (1995). A review of instrument development practices in the study of organisations. Journal of Management, 21(5), 967-988. https://doi.org/10.1177/014920639502100509        [ Links ]

Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modelling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1-55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118        [ Links ]

Irwin, D. E., Varni, J. W., Yeatts, K., & DeWalt, D. A. (2009). Cognitive interviewing methodology in the development of a paediatric item bank: A patient reported outcomes measurement information system (PROMIS) study. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, 7(3), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1186/1477-7525-7-3        [ Links ]

Isaac, S., & Michael, W. B. (1995). Handbook in research and evaluation. San Diego, CA: Educational and Industrial Testing Services.         [ Links ]

Karekla, M., & Panayiotou, G. (2011). Coping and experiential avoidance: Unique or overlapping constructs? Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 42(2), 163-170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2010.10.002        [ Links ]

Kim, J.-H., & McKenzie, L. A. (2014). The impacts of physical exercise on stress coping and well-being in university students in the context of leisure. Health, 6(19), 2570-2580. https://doi.org/10.4236/health.2014.619296        [ Links ]

Kinnunen-Amoroso, M., & Liira, J. (2016). Work-related stress management between workplace and occupational health care. Work, 54(3), 507-515. https://doi.org/10.3233/WOR-162317        [ Links ]

Knight, B. G., & Sayegh, P. (2010). Cultural values and caregiving: The updated sociocultural stress and coping model. Journal of Gerontology, 66(1), 3-14. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbp096        [ Links ]

Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress appraisal and coping. New York: Springer.         [ Links ]

Lehto, X. Y., Park, O., Fu, X., & Lee, G. (2014). Student life stress and leisure participation. Annals of Leisure Research, 17(2), 200-217. https://doi.org/10.1080/11745398.2014.902293        [ Links ]

Malik, N. A., Björkqvist, K., & Österman, K. (2017). Factors associated with occupational stress among university teachers in Pakistan and Finland. Journal of Educational, Health and Community Psychology, 6(2), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.12928/jehcp.v6i2.7047        [ Links ]

Martins, N., & Ungerer, L. M. (2014). Virtual teaching dispositions at a South African open distance-learning university. Procedia: Social and Behavioural Sciences, 171, 929-936. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.01.211        [ Links ]

Marx, A. A. (2017). Development of the positive coping behavioural inventory: A positive psychological approach. Unpublished doctoral thesis, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa. Retrieved from http://uir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/22247.         [ Links ]

Moritz, S., Jahns, A. K., Schröder, J., Berger, T., Lincoln, T. M., Klein, J. P., & Göritz, A. S. (2016). More adaptive versus less adaptive coping: What is more predictive of symptom severity? Development of a new scale to investigate coping profiles across different psychopathological syndromes. Journal of Affective Disorders, 191, 300-307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2015.11.027        [ Links ]

Netemeyer, R. G., Bearden, W. O., & Sharma, S. (2003). Validity. In R. G. Netemeyer, W. O. Bearden, & S. Sharma (Eds.), Scaling procedures (pp. 72-88). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Retrieved from https://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781412985772        [ Links ]

Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Wisco, B. E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). Rethinking rumination. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3(5), 400-424. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00088.x        [ Links ]

Pargament, K. I., & Raiya, H. A. (2007). A decade of research on the psychology of religion and coping. Psyke & Logos, 28(2), 742-766. Retrieved from http://ojs.statsbiblioteket.dk/index.php/psyke/article/viewFile/8398/6958        [ Links ]

Pascual, A., Conejero, S., & Etxebarria, I. (2016). Coping strategies and emotion regulation in adolescents: Adequacy and gender differences. Ansiedad y Estrés, 22(1), 1-4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anyes.2016.04.002        [ Links ]

Piedmont, P. L. (2014). Inter-item correlations. In A. C. Michalos (Ed.), Encyclopedia of quality of life and well-being research (pp. 3303-3304). Dordrecht: Springer.         [ Links ]

Plonsky, L., & Gonulal, T. (2015). Methodological synthesis in quantitative L2 research: A review of reviews and a case study of exploratory factor analysis. Language Learning, 65(1), 9-36. https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12111        [ Links ]

Polit, D. F., & Beck, C. T. (2006). The content validity index: Are you sure you know what's being reported? Critique and recommendations. Research in Nursing and Health, 29(5), 489-497. https://doi.org/10.1002/nur.20147        [ Links ]

Polit, D. F., Beck, C. T., & Owen, S. V. (2007). Is the CVI an acceptable indicator of content validity? Appraisal and recommendations. Research in Nursing and Health, 30(4), 459-467. https://doi.org/10.1002/nur.20199        [ Links ]

Roger, D., Jarvis, G., & Najarian, B. (1993). Detachment and coping: The construction and validation of a new scale for measuring coping strategies. Personality and Individual Differences, 15(6), 619-626. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(93)90003-L        [ Links ]

Schmiedel, R., Vom Brocke, J., & Recker, J. (2014). Development and validation of an instrument to measure organisational cultures' support of business process management. Information and Management, 51(1), 43-56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.im.2013.08.005        [ Links ]

Schwarzer, R., & Schwarzer, C. (1996). A critical survey of coping instruments. In M. Zeidner, & N. S. Endler (Eds.), Handbook of coping: Theory, research, applications (pp. 107-132). Oxford: Wiley. Retrieved from https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1996-97004-006        [ Links ]

Skinner, E. A., Edge, K., Altman, J., & Sherwood, H. (2003). Searching for the structure of coping: A review and critique of category systems for classifying ways of coping. Psychological Bulletin, 129(2), 216-269. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.129.2.216        [ Links ]

Skinner, E. A., & Wellborn, J. G. (1994). Coping during childhood and adolescence: A motivational perspective. In D. Featherman, R. Lerner, & M. Perlmutter (Eds.), Life-span development and behaviour (pp. 91-133). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.         [ Links ]

Slišković, A., & Maslic Seršič, D. (2011). Work stress among university teachers: Gender and position differences. Archives of Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology, 62(4), 299-307. https://doi.org/10.2478/10004-1254-62-2011-2135        [ Links ]

Stanton, A. L., Kirk, S. B., Cameron, C. L., & Danoff-Burg, S. (2000). Coping through emotional approach: Scale construction and validation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78(6), 1150-1169. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.78.6.1150        [ Links ]

Stemmet, L. J. (2013). General and specific avoidance coping: The development and validation of a new scale. Unpublished doctoral thesis, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand. Retrieved from http://ir.canterbury.ac.nz/handle/10092/7798        [ Links ]

Stevenson, A., & Harper, S. (2006). Workplace stress and the student learning experience. Workplace Stress, 14(2), 167-178. https://doi.org/10.1108/09684880610662042        [ Links ]

Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2013). Using multivariate statistics (6th edn.). Harlow: Pearson Education.         [ Links ]

Tobin, D. L., Holroyd, R. V., Reynolds, R. V., & Wigal, J. K. (1989). The hierarchical factor structure of the coping strategies inventory. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 13(4), 343-361. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01173478        [ Links ]

Worthington, R. L., & Whittaker, T. A. (2006). Scale development research: A content analysis and recommendations for best practices. The Counselling Psychologist, 34(6), 806-838. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000006288127        [ Links ]

Zeidner, M., & Endler, N. S. (1996). Handbook of coping: Theory, research, applications. Toronto: Wiley.         [ Links ]

Zuckerman, M., & Gagné, M. (2003). The COPE revised: Proposing a 5-factor model of coping strategies. Journal of Research in Personality, 37(3), 169-204. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0092-6566(02)00563-9        [ Links ]

 

 

Correspondence:
Melissa du Plessis
vannim@unisa.ac.za

Received: 13 Mar. 2019
Accepted: 19 Apr. 2019
Published: 28 Aug. 2019

^rND^sAldao^nA.^rND^sNolen-Hoeksema^nS.^rND^sSchweizer^nS.^rND^sAllen^nA. B.^rND^sLeary^nM. R.^rND^sAmirkhan^nJ. H.^rND^sBarkhuizen^nN.^rND^sRothmann^nS.^rND^sBarry^nA. E.^rND^sChaney^nE. H.^rND^sStellefson^nM. L.^rND^sChaney^nJ. D.^rND^sBaumgartner^nH.^rND^sHomburg^nC.^rND^sBeheshtifar^nM.^rND^sNazarian^nR.^rND^sBentler^nP. M.^rND^sCarver^nC. S.^rND^sConnor-Smith^nJ.^rND^sCarver^nC. S.^rND^sScheier^nM. F.^rND^sWeintraub^nJ. K.^rND^sCatano^nV.^rND^sFrancis^nL.^rND^sHaines^nT.^rND^sKripalani^nH.^rND^sShannon^nH.^rND^sStinger^nB.^rND^sLozanzki^nL.^rND^sCompas^nB. E.^rND^sJaser^nS. S.^rND^sDunbar^nJ. P.^rND^sWatson^nK. H.^rND^sBettis^nA. H.^rND^sGruhn^nM. A.^rND^sWilliams^nE. K.^rND^sDarabi^nM.^rND^sMacaskill^nA.^rND^sReidy^nL.^rND^sDe Schrijver^nA.^rND^sEndler^nN. S.^rND^sParker^nJ. D. A.^rND^sFolkman^nS.^rND^sLazarus^nR. S.^rND^sFurr^nR. M.^rND^sGámez^nW.^rND^sChmielewski^nM.^rND^sKotov^nR.^rND^sRuggero^nC.^rND^sWatson^nD.^rND^sHämmig^nO.^rND^sHayes^nS. C.^rND^sStrosahl^nK.^rND^sWilson^nK. G.^rND^sBissett^nR. T.^rND^sPistorello^nJ.^rND^sToarmino^nD.^rND^s… McCurry^nS. M.^rND^sHill^nR.^rND^sHinkin^nT. R.^rND^sHu^nL.^rND^sBentler^nP. M.^rND^sIrwin^nD. E.^rND^sVarni^nJ. W.^rND^sYeatts^nK.^rND^sDeWalt^nD. A.^rND^sKarekla^nM.^rND^sPanayiotou^nG.^rND^sKim^nJ.-H.^rND^sMcKenzie^nL. A.^rND^sKinnunen-Amoroso^nM.^rND^sLiira^nJ.^rND^sKnight^nB. G.^rND^sSayegh^nP.^rND^sLehto^nX. Y.^rND^sPark^nO.^rND^sFu^nX.^rND^sLee^nG.^rND^sMalik^nN. A.^rND^sBjörkqvist^nK.^rND^sÖsterman^nK.^rND^sMartins^nN.^rND^sUngerer^nL. M.^rND^sMoritz^nS.^rND^sJahns^nA. K.^rND^sSchröder^nJ.^rND^sBerger^nT.^rND^sLincoln^nT. M.^rND^sKlein^nJ. P.^rND^sGöritz^nA. S.^rND^sNetemeyer^nR. G.^rND^sBearden^nW. O.^rND^sSharma^nS.^rND^sNolen-Hoeksema^nS.^rND^sWisco^nB. E.^rND^sLyubomirsky^nS.^rND^sPargament^nK. I.^rND^sRaiya^nH. A.^rND^sPascual^nA.^rND^sConejero^nS.^rND^sEtxebarria^nI.^rND^sPiedmont^nP. L.^rND^sPlonsky^nL.^rND^sGonulal^nT.^rND^sPolit^nD. F.^rND^sBeck^nC. T.^rND^sPolit^nD. F.^rND^sBeck^nC. T.^rND^sOwen^nS. V.^rND^sRoger^nD.^rND^sJarvis^nG.^rND^sNajarian^nB.^rND^sSchmiedel^nR.^rND^sVom Brocke^nJ.^rND^sRecker^nJ.^rND^sSchwarzer^nR.^rND^sSchwarzer^nC.^rND^sSkinner^nE. A.^rND^sEdge^nK.^rND^sAltman^nJ.^rND^sSherwood^nH.^rND^sSkinner^nE. A.^rND^sWellborn^nJ. G.^rND^sSlišković^nA.^rND^sMaslic Seršič^nD.^rND^sStanton^nA. L.^rND^sKirk^nS. B.^rND^sCameron^nC. L.^rND^sDanoff-Burg^nS.^rND^sStevenson^nA.^rND^sHarper^nS.^rND^sTobin^nD. L.^rND^sHolroyd^nR. V.^rND^sReynolds^nR. V.^rND^sWigal^nJ. K.^rND^sWorthington^nR. L.^rND^sWhittaker^nT. A.^rND^sZuckerman^nM.^rND^sGagné^nM.^rND^1A01^nOkechukwu E.^sAmah^rND^1A02^nKabiru^sOyetunde^rND^1A01^nOkechukwu E.^sAmah^rND^1A02^nKabiru^sOyetunde^rND^1A01^nOkechukwu E^sAmah^rND^1A02^nKabiru^sOyetunde

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Human resources management practice, job satisfaction and affective organisational commitment relationships: The effects of ethnic similarity and difference

 

 

Okechukwu E. Amah^I; Kabiru Oyetunde^II

^ILagos Business School, Department of Human Resources Management and Organisational Behavior, Pan Atlantic University, Lagos, Nigeria
^IIResearch Department, Lagos Business School, Pan Atlantic University, Lagos, Nigeria

Correspondence

 

 

---

ABSTRACT

ORIENTATION: The study explored how ethnicity affects the expected relationships among human resources management practice (HRMP), job satisfaction and affective organisational commitment
RESEARCH PURPOSE: To establish how ethnicity affects the interpretation of organisationally provided HRMP, and how this interpretation affects the relationships among the study variables
MOTIVATION FOR THE STUDY: Interest has moved from HRMP outcomes to how employees attribute meaning to existing HRMP. Hence, there is a need to study the variables that affect the attribution process and their effects on the effectiveness of HRMP.
RESEARCH APPROACH/DESIGN AND METHOD: The study was quantitative and utilised cross-sectional research design. Participants consisted of 450 employees from eight organisations in Nigeria.
MAIN FINDINGS: Results indicated that HRMP is positively related to job satisfaction and organisational commitment, and ethnicity is negatively related to job satisfaction and organisational commitment. Ethnicity moderated the relationships among HRMP, job satisfaction and organisational commitment
PRACTICAL/MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS: Ethnicity affected the relationships among HRMP, job satisfaction and affective organisational commitment; hence, organisations may not be deriving the full anticipated benefits of HRMP. It was suggested that organisations should train managers to adopt positive behaviours that would enhance the management of ethnic diversity and reduce the negative effects of ethnicity.
CONTRIBUTION/VALUE-ADD: Ethnic similarity has cultural significance in Nigeria and is known to affect managers' and employees' behaviour and the sharing of organisational benefits in the workplace. However, studies involving its role in HRMP attribution process are lacking. Hence, this study makes a valuable contribution to how ethnicity affects attribution in HRMP studies.

Keywords: Job satisfaction; affective organisational commitment; human resources management practice; ethnicity; Nigeria.

---

 

 

Introduction

Organisations implement human resources management practice (HRMP) to improve the employees' knowledge, skills and motivation needed for the enhancement of organisational productivity and the achievement of sustainable competitive advantage. Hence, a well-articulated HRMP that is difficult to replicate is necessary for the success of any organisation. This is because such practices provide a competitive advantage to the organisation (Boxall, 1998; Mustafa, Richards, & Ramos, 2013; Pahuja & Dalal, 2014). Despite the contributions made by past studies in HRMP in developing and emerging economies (Anakwe, 2002; Anakwe, Igbaria, & Anandarajan, 2000; Kamoche, 2000), more studies are still required to fully understand the role of HRMP in developing economies because of differences in culture and peculiarity of their economic environment (Anakwe et al., 2000; McGuaghey & De Cieri, 1999; Pickler, Varma, Yu, Beenen, & Davoudpour, 2014).

The direct effects of HRMP on individual and organisational outcomes have dominated past studies in HRMP (Huselid, 1995; Korff, Biemann, & Voelpel, 2016; Mustafa et al., 2013). However, recent studies are directing attention to how employees attach meanings to HRMP and how such meanings affect the link between HRMP, performance and other important work outcomes (Messersmith, Patel, Lepak, & Gould-Williams, 2011; Sanders & Yang, 2015). Organisations establish HRMP with the expectation that the benefits employees derive will elicit positive work attitudes (Mustafa et al., 2013). However, the realisation of this expectation will depend on how employees attribute meanings to the established HRMP. This is an area of HRMP research that still has many unanswered questions in different cultures (Ostroff & Bowen, 2015).

The current study explores the role of ethnic similarity in the process of attributing meaning to organisationally provided HRMP in a developing economy, and how this attribution affects the relationships among HRMP, job satisfaction and organisational commitment. The use of ethnic variable in HRM studies in sub-Saharan Africa is justified because of its prevalence in the cultural setting (Anakwe, 2002; Kamoche, 2000; Takyi-Asiedu, 1993). Ethnic groups in sub-Saharan Africa are oriented for survival and are positioned to maximise gains and minimise loss for people in the same ethnic groups. Hence, ethnic similarity affects the behaviour of leaders and employees in organisations in Africa and other areas (Nyambegera, 2002). Based on these, it is highly likely that employees from the same ethnic background as their manager will interpret and react to HR systems in the same way as their managers compared to employees from different ethnic groups and their supervisors. The outcome variables considered in this study are job satisfaction and affective organisational commitment (AOC). The selection of these variables is based on the social exchange theory that stipulates that the way employees are treated will give rise to their reciprocal behaviour that, in turn, will give rise to high or low commitment and satisfaction. Furthermore, these variables are known to affect the level of effort that employees are willing to give in achieving organisational goals.

The purpose of this study is to explore how ethnic similarity affects the relationship among HRMP, job satisfaction and AOC. Signalling and social exchange theories and norm of reciprocity were used to justify the various relationships in the model tested. The study makes two valuable contributions. The first is to confirm the universality of positive relationships among HRMP and work outcomes in the Nigerian context. The second is to add to the call to identify more intervening variables that define how HRMP affects employees' work outcomes, especially in a developing economy. Most studies on ethnicity and HRMP in sub-Saharan Africa have been mainly exploratory and conceptual (Anakwe, 2002; Egwa, 2016; Nyambegera, 2002). The current study quantitatively explored the role of ethnic similarity in the relationship among HRMP, job satisfaction and AOC in the workplace.

 

Literature review

Nigeria is in the sub-Saharan region of Africa. It is highly pluralistic in nature with over 250 sub-ethnic groups categorised into four major ethnic clusters. Nigeria is one of the most ethnically diverse countries in the world (Alesina, Devleeschauwer, Easterly, Kurlat, & Wacziarg, 2013). From the 2016 report of the National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) Nigeria, the Nigerian economy is largely undiversified, consumption-driven and heavily dependent on importation. Revenue from crude oil accounts for almost 95% of the nation's foreign earnings. Earnings from high oil prices have largely not been felt by the general populace because of non-inclusive policies and practices. Current inflation and unemployment rates stand at 15% and 18%, respectively (National Bureau of Statistics [NBS], 2016). Overall economic performance has been highly undermined by corruption, mismanagement, favouritism, nepotism, deplorable infrastructure and social amenities (Nwogu & Ijirshar, 2016).

Following the amalgamation of the Northern and Southern Protectorates in 1914, Nigeria was divided into Northern, Western and Eastern regions, an action judged to be the foundation of primordial ethnic sentiments in the country. While the North remained united, the West and East felt that they were different ethnic groups, thus destroying the unity of the Southern Protectorate.

An ethnic group is a collection of people held together either by blood or ancestral relations (Umezinwa, 2012). The common blood and ancestor, whether real or imaginary, shared by people of the same ethnic group result in strong psychological connections and cohesion. Previous studies have theorised that ethnic similarity influences behaviour and attitude in multi-ethnic and diverse organisations (Bhopal, 2014; Parboteeah, Seriki, & Hoegl, 2014), and is a source of gaining advantage in competing, conflicting and cooperating situations (Edewor, Aluko, & Folarin, 2014). Within organisations, people carry a paraphernalia of values inherent in their ethnic group which is later mirrored in their work attitudes (Parboteeah et al., 2014). People of the same ethnic group are relatively at ease with each other and are prone to low levels of internal strife. However, in situations of ethnic differences, favouritism, lack of trust, low job satisfaction, organisational commitment and supervisor's support are rampant (Umezinwa, 2012).

Categorising ethnic groups in Nigeria is a function of several factors - shared language, myth of common origin, shared cultural attributes, geographical location and shared religious or spiritual beliefs (Ndubuisi, 2013). The Hausa or Fulani ethnic group domiciled in the Northern part of the country is the largest in terms of size and population. This accounts for its preponderance in the power structure and political offices holding. The Igbo ethnic group is a synthesis of smaller ethnic groups in the Eastern part of Nigeria. The Igbos are highly heterogeneous and decentralised in both political and social structures. They are entrepreneurial in nature, largely educated and highly industrious. The Yoruba ethnic group, who shares the Southern part of the country with the Igbos, is domiciled in the Western part of Nigeria. Like the Hausa or Fulani, the Yoruba are a homogenous socio-linguistic and cultural group. Their political and social structures are highly centralised, and they are known to be well educated and industrious.

The majority of Nigerians utilise their ethnic ties to achieve their aspirations in the area of employment, admission and political appointments (Uwaifo, 2016). They eschew official procedures and processes to do things in situations where they can establish ethnic and friendship ties (Uwaifo, 2016). Nigerians have been described as ethnic chauvinists (Adetiba & Rahim, 2012; Nwofe, 2017; Olu-Olu, 2014). Umezinwa (2012) argued that ethnicity is a major problem militating against the development of the nation and that most Nigerians utilise ethnic identity to attract favours. The domination of certain ethnic groups in certain sectors of the economy has implications for justice and equitable sharing of resources. In most public and private organisations, ethnic considerations take precedence over competence and merit, and this has grave consequences for efficiency and productivity. This prevalent ethnic baggage is carried into the workplace and affects how individuals behave in the sharing of organisational benefits and assignments (Egwa, 2016).

 

Theory building and hypotheses

Signalling theory

The theoretical foundation of this study is the signalling theory as adopted from the work of Connelly, Certo, Ireland, and Reutzel (2011). The signalling theory is concerned with how to minimise the information asymmetry when information is passed from one person to another. Individuals make decisions based on the information at their disposal (Connelly et al., 2011). The accuracy of the decisions made depends on the degree of information asymmetry. Information is passed with signals from the signaller to the receiver who observes and interprets the signal and sends feedback to the signaller. Signallers are mainly insiders with enough information about the organisation that is not available to the receiver (Bergh, Connelly, Ketchen, & Shannon, 2014). As the receivers are not privy to the information available to the signaller, they use every available means to decode the signal received from the signaller. Signals from the signaller to receiver can either be positive or negative, intentional or unintentional. Bergh et al. (2014) argued that signallers are quick at passing positive signals intentionally to receivers, but do not send negative signals intentionally to reduce information asymmetry. The emphasis of the signalling theory is the deliberate issuing of positive information to elicit positive response from the receiver (Connelly et al., 2011). However, it is also possible that the signaller by actions and omissions could unintentionally send negative information to the receiver. For example, this study posits that positive information intended by managers to be conveyed by the provision of HRMP can be blurred by unintended signals sent by ethnic differences.

An effective signaling process depends on the ability of the receiver to effectively scan the environment for signals (Taj, 2016). In making future decisions, receivers default to signals used in the past to make informed choices and decisions irrespective of the presence of other compelling signals (Karasek & Bryant, 2015). Hence, receivers' interpretation is highly important, and they may interpret signals not as intended by the signaller (Bergh et al., 2014; Giones & Miralles, 2015; Karasek & Bryant, 2015; Taj, 2016). The current study is interested in how subordinates interpret the intended signal from HRMP using the unintended signal provided by ethnic similarity or difference between the manager and the subordinate. Previous HR studies have adopted signalling theory in examining the effects of HRMP on recruitment and employee online ratings (Chang & Chin, 2018).

Managers in organisations use HRMP as signals to convey information to employees with the hope that employees will interpret the signals properly and reciprocate through improved job satisfaction and AOC. However, when employees experience information asymmetry occasioned by the signaller or signal, they use any of the signals perceived, whether intentional or not, to infer the motive behind the message (Bergh et al., 2014). It is therefore argued in this study that employees may utilise ethnic similarity between the manager and subordinate as a signal to infer the meaning and enactment of HRMP in the same way that entrepreneurs use technology usefulness to infer the value proposition of an idea (Giones & Miralles, 2015). In this study, ethnic similarity is classified as unintentional signals sent by managers to employees along with intentional signals in the communication of HRMP. It is argued that employees whose ethnic groups differ from that of their managers who implement HRMP policies will likely take such ethnic difference as a signal in interpreting the motive behind the policy and respond on that basis. This will arise because of the prevalent situation in which ethnic similarity with the manager confers undue advantage on the employee (Nyambegera, 2002).

Human resources management practice, job satisfaction and organisational commitment

Globalisation has made international human resources management an issue that cannot be neglected by organisations who desire to operate in different cultures (Anakwe, 2002). Cross-cultural human resources management studies have identified that organisations must develop appropriate HRMPs, communicate and implement same to remain competitive across cultures (Kamoche, 2000). A gap in HRMP studies in developing economies is properly defining and understanding the link between HRMP, job satisfaction and AOC, while considering prevailing important local factors such as ethnic similarity or difference (Anakwe, 2002). The required strength of the relationships among HRMP, job satisfaction and AOC may not occur by just having HRMP in place. How employees perceive these policies is a major determinant of the strength of the relationships. Past studies have considered the expressed perception of employees (Kehoe & Wright, 2010) and future time perspective (Korff et al., 2016). The current study used signalling theory to explore ethnic similarity or difference as possible boundary variables in the link between HRMP, job satisfaction and AOC.

Job satisfaction is described as the feelings of individuals about the different aspects of their job. The level of job satisfaction is attributed to both individual and organisational factors. Past studies have found mainly positive relationships between HRMP and job satisfaction (Boon, Den Hartog, Boselie, & Paauwe, 2011; Gould-Williams, Mostafa, & Bottomley, 2013). This relationship can be explained by the signalling theory, social exchange theory and norms of reciprocity. Those involved in social exchange relationship bring in resources and expect to receive resources in exchange through the process of reciprocity, for the relationship to endure. Human resources management practice that is beneficial to employees will send a positive signal that organisations value the contribution of employees. In the absence of any unintended signal, employees see this as positive social exchange currency that must be reciprocated (Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002). Thus, employees will develop a positive attitude to their job by way of high job satisfaction. Hence, the following hypothesis is postulated:

H1: Human resources management practice is positively related to employee job satisfaction.

Organisational commitment reflects an individual's level of identification and involvement with his organisation (Mowday, Steers, & Porter, 1979). Organisational commitment has widely been studied by HR and organisational behaviour scholars because of its effect on the achievement of organisational goals and objectives. There are three forms of commitment that employees can have: affective, continuance and normative commitments (Meyer & Allen, 1991). Meyer and Smith (2000) assert that the most effective form of organisational commitment is AOC, and this is the form used in the current study. Affective commitment is when employees are committed because they 'want to', because they see a high congruence between their values and those of the organisation. The relationship between HRMP and AOC can be explained by the signalling theory, social exchange theory and norm of reciprocity. The provision of HRMP by organisations sends positive signals of being valued by the organisation and is seen by employees as an exchange currency which must be reciprocated by way of identification and involvement with the organisation. Hence, a positive relationship will exist between HRMP and AOC. Past studies have established this positive relationship (see Gardner, Wright, & Moynihan, 2011). Hence, the following hypothesis is postulated:

H2: Human resources management practice is positively related to AOC.

The effects of ethnic difference

Ethnic difference in organisations is a form of diversity that has been neglected in studies in the sub-Saharan region (Nyambegera, 2002). Ethnic diversity without inclusion can become a basis for poor management of human resources and subsequent poor performance in the organisation. According to Osaghae (1995, p. 11), ethnicity is defined as 'the employment and mobilisation of ethnic identity or differences to gain advantage in situations of competition, conflict or cooperation'. Ethnicity in Africa has a historical root, and prior to the colonisation of the continent, ethnic groups came together willingly and for mutual benefits, and were very supportive of each other (Laakso & Olukoshi, 1996). However, during the colonial era, the colonial masters forcibly brought together diverse people who were antagonistic to one another and this created competition instead of the cooperation that characterised the precolonial era (Little, 2008). Despite the belief that ethnicity would disappear with time, the concept has persisted and has become more daring in postcolonial Africa (Roosens, 1989). However, management researchers in Africa have neglected this pervasive concept in organisational study; hence, a call was made by Kamoche (2000) that human resources managers should recognise ethnic differences and the demand it places on those in the workplace. Ethnicity is a source of attachment to people of similar ethnic origin and separation from others, and this impacts behaviour in diverse ethnic work environments. Ethnic identity provides biases that are reflected in negative work behaviour, exclusion of talented people from other ethnic groups and it also puts intense pressure on managers to act in favour of those with similar ethnic identity (Nyambegera, 2002). It is the basis for the 'subtle, nonphysical manifestation of interpersonal mistreatment' in organisations (Cortina, 2008, p. 55). It may be the basis for the distribution of rewards and may lead to talent wastage. For example, in Nigeria, ethnicity leads to prejudice, social discrimination and is the basis for appointments in most tertiary institutions (Egwa, 2016). Generally, employment in the sub-Saharan region depends on one's ethnic group and whom one knows. For example, Takyi-Asiedu (1993, p. 95) stated that 'there is a conviction that to give a job to a fellow tribesman is not nepotism, it is an obligation' because individuals are obligated to give preference to people from their ethnic origin who cannot find a job. This assertion is also supported by Nyambegera (2002). In summary, ethnicity plays out in all aspects of human resources management in organisations in the sub-Saharan region.

Studies have shown that the line manager's behaviour is a critical variable in the link between HRMP and employee outcomes (Sikora, Ferris, & Van Iddekinge, 2015). There is also variability in how line managers interpret and implement existing organisation's HRMP. Past studies have put forward many reasons why this variability exists (Butler, Ferris, & Napier, 1991). However, one aspect not covered by past studies and which is salient in the environment of this study is the similarity or difference in the ethnic group of the line manager and subordinate. This is because ethnic similarity or difference has been established to affect how the benefits in organisation are interpreted and shared with employees (Anakwe, 2002; Takyi-Asiedu, 1993). As ethnicity forms a basis of rewards and ranking in organisations, ethnic similarity and difference will be a signal that will indicate to an employee how HRMP will be interpreted and implemented in the organisation. This will affect the employee's perception of the usefulness of HRMP and their work attitude reflected in job satisfaction and AOC. Thus, the following hypotheses are postulated:

H3a: Ethnic similarity is positively related to job satisfaction and AOC.

H3b: Employees from the same ethnic group as their supervisor will have a stronger link between HRMP and job satisfaction than employees from different ethnic groups with their supervisor.

H3c: Employees from the same ethnic group as their supervisor will have stronger link between HRMP and AOC than employees from different ethnic groups with their supervisor.

The hypothesised model is shown in Figure 1.

 

 

Research design

Research approach

The study is quantitative in nature and utilised cross-sectional data that were captured at a single point in time. Data were collected from eight companies using a questionnaire developed for the study. The participating organisations were drawn from different industries, and were randomly selected from the list of companies available to the researcher.

Research method

Participants

A random sample of participants was generated using the phone directory issued by the participating organisations. One thousand participants were targeted, but only 450 usable questionnaires were obtained (45%). Five participants were dropped because they worked for expatriates. This was to ensure that all those who took part were Nigerians and worked with Nigerian managers. Out of the participants, 58% were male, 66% were married, and most of them have organisational tenure of between 6 and 10 years. Sixty per cent of the participants worked with managers from the same ethnic origin.

Measurement instruments

The first part of the questionnaire captured the demographic data of the participants, while the second part captured the variables used for the research. The choice of the demographic factors was based on the past studies establishing the variables that affected job satisfaction and organisational commitment (Amarasene, Ajward, & Ahasanu Haque, 2015; Chirchir, 2016; Salami, 2008). Apart from ethnicity, all other study variables were measured with the five-point Likert scale from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree.

Ethnic similarity and difference

This was measured with a single question which inquired if the participants reported to a manager in the same ethnic group. Two options of 1 = Yes and 2 = No were offered.

Perceived human resources management practice

Perceived HRMP was measured with 27 items taken from the work of Sun, Aryee, and Law (2007). The measure contains seven HRMPs listed as selective staffing (SS), extensive training (ET), internal mobility (IM), employment security (ES), job description (JD), result-oriented appraisal (ROA) and participation in decision. Example items are 'Considerable importance is placed on the staffing process', 'Employees in customer contact jobs will normally go through training programs every few years', 'Employees have clear career paths in this organisation', 'Employees in this job can be expected to stay with this organisation for as long as they wish', 'This job has an up-to-date description', 'Performance is more often measured with objective quantifiable results' and 'Employees in this job are often asked by their supervisor to participate in decisions', respectively.

Job satisfaction

This was measured with five items taken from the work of Anderson, Coffey, and Byerly (2002). Example item is 'The work I do in my job is meaningful to me'.

Affective organisational commitment

This was captured with five items taken from the work of Kehoe and Wright (2010). Example item is 'I feel a strong sense of belonging to my organisation'.

Control variables

The control variables included gender (1 = male, 2 = female), marital status (1 = single, 2 = married), tenure (1 = below 5 years, 2 = 6-10 years, 3 = above 10 years), job category (1 = junior to 4 = managers) and education (1 = primary school to 5 = bachelor degree and above).

Research procedure

Each organisation nominated a contact person who worked with the researcher to identify the chosen participants and obtain their email addresses. The participants were sent emails requesting them to fill out the questionnaire sent to them in an envelope. There were instructions as to the purpose of the study and assurance of confidentiality of given information. They were told not to fill in any portion they did not want to fill in. No ethical issue was involved in the administration and gathering of data in this study.

 

Data analysis

Preliminary analysis

Data were analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS 23) and the Analysis of Moment of Structures (AMOS 23). The fit of the models in the AMOS analysis was established using the goodness of fit index (GFI), comparative fit index (CFI) and root mean standard error of approximation (RMSEA). For the GFI and CFI, an effective model must have at least a value of 0.9, while the RMSEA value must fall between 0.5 and 0.8 (Hu & Bentler, 1999). Prior to analysis, the HRMP items were subjected to confirmatory factor analysis to ascertain the number of factors. As HRMP contained seven factors, seven-factor and one-factor models were tested. Results indicate that the seven-factor model was superior to the one-factor model with indices χ² = 187.39; df = 131; χ²/df = 1.430; GFI = 0.91; CFI = 0.97; RMSEA = 0.043 (see Table 1).

Common method analysis

The questionnaire contained information that the data acquired would be used for research and presented in a format that would not identify participants. Participants were told to disregard any information they would not want to provide. In collecting the filled in questionnaires, envelopes were provided with the request to send directly to the researcher. These requests and information were aimed at minimising common method variance as recommended by Chang, Witteloostuijn, and Eden (2010). In addition to this, the study utilised three other methods to gauge the level of common method variance. Exploratory factor analysis using SPSS and stipulating non-rotation extracted nine factors in which the first factor extracted only 25% of the variance in the data compared to the total of 80% extracted by all the factors. This result indicated that common method variance was not an issue (Podsakoff & Organ, 1986). Confirmatory factor analysis was carried out with one model containing 10 factors and the other constraining all the variables to load to a single factor. The 10-factor model has better indices of χ² = 573.56; df = 395; χ²/df = 1.452; GFI = 0.91; CFI = 0.96; RMSEA = 0.045 (see Table 2).

In the third method, a common factor was included in the 10-factor model. The items loading on the common factor were constrained to be equal, while the variance of the factor was constrained to be 1 (Chang et al., 2010; Eichhorn, 2014). The constrained loading of the items on the common factor was 0.30. Thus, the common method variance was 9% which is below the threshold point of 50% (Chang et al., 2010; Eichhorn, 2014). The three tests jointly show that the level of the common method variance would not affect the results obtained in the current study.

Construct, convergent and discriminant validity analysis

Construct validity shows how items of a measure load on their respective factors. In Table 3, the loadings on all the variables are all above the cut-off point of 0.5 (Hair, Black, Babin, Anderson, & Tatham, 2010). Convergent validity indicates agreement between items that measure the same variable. For this to be satisfied, all the loadings must exceed the cut-off point of 0.5 (Hair et al., 2010), Cronbach's reliability model must be above the cut-off point of 0.7 (Nunnally, 1978), and the average variance extracted by all factors must exceed the cut-off point of 0.5 (Hair et al., 2010). All these criteria were achieved as shown in Table 3, showing evidence of convergent validity. Koufteros, Vonderembse, and Doll (2002) recommended that the average variance extracted by each variable should be compared with the variance shared with other variables to ascertain discriminant validity. Each diagonal element in Table 4 is greater than its vertical and horizontal off-diagonal elements, showing evidence of discriminant validity.

 

Results

Descriptive statistics and hypothesis testing

The mean, standard deviation, reliability coefficient and correlation among study variables are in shown Table 5. Prior to calculating the interaction terms, the variables involved were centralised based on the work of Aikens and West (1991). Most of the HRMPs have positive significant relationships with job satisfaction and AOC. These results partially support Hypotheses 1 and 2, respectively. The hypotheses were tested with hierarchical multiple regression analysis in four stages. Stage 1 contains the control variables, stage 2 contains the HRMPs, stage 3 contains the ethnicity and stage 4 contains the interaction terms (see Table 6). After controlling, the control variables, it was found that job satisfaction has positive significant relationships with SS (β = 0.26, t = 3.68, p < 0.001), IM (β = 0.10, t = 2.183, p < 0.05), ES (β = 0.13, t = 2.243, p < 0.05), JD (β = 0.12, t = 2.114, p < 0.05) and participatory decision (PD) (β = 0.38, t = 6.310, p < 0.001). Thus, Hypothesis 1 was partially supported. Affective organisational commitment has positive significant relationships with SS (β = 0.31, t = 3.900, p < 0.001) and PD (b = 0.40, t = 5.901, p < 0.001). Hence, Hypothesis 2 was partially supported. The human resources practices accounted for 61% and 54% of the variance in job satisfaction and AOC, respectively. Ethnicity has a negative relationship with job satisfaction (β = -0.18, t = -2.535, p < 0.05) and with AOC (b = -0.11, t = -1.998, p < 0.05). Thus, employees from different ethnic groups to their supervisor have low job satisfaction and AOC. Hence, Hypothesis 3a is supported.

 

 

Only the interaction between IM and ethnicity (β = -0.20, t = -3.115, p < 0.001) significantly predicted job satisfaction. Thus, Hypotheses 3b is supported, while 3c is not. The interaction term accounted for an additional 4% of the variance in job satisfaction.

To interpret the significant interaction terms, the method recommended by Aiken and West (1991) was adopted. Participants from the same ethnic group as their managers formed one group and those from different ethnic groups formed the second group. Regression analyses were run separately for the same and different ethnic groups. The results indicate that the link between IM and job satisfaction was weaker for participants who work with supervisors from different ethnic groups than those who have similar ethnic group as their supervisor (see Figure 2).

 

 

Discussions

Outline of results

Drawing from the social exchange theory, norm of reciprocity and signalling theory, the study explored the nature of the relationships involving seven HRMPs, job satisfaction and AOC, how employees decode the real purpose of HRMP using ethnicity, and whether the result of the decoding process affects the positive link between HRMP and employee job satisfaction and AOC. Although there is a consensus on the universality of the positive link between HRMP and employee work attitudes (Bowen & Ostroff, 2004), there are suggestions that how employees give meaning to organisationally provided HRMP will differ because of contextual factors (Anakwe, 2002; Kamoche, 2000; Takyi-Asiedu, 1993). This has led to the call for more studies in emerging market cultures (Anakwe et al., 2000; McGaughey & De Cieri, 1999). This study was carried out in a developing country, Nigeria, where ethnicity has a high influence on how employees and managers interpret work benefits and outcomes (Anakwe, 2002; Kamoche, 2000; Takyi-Asiedu, 1993).

Job satisfaction has positive relationships with five of the HRM practices, namely SS, IM, ES, JD and PD. Affective organisational commitment has positive relationships with two of the HRM practices, namely SS and PD. These results confirm the expectations of organisations that employees would see the provision of HRMP as evidence of organisational care and this should elicit a positive response from employees. These results also confirm the universality of the possible positive role of HRMPs when properly designed and implemented.

Participants from the same ethnic group as their supervisor have higher job satisfaction and AOC than those from different ethnic groups with their supervisor. Ethnicity is known to distort the relationship between employees and supervisors such that those who are from a similar ethnic group as their supervisors are treated better than those from different ethnic groups (Bhopal, 2014; Edewor et al., 2014; Parboteeah et al., 2014). Those from the same ethnic group are treated as in-group members, while others are treated as out-group members (Nyambegera, 2002). In-group members receive special benefits and treatments which are not available to out-group members (Urban, 2011). In-group members perceive this preferential treatment as social currency which they reciprocate by having high job satisfaction and high AOC.

The only significant interaction term is the one involving ethnicity and IM. The result indicates that for participants from the same ethnic group as their supervisor, the relationship between IM and job satisfaction was stronger than that from different ethnic groups as their supervisor. This means that the preferential treatment given to those from the same ethnic group as their supervisor signals that although IM may be provided by the organisation, the actual realisation would be tilted towards the in-group members (Apaolaza, Hartman, He, Barrutia, & Echebarria, 2014; Urban, 2011). That IM interacted with ethnic similarity is not surprising because ethnic similarity plays out in the IM in organisations with those from similar ethnic groups as their supervisors getting most of the mobility (Egwa, 2016; Takyi-Asiedu, 1993).

Implications for managers

This work contributes to the debate on the universality of the positive link between HRMP and work attitudes, and how employees give meaning to organisationally provided HRMP across different cultures. Ethnic diversity is a form of diversity that must be encouraged in organisations. However, as demonstrated by the results obtained in this study, if it is not managed through inclusive principles, there are negative consequences. Having in-group and out-group members based on ethnic similarity and difference, respectively, is an indication of poor management of ethnic diversity. In sub-Saharan Africa, social identity variables play a major role in people's perception of being in-group or out-group members (Nyambegera, 2002). From the results obtained, social identity variables (in this study ethnic similarity and difference) acted as the signal that employees used to decode how organisationally provided HRMP would be administered. Such decoding affected their job satisfaction and AOC.

Organisations spend a huge part of their operating expenses providing HRMP yearly, with the assumption that employees will see the care inherent in such action and react positively through positive work attitudes (Korff et al., 2016). However, the results obtained indicate that this expectation may not be maximally achieved because of the ethnic background of managers and employees. The managerial implication from this study is that organisations are spending resources on HRMP but receiving little benefits by way of improved employee job satisfaction and AOC. In an environment in which preferential treatment of those from similar ethnic groups as their managers has been unconsciously imbibed and approved by managers, there is need to educate managers of the danger of such action in the management of diversity. Diversity is only beneficial to an organisation when managed through inclusive policies. The consequences of unmanaged diversity may be implicitly attributed to the entire organisation because when employees speak about these consequences, they may not restrict their comments to individual managers responsible for these actions but may speak as though the organisation approved the actions of its managers, who are perceived by employees as agents of the organisation. This has negative effects on the organisation when dealing with internal and external stakeholders. The existence of mismanagement of diversity can be inferred by the negative behaviour of managers. For example, a manager who associates with only people from his ethnic group selects only certain people into visible and high exposure jobs and uses languages not understood by all may be unintentionally creating an environment that can be perceived as rife in ethnicity. As stated by the Servant Leadership Institute, 'ever stop to think about the influence you have? The words you say, your body language and your actions all affect others'. To handle these situations, managers must be trained in the soft side of management, especially interpersonal relationships and the development of emotional intelligence. To hold managers responsible for diversity management in their units, organisations must include diversity management as a performance management criterion in evaluating managers.

Limitations and directions for future research

This study used cross-sectional research design; hence, common method variance cannot be ruled out. However, the three statistical analyses performed indicate that its level is low. Also because of the method of acquiring data, causality cannot be made. The participants came from private sector organisations in some industries; therefore, generalisation to public sector organisations should be cautiously made. However, the result is not expected to be different for the organisations in the public sector because the prevalence of these vices is more in such organisations (Nyambegera, 2002).

Future studies should extend the empirical study to cover organisations in the public sector and to more organisations and industries in the private sector. More variables that stratify people into groups should be considered as interaction variables to widen the number of social identity variables. More HRMPs should be considered in future studies.

 

Conclusion

Many authors have stated the pervasive nature of ethnicity in sub-Saharan Africa including Nigeria (Anakwe, 2002; Kamoche, 2000; Takyi-Asiedu, 1993), and that their existence is well known to both employees and managers. This study further established that employees use ethnicity to decode the real purpose of HRMP which ultimately affects their reactions to the provided HRMP. There is a general agreement within the Nigerian environment that ethnicity produces negative consequences in the environment (Egwa, 2016); however, the extent of the situation has not been adequately articulated.

 

Acknowledgements

Competing interests

The authors confirm that they do not have any financial or personal relationships that may have influenced the writing of this article.

Authors' contributions

O.E.A. made the most contribution of conceptualising the project and driving data acquisition and analysis and wrote the entire project. K.O. is a research assistant who helped in the literature review.

Funding Information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability statement

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the authors.

 

References

Adetiba, T. C., & Rahim, A. (2012). Between ethnicity, nationality and development in Nigeria. International Journal of Development and Sustainability, 1(3), 656-674.         [ Links ]

Aikens, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. London: Sage.         [ Links ]

Alesina, A., Devleeschauwer, A., Easterly, W., Kurlat, S., & Wacziarg, R. (2013). Fractionalization. Journal of Economic Growth, 8(2), 155-194. https://doi.org/10.3386/w9411        [ Links ]

Amarasene, T. S. M., Ajward, A. R., & Ahasanu Haque, A. K. M. (2015). The effects of demographic factors on job satisfaction of university faculty members in Sri Lanka. International Journal of Academic Research and Reflections, 3(4), 89-106.         [ Links ]

Anakwe, U. P. (2002). Human resources management practices in Nigeria: Challenges and insights. International Journal of Human Resources Management, 13, 1042-1059. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585190210131285        [ Links ]

Anakwe, U. P., Igbaria, M., & Anandarajan, M. (2000). Managing practices across cultures: Role of support and technology usage. Journal of International Business Studies, 31(4), 653-666. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490927        [ Links ]

Anderson, S. E., Coffey, B. S., & Byerly, R. T. (2002). Formal organizational initiatives and informal workplace practices: Links to work-family conflict and job-related outcomes. Journal of Management, 28(6), 787-810. https://doi.org/10.1177/014920630202800605        [ Links ]

Apaolaza, V., Hartman, P., He, J., Barrutia, J. M., & Echebarria, C. (2014). Choosing celebrity endorsers for advertisement campaigns in cosmopolitan China: Does their ethnicity matter? South African Journal of Business Management, 45(3), 45-55. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajbm.v45i3.130        [ Links ]

Bergh, D. D., Connelly, B. L., Ketchen, D. J., & Shannon, L. M. (2014). Signalling theory and equilibrium in strategic management research: An assessment and a research agenda. Journal of Management Studies, 51(8), 1334-1360. https://doi.org/10.1111/joms.12097        [ Links ]

Bhopal, R. S. (2014). Migration, ethnicity, race, and health in multicultural societies. Oxford: Oxford University Press.         [ Links ]

Boon, C., Den Hartog, D. N., Boselie, P., & Paauwe, J. (2011). The relationship between perceptions of HR practices and employee outcomes: Examining the role of person-organisation and person-job Fit. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 22(1), 138-162. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2011.538978        [ Links ]

Bowen, D. E., & Ostroff, C. (2004). Understanding HRM-firm performance linkages: The role of the 'strength' of the HRM system. Academy of Management Review, 29(2), 203-221. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1053-4822(98)90005-5        [ Links ]

Boxall, P. (1998). Achieving competitive advantage through human resources strategy: Towards a theory of industry dynamics. Human resources Management Review, 8(3), 265-288. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1053-4822(98)90005-5        [ Links ]

Butler, J. E., Ferris, G. R., & Napier, V. K. (1991). Strategy and human resources management. Cincinnati, OH: South-Western.         [ Links ]

Chang, E., & Chin, H. (2018). Signaling or experiencing: Commitment HRM effects on recruitment and employees' online ratings. Journal of Business Research, 84, 175-185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2017.11.002        [ Links ]

Chang, S., Van Witteloostuijn, A., & Eden, L. (2010). Common method variance in international business research. Journal of International Business Studies, 41, 178-184. https://doi.org/10.1057/jibs.2009.88        [ Links ]

Chirchir, R. (2016). Demographic factors and job satisfaction: A case of teachers in public primary school in Bomet, Kenya. Journal of Education and Practice, 7(13), 152-158.         [ Links ]

Connelly, B. L., Certo, S. T., Ireland, R. D., & Reutzel, C. R. (2011). Signaling theory: A review and assessment. Journal of Management, 37, 39-67. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206310388419        [ Links ]

Cortina, L. M. (2008). Unseen injustice: Incivility as a modern discrimination in organizations. Academy of Management Review, 33, 55-75. http://doi.org/10.2307/20159376        [ Links ]

Edewor, P., Aluko, Y. A., & Folarin, S. F. (2014). Managing ethnic and cultural diversity for national integration in Nigeria. Developing Country Studies, 4(6), 70-76.         [ Links ]

Egwa, E. I. (2016). Influence of ethnicity on HRM in Nigerian tertiary institutions. African Educational Research Journal, 42, 85-90.         [ Links ]

Eichhorn, B. R. (2014). Common method variance techniques. Internet Resources. Retrieved from: https://www.lexjansen.com/mwsug/2014/AA/MWSUG-2014-AA11.pdf.         [ Links ]

Gardner, T. M., Wright, P. M., & Moynihan, L. M. (2011). The impact of motivation, empowerment, and skill-enhancing practices on aggregate voluntary turnover: The mediating effect of collective affective commitment. Personnel Psychology, 64(2), 315-350. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2011.01212.x        [ Links ]

Giones, F., & Miralles, F. (2015). Do actions matter more than resources? A signalling theory perspective on the technology entrepreneurship process. Technology Innovation Management Review, 5(3), 39-45.         [ Links ]

Gould-Williams, J. S., Mostafa, A. M. S., & Bottomley, P. (2013). Public service motivation and employee outcomes in the Egyptian public sector: Testing the mediating effect of person organization fit. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 25(2), 597-622. https://doi.org/10.1093/jopart/mut053        [ Links ]

Hair, J. F. Jr., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., Anderson, R. E., & Tatham, R. L. (2010). Multivariate data analysis (7th edn.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice-Hall.         [ Links ]

Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1-55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118        [ Links ]

Huselid, M. A. (1995). The impact of human resource management practices on turnover, productivity, and corporate financial performance. Academy of Management Journal, 38(3), 635-672.         [ Links ]

Kamoche, K. N. (2000). Sociological paradigms and human resources: An African context. Aldershot: Ashgate.         [ Links ]

Karasek, R., & Bryant, P. (2015). Signaling theory: Past, present, and future. Electronic Business Journal, 14(12), 550-558.         [ Links ]

Kehoe, R. R., & Wright, P. M. (2010). The impact of high-performance human resource practices on employees' attitudes and behaviours. Journal of Management, 39, 366-391. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206310365901        [ Links ]

Korff, J., Biemann, T., & Voelpel, S. C. (2016). Human resource management systems and work attitudes: The mediating role of future time perspective. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 38, 45-67. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2110        [ Links ]

Koufteros, X. A., Vonderembse, M. A., & Doll, W. J. (2002). Examining the competitive capabilities of manufacturing firms. Structural Equation Modeling, 9(2), 256-282. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15328007SEM0902_6        [ Links ]

Laakso, L., & Olukoshi, A.O. (1996). The crisis of the post-colonial Nation-State project in Africa. In A. Olukoshi, A. Adebayo & L. Laakso (Eds.), pp. 7-39. Challenges to the Nation-State in Africa. Uppsala and Helsinki: The Nordic African Institute of Development Studies.         [ Links ]

Little, P. D. (2008). Maasai identity on the periphery. American Anthropologist, 100, 444-458. https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1998.100.2.444        [ Links ]

McGaughey, S. L., & De Cieri, H. (1999). Reassessment of convergence and divergence dynamics: Implications for international HRM. The International Human Resources Management, 10, 235-250. https://doi.org/10.1080/095851999340530        [ Links ]

Messersmith, J. G., Patel, P. C., Lepak, D. P., & Gould-Williams, J. S. (2011). Unlocking the black box: Exploring the link between hygh-performance work systems and performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 96, 1105-1118. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024710        [ Links ]

Meyer, J. P., & Allen, N. J. (1991). A three-component conceptualization of organizational commitment. Human Resource Management Review, 1(1), 61-89. https://doi.org/10.1016/1053-4822(91)90011-Z        [ Links ]

Meyer, J. P., & Smith, C. A. (2000). HRM practices and organizational commitment: Test of a mediation model. Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences/Revue canadienne des sciences de l'administration, 17(4), 319-331. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1936-4490.2000.tb00231.x        [ Links ]

Mowday, R. T., Steers, R. M., & Porter, L. W. (1979). The measurement of organizational commitment. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 14(2), 224-247. https://doi.org/10.1016/0001-8791(79)90072-1        [ Links ]

Mustafa, M., Richards, J. J., & Ramos, H. M. (2013). High performance human resources practices and corporate entrepreneurship: The mediating effect of middle managers knowledge collecting and donating behaviour. Asian Academy of Management Journal, 18(2), 17-36.         [ Links ]

National Bureau of Statistics (NBS), (2016). National unemployment statistics. Retrieved from: https://nigerianstat.gov.ng/#unemp        [ Links ]

Ndubuisi, F. N. (2013). Ethnic politics in Africa: The Nigerian example. In 5th European Conference on African Studies, Lisbon, Portugal, 27-29 June 2013 (pp. 1501-1513).         [ Links ]

Nunnally, J. (1978). Psychometric theory. New York: McGraw-Hill.         [ Links ]

Nyambegera, S. M. (2002). Ethnicity and human resources management practice in sub-Saharan Africa: The relevance of the managing of diversity discourse. The International Journal of Human Resources Management, 13, 1077-1090. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585190210131302        [ Links ]

Nwofe, E. S. (2017). Pro-Biafran activists and the call for a referendum: A sentiment analysis of 'Biafraexit' on twitter after UK's vote to leave the European Union. Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Studies, 4(1), 65-73.         [ Links ]

Nwogu, J. A, & Ijirshar, V. U. (2016). The impact of corruption on economic growth and cultural values in Nigeria: A need for value re-orientation. International Journal of Economics & Management Sciences, 6(1), 1-7. https://doi.org/10.4172/2162-6359.1000388        [ Links ]

Olu-Olu, O. (2014). Ethnic identity and the crises of development in Nigeria. European Scientific Journal, 10(2), 216-229.         [ Links ]

Osaghae, E. (1995). Structural adjustment and ethnicity in Nigeria. Research Report No. 98. Uppsala: The Nordic African Institute.         [ Links ]

Ostroff, C., & Bowen, D. (2015). Reflections on the 2014 decade award: Is there strength in the construct of HR system strength. Academy of Management Review, 41, 196-214. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2015.0323        [ Links ]

Pahuja, S., & Dalal, R. C. (2014). Achieving competitive advantage through HR practices: A case study. Journal of Strategic Human Resource Management, 1(2), 35-43.         [ Links ]

Parboteeah, K. P., Seriki, H. T., & Hoegl, M. (2014). Ethnic diversity, corruption and ethical climates in sub-Saharan Africa: Recognizing the significance of human resource management. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 25(7), 979-1001. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2013.815251        [ Links ]

Pickler, S., Varma, A., Yu, A., Beenen, G., & Davoudpour, S. (2014). High performance work systems, cultures and gender diversity. Employee Relations, 36, 693-707. https://doi.org/10.1108/ER-11-2013-0165        [ Links ]

Podsakoff, P. M., & Organ, D. W. (1986). Self-reports in organizational research: Problems and prospects. Journal of Management, 12(4), 545-560. https://doi.org/10.1177/014920638601200408        [ Links ]

Rhoades, L., & Eisenberger, R. (2002). Perceived organizational support: A review of the literature. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(4), 698. http://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.87.4.698        [ Links ]

Roosens, E. E. (1989). Creating ethnicity: The process of ethnogenesis, Newbury, CA: Sage.         [ Links ]

Salami, S. O. (2008). Demographic and psychological factors predicting organisational commitment among industrial workers. The Anthropologist, 10(1), 31-38. https://doi.org/10.1080/09720073.2008.11891026        [ Links ]

Sanders, K., & Yang, H. (2015). The HRM process approach: The influence of employees' attribution to explain the HRM-performance relationship. Human Resource Management, 55(2), 201-217. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrm.21661        [ Links ]

Sikora, D. M., Ferris, G. R., & Van Iddekinge, C. H. (2015). Line manager implementation perceptions as a mediator of relations between high-performance work practices and employee outcomes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 100, 1908-1918. http://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000024        [ Links ]

Sun, L. Y., Aryee, S., & Law, K. S. (2007). High-performance human resource practices, citizenship behavior, and organizational performance: A relational perspective. Academy of Management Journal, 50(3), 558-577. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2007.25525821        [ Links ]

Taj, S. A. (2016). Application of signaling theory in management research: Addressing major gaps in theory. European Management Journal, 34, 338-348. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.emj.2016.02.001        [ Links ]

Takyi-Asiedu, S. (1993). Some socio-cultural forces retarding entrepreneurial activity in sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of Business Venturing, 8, 91-98. https://doi.org/10.1016/0883-9026(93)90013-U        [ Links ]

Umezinwa, C. (2012). Ethnicity and Nigeria's underdevelopment. Ogirisi. A New Journal of African Studies, 9(1), 215-229.         [ Links ]

Urban, B. (2011). Entrepreneurial networking differences: An ethnic in-group and out-group analysis. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology/SA Tydskrif vir Bedryfsielkunde, 37(1), Art. #826, 14. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v37i1.826        [ Links ]

Uwaifo, S. O. (2016). Ethnicity and development of political parties in Nigeria. Journal of Poverty, Investment and Development, 28, 1-9.         [ Links ]

 

 

Correspondence:
Okechukwu Amah
oamah@lbs.edu.ng

Received: 21 June 2019
Accepted: 19 July 2019
Published: 23 Sept. 2019

^rND^sAdetiba^nT. C.^rND^sRahim^nA.^rND^sAlesina^nA.^rND^sDevleeschauwer^nA.^rND^sEasterly^nW.^rND^sKurlat^nS.^rND^sWacziarg^nR.^rND^sAmarasene^nT. S. M.^rND^sAjward^nA. R.^rND^sAhasanu Haque^nA. K. M.^rND^sAnakwe^nU. P.^rND^sAnakwe^nU. P.^rND^sIgbaria^nM.^rND^sAnandarajan^nM.^rND^sAnderson^nS. E.^rND^sCoffey^nB. S.^rND^sByerly^nR. T.^rND^sApaolaza^nV.^rND^sHartman^nP.^rND^sHe^nJ.^rND^sBarrutia^nJ. M.^rND^sEchebarria^nC.^rND^sBergh^nD. D.^rND^sConnelly^nB. L.^rND^sKetchen^nD. J.^rND^sShannon^nL. M.^rND^sBoon^nC.^rND^sDen Hartog^nD. N.^rND^sBoselie^nP.^rND^sPaauwe^nJ.^rND^sBowen^nD. E.^rND^sOstroff^nC.^rND^sBoxall^nP.^rND^sChang^nE.^rND^sChin^nH.^rND^sChang^nS.^rND^sVan Witteloostuijn^nA.^rND^sEden^nL.^rND^sChirchir^nR.^rND^sConnelly^nB. L.^rND^sCerto^nS. T.^rND^sIreland^nR. D.^rND^sReutzel^nC. R.^rND^sCortina^nL. M.^rND^sEdewor^nP.^rND^sAluko^nY. A.^rND^sFolarin^nS. F.^rND^sEgwa^nE. I.^rND^sGardner^nT. M.^rND^sWright^nP. M.^rND^sMoynihan^nL. M.^rND^sGiones^nF.^rND^sMiralles^nF.^rND^sGould-Williams^nJ. S.^rND^sMostafa^nA. M. S.^rND^sBottomley^nP.^rND^sHu^nL. T.^rND^sBentler^nP. M.^rND^sHuselid^nM. A.^rND^sKarasek^nR.^rND^sBryant^nP.^rND^sKehoe^nR. R.^rND^sWright^nP. M.^rND^sKorff^nJ.^rND^sBiemann^nT.^rND^sVoelpel^nS. C.^rND^sKoufteros^nX. A.^rND^sVonderembse^nM. A.^rND^sDoll^nW. J.^rND^sLaakso^nL.^rND^sOlukoshi^nA.O.^rND^sLittle^nP. D.^rND^sMcGaughey^nS. L.^rND^sDe Cieri^nH.^rND^sMessersmith^nJ. G.^rND^sPatel^nP. C.^rND^sLepak^nD. P.^rND^sGould-Williams^nJ. S.^rND^sMeyer^nJ. P.^rND^sAllen^nN. J.^rND^sMeyer^nJ. P.^rND^sSmith^nC. A.^rND^sMowday^nR. T.^rND^sSteers^nR. M.^rND^sPorter^nL. W.^rND^sMustafa^nM.^rND^sRichards^nJ. J.^rND^sRamos^nH. M.^rND^sNdubuisi^nF. N.^rND^sNyambegera^nS. M.^rND^sNwofe^nE. S.^rND^sNwogu^nJ. A^rND^sIjirshar^nV. U.^rND^sOlu-Olu^nO.^rND^sOstroff^nC.^rND^sBowen^nD.^rND^sPahuja^nS.^rND^sDalal^nR. C.^rND^sParboteeah^nK. P.^rND^sSeriki^nH. T.^rND^sHoegl^nM.^rND^sPickler^nS.^rND^sVarma^nA.^rND^sYu^nA.^rND^sBeenen^nG.^rND^sDavoudpour^nS.^rND^sPodsakoff^nP. M.^rND^sOrgan^nD. W.^rND^sRhoades^nL.^rND^sEisenberger^nR.^rND^sSalami^nS. O.^rND^sSanders^nK.^rND^sYang^nH.^rND^sSikora^nD. M.^rND^sFerris^nG. R.^rND^sVan Iddekinge^nC. H.^rND^sSun^nL. Y.^rND^sAryee^nS.^rND^sLaw^nK. S.^rND^sTaj^nS. A.^rND^sTakyi-Asiedu^nS.^rND^sUmezinwa^nC.^rND^sUrban^nB.^rND^sUwaifo^nS. O.^rND^1A01^nJurgen^sBecker^rND^1A02^nDeon^sMeiring^rND^nJan H.^svan der Westhuizen^rND^1A01^nJurgen^sBecker^rND^1A02^nDeon^sMeiring^rND^nJan H.^svan der Westhuizen^rND^1A01^nJurgen^sBecker^rND^1A02^nDeon^sMeiring^rND^nJan H^svan der Westhuizen

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Investigating the construct validity of an electronic in-basket exercise using bias-corrected bootstrapping and Monte Carlo re-sampling techniques

 

 

Jurgen Becker^I; Deon Meiring^II; Jan H. van der Westhuizen^III

^IDepartment of Industrial Psychology, University of the Western Cape, Bellville, South Africa
^IIDepartment of Human Resource Management, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
^IIIExperttech Group, Pretoria, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

---

ABSTRACT

ORIENTATION: Technology-based simulation exercises are popular assessment measures for the selection and development of human resources
RESEARCH PURPOSE: The primary goal of this study was to investigate the construct validity of an electronic in-basket exercise using computer-based simulation technology. The secondary goal of the study was to investigate how re-sampling techniques can be used to recover model parameters using small samples
Motivation for the study: Although computer-based simulations are becoming more popular in the applied context, relatively little is known about the construct validity of these measures.
RESEARCH APPROACH/DESIGN AND METHOD: A quantitative ex post facto correlational design was used in the current study with a convenience sample (N = 89). The internal structure of the simulation exercise was assessed using a confirmatory factor analytical approach. In addition, bias-corrected bootstrapping and Monte Carlo simulation strategies were used to assess the confidence intervals around model parameters.
MAIN FINDINGS: Support was not found for the entire model, but only for one of the dimensions, namely, the Interaction dimension. Multicollinearity was found between most of the dimensions that were problematic for factor analyses
PRACTICAL/MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS: This study holds important implications for assessment practitioners who hope to develop unproctored simulation exercises.
CONTRIBUTION/VALUE-ADD: This study aims to contribute to the existing debate regarding the validity and utility of assessment centres (ACs), as well as to the literature concerning the use of technology-driven ACs. In addition, the study aims to make a methodological contribution by demonstrating how re-sampling techniques can be used in small AC samples.

Keywords: Assessment centres; electronic in-basket; Monte Carlo; bias-corrected bootstrapping; small sample analyses; computer-based simulations.

---

 

 

Introduction

Orientation

A number of selection instruments are available for the selection of personnel. They include personality questionnaires, targeted interviews, situational interviews, situational judgement tests, aptitude and ability tests, previous job roles and simulated exercises. Some of these instruments are more effective than others, while some have higher predictive validity than others (Sackett, Lievens, Van Iddekinge, & Kuncel, 2017; Schmidt & Oh, 2015). Assessment centres (ACs) have demonstrated superior criterion-related validity in comparison to other stand-alone measures (e.g. personality measures and interviews) (Arthur, Day, McNelly, & Edens, 2003; Meiring, Becker, Gericke, & Louw, 2015). In addition, there is also evidence that AC ratings can improve the prediction of job or training performance beyond other common predictors like cognitive ability and personality (Sackett, Shewach, & Keiser, 2017).

This may be the reason why organisations still employ ACs when selecting and developing their employees. Although literature supports the strong link between standardised tests of general mental ability and job performance, behaviour-based assessment provides a richer and more nuanced view of managerial potential (Lievens & Thornton, 2005). Notwithstanding the value of ACs, the relatively high cost of the method remains a deterrent for most organisations. In recent years, the development of workforce management software has enabled the large-scale automation of human resource functions such as benefit allocation, performance management, and skills development. Similarly, AC design and the delivery of exercises have been shaped by advances in information technology. Electronic in-baskets have probably been the most popular AC exercise to place within a technology-enabled platform or application because of the high degree of fidelity between traditional in-basket exercises and electronic in-basket applications (Meiring & Van der Westhuizen, 2011).

Despite the large-scale application of electronic in-baskets, applied research has not kept up with the prolific changes in industry. Relatively little is still known regarding the internal structure of electronic in-baskets compared to traditional in-baskets. More specifically, are the construct-related problems associated with traditional ACs still problematic within the technology-enabled simulations? The current study aims to answer these research questions through the investigation of a large-scale electronic in-basket used for development purposes. Finally, the study demonstrates how re-sampling techniques can be used to augment small samples that typically plague AC research. Bias-corrected bootstrapped confidence intervals and Monte Carlo re-sampling strategies were used to produce parameter estimates from empirically derived bootstrapped confidence intervals.

Research purpose and objectives

The popularity of ACs in practice stems largely from the large body of literature that supports the link between dimension ratings and on-the-job performance (Arthur et al., 2003; Hermelin, Lievens, & Robertson, 2007). That is, AC ratings accurately predict which candidates have the potential to succeed in meeting the job objectives for an intended role. Research on the construct-related validity of ACs has, however, been less successful. Building on the seminal work of Sackett and Dreher (1982), research has consistently found strong correlations between dimensions measured by the same exercises rather than between the same dimensions measured across different exercises. Historically, dimensions have often been the main currency of ACs (Thornton & Rupp, 2012). In organisations, dimension ratings play an essential role in informing human resource practices such as selection, placement and development, thereby serving as a conventional and appropriate way to report on AC performance (Thornton & Gibbons, 2009).

The consistent finding that exercise effects dominate AC ratings has prompted numerous researchers to put forth plausible explanations for the findings. Lievens (2009) argues that the aberrant results may be because of poor AC designs, such as too many dimensions included in ACs, the absence of behavioural checklists to classify behaviour, the use of psychologists as raters and frame-of-reference training. Despite these design changes, ACs still predominantly display exercise effects (Brits, Meiring, & Becker, 2013; Lance, 2008).

In light of these persistent mixed findings, three notable large-scale reviews dealing with construct-related validity have aimed to find solutions for the statistical challenges facing AC research using Confirmatory Factor Analysis techniques (Bowler & Woehr, 2006; Lance, Lambert, Gewin, Lievens, & Conway, 2004; Lievens & Conway, 2001). Bowler and Woehr (2006) conducted meta-analytical analyses on the exercise-by-dimension matrices of various CFA model configurations, and found that dimensions accounted for 22% of the variance while exercises accounted for 34% of the variance of post-exercise dimension ratings (PEDRs). Next, Lievens and Conway (2001) conducted separate CFAs for published exercise × dimension correlation matrices, and found that dimensions and exercises accounted for more or less equal proportions of variance. Finally, Lance et al. (2004) analysed the same exercise × dimension correlation matrices used in the meta-analyses by Leivens and Conway (2001), however, avoided specifying correlated uniquenesses, which was a problematic statistical assumption in the Lievens and Conway (2001) study. They found stronger support for a general performance factor across exercises. Recent research suggests that increasing the number of behavioural indicators rated per dimension in an exercise leads to better model fit and stronger support for dimensions in AC data (Monahan, Hoffman, Lance, Jackson, & Foster, 2013).

Given the mixed findings it is difficult to anticipate which source of variance will be dominant in the current investigation. This may also not be the most important question. Rather, judgements regarding the validity of ACs are largely dependent on the design intention of the simulation. If the AC was developed to tap into a distinct aspect of that dimension's construct space across exercises, finding strong support for dimension effects will probably underscore the construct validity of the assessment. However, if the simulation was developed to tap into different elements of the dimensions across exercises, finding strong dimension factors at the expense of systematic dimension-exercise interaction effects would not be evidence of construct validity. Based on the fact that the current AC was designed to tap dimension-specific behavioural consistency across exercises, the construct validity of the assessment should rightly be investigated from the perspective of correlated dimensions.

Although the debate has recently moved beyond the exercise-versus-dimension debate (Lievens & Christiansen, 2010), we consider it important to investigate the internal structure of technology-delivered ACs because the medium of delivery can moderate the relationship between the stimuli and the behavioural response. Furthermore, in our experience very few practitioners structure interventions and provide individual feedback on exercise and dimensions. It probably remains true that most practitioners design their ACs based on a number of key competencies that are needed to be successful in a given position (Meiring & Buckett, 2016). If this is indeed the case, then it remains important to investigate the internal structure of ACs that are mainly designed to reflect dimensions.

An additional problem with AC research is that samples are typically small because of the cost of administration. Normally, ACs are administered to a small number of participants at the end of a multiple-hurdle assessment approach. The lack of construct validity, when defined as cross-exercise dimension-based behaviour congruence, may be explained in part by the lack of statistical power associated with the small sample sizes. Modern multivariate statistical techniques, especially confirmatory factor analytical approaches, require large and normally distributed data (Byrne, 2016). Thus, the secondary goal of the study was to present two re-sampling techniques that can be used by practitioners to improve the confidence in AC parameters.

The main research objective of this study was to design and implement computer-based simulation technology (CBST) as an electronic in-basket exercise (depicting the day-to-day activities of a supervisor) in an assessment development centre (ADC) for a major manufacturing enterprise in the United States. The goal of the ADC was to identify leadership potential - those individuals who may be ready to be promoted to higher levels in the organisation. This process incorporated group and individual online simulation exercises, which were used to measure behavioural and organisational competencies and performance areas on strategic and tactical levels. A secondary goal of the study was to investigate if re-sampling techniques can be used to assess model fit and to estimate confidence intervals around model parameters. Thus, the overarching research question can be described as follows: Can a CBST as an in-basket exercise in ADCs be used to accurately measure behavioural dimensions?

Based on the foregoing research question, the primary objectives of this study are to:

· examine the construct validity of the CBST in-basket exercise;

· demonstrate the use of re-sampling techniques in evaluating the quality of model parameters.

 

Review of the literature

The use of computer-based assessment centres in personnel development and selection

Recent research in employee selection has shifted the focus from traditional selection paradigms to more dynamic and flexible delivery methods. This is mainly driven by the higher fidelity of technology-enabled platforms and their associated cost savings. There is an increased interest in different selection methods such as situational judgement tests and the role of technology and the Internet in recruitment and selection. Social networking websites and video résumés have become part of selection procedures (Nikolaou, Anderson, & Salgado, 2012). A recent development in this regard relates to the use of technology in selection and assessment. The use of technology often takes the form of online simulations and web-based assessments. Simulations in selection and assessment are intended to closely replicate certain tasks, skills and abilities required for performance on the job (Schmitt, 2012).

This study made use of a computer-delivered in-basket exercise. By its very nature we can think of this assessment as a situational judgement test (SJT) rather than an AC because the assessment was made up of only a single exercise. Based on best practice guidelines for the use of the AC method in South Africa (Meiring & Buckett, 2016), ACs must consist of at least two simulated exercises. For this reason, we regard the electronic in-basket as a stand-alone competency-based simulation exercise rather than a full-fledged AC.

The electronic in-basket contained a computer-based in-basket exercise with multiple case studies, some of which had open-ended response formats while others made use of machine-driven scoring options. The scoring key was developed by an independent team of behavioural experts in collaboration with line managers and human resources in the given organisation. The response options reflect the desired behaviours of the supervisor in degrees of appropriateness (1 - least appropriate to 5 - most appropriate). Most of the responses were machine scored. There were some open-ended sections in the in-basket exercise that required direct input from the respondents. These responses were scored by a team of trained behavioural experts. The final overall assessment rating was a weighted combination of the scores achieved in the two sections of the same in-basket exercise. Thus, the in-basket exercise complies with the criteria for a traditional AC, at least as far as data integration is concerned, although only one simulation exercise was used.

Validity issues of assessment centres

As the acceptance and widespread use of competency-based assessments have increased in the last two decades, various interest groups have published practice and research guidelines (International Task Force on Assessment Centre Guidelines, 2015). According to Arthur, Day and Woehr (2008), validity must be established at the start of test construction and prior to operational use. Lievens, Dilchert and Ones (2009) defined validity as the process of collecting evidence (AC results) to determine the meaning of such assessment ratings and the inferences based on these ratings. Validity is defined by the use and purpose of the AC and is crucial to the permissibility of inferences derived from AC measures.

The popularity of ACs is because of their many strengths, including that they have little adverse impact and predict a variety of performance criteria (Thornton & Rupp, 2006) with predictive validity correlations ranging from 0.28 to 0.52 (Gaugler, Rosenthal, Thornton, & Bentson, 1987; Hermelin et al., 2007). In addition, the method has been shown to have high criterion-related validity, as well as content validity (Gaugler et al., 1987; Lievens et al., 2009).

However, research evidence concerning the internal structure of ACs shows much less support for the construct validity of AC dimensions (Kleinmann et al., 2011; Tett & Burnett, 2003). This leads to the conclusion that ACs are perhaps not very successful at measuring the constructs (dimensions) that they aim to measure (Haaland & Christiansen, 2002). Specifically, evidence in support of the discriminant validity of dimensions in ACs is relatively sparse (Thornton, Mueller-Hanson, & Rupp, 2017).

In the context of ACs, the International Task Force (2015) describes validity as the extent to which an AC yields valuable, useful results. Validity relates to whether the method actually measures what it is designed to measure (Arthur et al., 2008). While ACs have demonstrated impressive evidence related to content and criterion validity, the approach has been criticised for not being able to prove that it does, in fact, measure a set of pre-determined dimensions.

Assessment centre research has largely used multitrait-multimethod (MTMM) analyses as a framework for the analysis of the internal structure of AC ratings (Campbell & Fiske, 1959). This framework is useful when multiple constructs are measured using multiple methods, as is the case with ACs. According to this framework, when the same construct is measured using different methods, the scores on the construct are expected to correlate strongly with one another or to converge. This is known as convergent validity. On the contrary, when different constructs are measured using the same method or when different constructs are measured using different methods, the scores should not overlap substantially. The discrimination between different constructs is known as discriminant validity.

Within the AC literature, Sackett and Dreher (1982) sent shockwaves through the AC community with their statement that differences in dimension scores could not be explained across different exercises. Sackett and Dreher (1982) studied the PEDRs in terms of MTMM, and argued that there is more constancy in the ratings of dimensions in a single exercise than in the ratings for a single dimension across multiple exercises. These findings and the conclusions they generated highlighted the shortcomings relating to the identification and use of dimensions within AC exercises (Jackson, Lance, & Hoffman, 2012).

Studies focusing on dimension-based ACs (DBACs) indicate that results relating to dimensions across exercises are most meaningful in decisions pertaining to candidates. The dimension-based focus is the most commonly used, most commonly researched and most commonly discussed AC perspective (Thornton & Rupp, 2012).

More recently, authors have argued that cross-exercise correlations of dimensions will remain elusive because behaviour is exercise-dependent (Hoffman, 2012). Although we agree with this thinking, our position remains that one would like to see some form of conceptual separation in dimension scores, especially if these dimensions are used as stand-alone criteria for decision-making. This will form the basis for any inferences regarding the discriminant validity of the AC. In contrast one would hope to find relatively high correlations between the same dimensions in different exercises. However, because competencies are measured with a single method, this assumption cannot be tested in the current study. However, one would at least expect similar competencies to be moderately correlated, which can be seen as a proxy of convergent validity.

Statistical methods for construct validity and re-sampling techniques

Because the construct validity of ACs is largely concerned with the internal structure of the AC and is related to either a task-based orientation or a dimension-based orientation, Campbell and Fiske's (1959) MTMM framework is specifically useful when considering AC structures. This framework has been widely used to investigate the internal structure of AC ratings.

Despite the frequent use of MTMM matrices, Hoffman (2012) argues that MTMM approaches may not be well suited to analyse AC factor structures (Bowler & Woehr, 2006). These authors warn of a potential oversight of AC performance ratings, as theoretically the MTMM does not recognise variance in AC ratings stemming from the assessee, the assessor, the dimensions or exercises and the interactions between these sources of variance. Analytically, the MTMM matrices are plagued by non-admissible solutions and weak model termination (Lance, Woehr, & Meade, 2007). Lance et al. (2007) suggest using hybrid models when investigating ACs such as Correlated Dimensions Correlated Exercises (CDCE), One-Dimension Correlated Exercises (1DCE) and Unilateral Dimensions Correlated Exercises (UDCE + G), which may lead to more useful findings because these approaches overcome many of the shortcomings of MTMM.

More recently, approaches such as generalisability theory and other variance decomposition approaches have been used to investigate the relative contributions and interactions of assessor, dimension or exercise variance as sources of legitimate variance in AC ratings (Bowler & Woehr, 2008).

Nontheless, the CFA approach has dominated investigations of the internal construct validity of ACs and is ideal for large samples of data (n > 200). This may be explained, in part, by the fact that most dimensions included in ACs are based on the initial job analyses. Thus, CFAs are often used because the representative selection of the (task and contextual) demands, constraints and opportunities that constitute the job in question (and their potential interactions) are known prior to the development of the AC. For this reason, most validation studies are concerned with finding confirmation for the proposed structure rather than finding the appropriate structure. The foregoing line of reasoning suggests that an AC attempts to assess the latent behavioural dimensions comprising performance by eliciting observable behavioural denotations of latent performance dimensions or competencies via specific stimuli set in a variety of specific micro-contexts that differ in terms of situational characteristics. A conclusion that the instrument has construct validity (i.e. that inferences on the construct as constitutively defined may permissibly be inferred from measures of the instrument) will be strengthened if it can, in addition, be shown that a structural model reflecting the manner in which the construct or constructs of interest are embedded in a larger nomological network of constructs according to the constitutive definition fits the data.

However, ACs have generally been plagued by small samples (Lievens & Christiaansen, 2010). This is also true of the current study. Alternatives suggested by Bowler and Woehr (2008) include the use of re-sampling techniques that remedy some of the problems associated with MTMM.

This method was independently tested by Hoffman, Melchers, Blair, Kleinmann and Ladd (2011b), who found that the alternative re-sampling provided more insights than the traditional MTMM approach. Kuncel and Sackett (2014) used a different sampling technique based on the theory of composites to investigate the exercise-dimension variance. More recently, new approaches have been proposed to overcome the challenges related to CFA analyses using small samples.

The Monte Carlo family of re-sampling techniques may be fruitfully used to test the appropriateness of model parameters, standard errors, confidence intervals and even fit indices under various assumptions. Because of the low statistical power in small samples, standard errors may be overestimated, which may lead to significant effects being missed. In contrast, if standard errors are underestimated, significant effect may be overstated (Muthén & Muthén, 2002). The Monte Carlo Method for Assessing Mediation (MCMAM) was first described and evaluated by MacKinnon, Lockwood and Williams (2004) to assess small-sample performance. The Monte Carlo technique entails the extrapolation of data into thousands of simulated data frames, which model statistical characteristics similar to the original sample data (Muthén & Muthén, 2002). Monte Carlo in essence is an estimator or test statistic that has a true sampling distribution under a particular set of conditions; it assists in the true sampling distribution (Lance, Woehr, & Meade, 2005).

Monte Carlo features include saving parameter estimates from the analysis of real data to be used as population and/or coverage values for data generation in a Monte Carlo simulation study. Monte Carlo simulations involve identifying a mathematical model of the activity or process to be researched and defining the parameters such as mean and standard deviation for each factor in the model (Lance et al., 2005). It creates random data according to those parameters and simulates and analyses the output of the process. A typical Monte Carlo simulation involves the generation of independent datasets of interest and computing the numerical value of the data for each dataset. The larger the dataset, the closer the true sampling properties of the data (Davidian, 2005). When used in ACs, the Monte Carlo simulation addresses the extent to which the model fits the generated data (Lance et al., 2005). Lance et al. (2005) suggest that Monte Carlo simulation should be used to assess whether model fit should be used to compare competing CFA models.

An alternative re-sampling technique known as residual bootstrapping (Bollen & Stine, 1992) can also be used independently or in conjunction with Monte Carlo simulations. However, bootstrapping is aimed at investigating the standard errors of model parameters across volume bias-corrected draws. In an article by MacKinnon et al. (2004), bias-corrected bootstrap confidence intervals were found to be very accurate. Bootstrapping is also an option for smaller datasets and involves the re-sampling of an original dataset to a desired sample size (Efron, 1979).

Bootstrapping complements traditional confidence intervals by estimating standard errors of parameter estimates over a large number of hypothetical sample draws (Bollen & Stine, 1992; Hancock & Nevitt, 1999). One of the main reasons why Bollen-Stine bootstraps was included in the study is based on the fact that the technique provides a way to impose the covariance structure model on the sample data. This way the researcher is able to examine the bootstrapping performance of the fit statistics under the assumptions of the 'null hypothesis' that the model fits (Kim & Millsap, 2014). Furthermore, Monte Carlo simulated data may result in bias standard errors and parameter estimates if the data are generated under the assumption of normality when the data in the sample are actually non-normal (Muthén and Muthén, 2002). The Bollen-Stine bootstrap can therefore correct for standard error and fit statistical bias that occurs in structural equation modelling (SEM) applications because of non-normal data (Bollen & Stine, 1992). Bollen-Stine bootstraps (BSBS) are deployed whereby the original data are rotated to conform to the fitted structure. Bollen-Stine bootstraps take the empirical sample of size (N) and randomly draw repeated samples with replacement to the same size (N). The goal is to repeat the sampling size and form an integrated picture of the original sampling data (Efron, 1979). In this study, because of the relatively small sample size the BSBS standard errors and bias-corrected confidence intervals were used to get a sense of the width of confidence intervals around parameter estimates. Relatively narrow confidence intervals around parameter estimates suggest that standard errors are not abnormally high.

In the literature review, we focused on the historical debate regarding the construct validity and internal structure of ACs. Internet-delivered simulated exercises closely resemble the features of traditional sample-based assessment, yet the delivery and scoring platform differs significantly. However, relatively little is known about the internal structure of electronic simulations in general and in-baskets in particular. Thus, the overarching goal of the study is to assess the internal structure of an electronic in-basket. Furthermore, the potential benefits of re-sampling techniques were discussed in the context of ACs. The section concluded with a discussion of re-sampling techniques and the use of Monte Carlo and bootstrapping techniques.

 

Research design

Research approach

A non-experimental, quantitative research design was used in the current study to empirically test the main research objectives. More specifically, an ex post facto correlational design was used and implemented in a confirmatory factor analytical framework. Post-exercise dimension ratings were used as the level of measurement and served as manifest variables in the factor analytical models that were specified.

Research strategy

Initially, the data were screened for multivariate outliers and out of range responses. Descriptive statistics were generated to investigate the distribution and central tendency of PEDR scores for each of the competency dimensions. Inferential statistics were generated by specifying a confirmatory factor analytical model. The internal structure of the electronic in-basket can be operationalised through the specification of fixed and freely estimated model parameters.

More specifically, the CBST measurement model can be defined in terms of a set of measurement equations, expressed in matrix algebra notation (see Equation 1):

 

 

Where:

· X is a 19 × 1 column vector of observable indicator variables (PEDR);

· Λ_X is a 19 × 5 matrix of factor loadings;

· ξ is a 1 × 5 column vector of latent competency dimensions;

· δ is a 19 × 1 column vector of measurement error.

In addition, all the off-diagonal elements of the phi covariance matrix, denoting the covariance between the five latent competencies, were freed up to be estimated. Model parameters of the CFA model were estimated using maximum likelihood with robust standard errors and fit indices because of the non-normality of the sample data. For identification purposes, each of the five latent competencies was standardised and all error variances were specified to be uncorrelated. Fit indices and model parameters were estimated using Mplus 7.2 (Muthén & Muthén, 2017. Multiple fit indices were used to evaluate the tenability of the CBST. These indices included the Satorra-Bentler χ², the Comparative Fit Index (CFI; Bentler, 1990), the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA; Steiger & Lind, 1980) with accompanying confidence intervals, and the Standardised Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR; Joreskog & Sorbom, 1993). Comparative Fit Index values in excess of 0.90 (Bentler, 1990), RMSEA values lower than 0.08 (Browne & Cudeck, 1993) and SRMR values lower than 0.06 (Hu & Bentler, 1999) were regarded as satisfactory.

 

Research method

Research participants

A convenience sample of 89 supervisors were selected in a non-random fashion from a large multinational manufacturing organisation operating in the petroleum and rubber industry in North America. The sample was selected from incumbent supervisors, who were earmarked to partake in a larger leadership developmental programme in the organisation. The first step in the development programme was to complete the CBST to gain more insight into the strengths and development areas of each supervisor.

Measuring instruments

Six broad competencies were identified by the client organisation for inclusion in the CBST based on their proposed link to job performance as identified through the job analysis process. An external consulting organisation was contracted to develop the behavioural indicators and scoring method for each competency. A summary of the six meta-competency clusters and sub-dimensions is presented in Table 1.

 

 

Because all the meta-competencies were operationalised within the online in-basket, there was only one simulation format. For this reason, the current research cannot be regarded as an AC because competencies were not measured within multiple exercises (Meiring & Buckett, 2016).

The electronic in-basket was scored using a combination of multiple-choice machine scoring and manual scoring by trained raters of the open-ended video vignettes. The scores were integrated according to equal weighted averages for open-ended and multiple-choice response options. The open-ended responses were scored by a team of trained behavioural experts, who examined the responses in accordance with the conceptual definitions. The assessors attended frame-of-reference training to accurately observe, record, classify and assess the responses to the open-ended questions. During the training session, examples were provided with a range of responses, ranging from appropriate to less appropriate behavioural examples, and how to use the five point behaviourally anchored rating scale (BARS) to assess responses. As part of the training, all assessors had to complete the CBST.

In this regard, the simulated electronic in-basket complied with the criteria of traditional ACs insofar as each competency was observed and scored by multiple raters and integrated into an overall score. Because all the competencies were operationalised in a single simulation format, the in-basket cannot be regarded as a traditional AC. However, we believe that the results of the study hold important implications for sample-based assessment, and specifically for those simulations that are delivered on an electronic platform. Completion of the computer-based simulation in-basket exercise took around 40 min. All participants completed the task in the allocated time. For this reason, there were no missing values in the data.

Research procedure and ethical considerations

Managers who participated in the AC were identified for future promotion because of strong performance and competence in their incumbent positions. Because the purpose of the AC was for development, all the managers who participated in the study consented to partake in the AC. All participants were informed that their data may be used for research purposes. The identity of all participants was kept anonymous by converting the raw data into an encrypted file that was shared with the researchers. Thus, the final dataset contained no personal information other than the race, age and gender of the participants.

Statistical analysis

The internal structure of the CBST was assessed by specifying a confirmatory factor analytical model with Mplus 7.2 (Muthén & Muthén, 1998-2017). Because the researcher had a well-developed a priori conceptualisation of how the sub-dimension scores are related to the higher order latent dimensions, it was decided to conduct only CFA and not exploratory factor analysis (EFA). Thus, the goal of the CFA analysis was not to investigate the manner in which the PEDR scores are related to higher order latent dimensions, but rather to investigate the relative strength of relationships between PEDRs and latent dimensions in the conceptual model.

In addition, it was important to evaluate the overall fit of the proposed model to the observed data. If strong support was found for the model parameters and overall fit of the model to the data, it would be possible to conclude that the CBST has construct validity and may be used for diagnostic and selection purposes (Lievens & Christiansen, 2010). Because of the small sample size, the authors decided to use re-sampling techniques to assess the confidence intervals and bootstrapped standard errors of the factor loadings of parameter estimates. In small sample sizes, the statistical power available to reject the null hypothesis is limited when in reality (i.e. in the population) the linkages are statistically different from zero (Lievens & Christiansen, 2010). To overcome this fundamental methodological problem, the researchers employed Monte Carlo and bootstrapping techniques to assess the stability of standard errors and to construct confidence intervals around point estimates.

Monte Carlo simulations were used to extract 1000 simulated datasets with model statistical characteristics similar to the sample data. This approach used in the current study can be regarded as an external Monte Carlo study, insofar as parameters saved from the real data analyses are used for population values for the simulated data. Thus, a two-step approach is used to calculate the model parameters and then to use these values as input to generate data in step 2. The fact that the simulated data use the model parameters estimated from the real data may not be sufficient to capture the non-normality in the simulated data. However, when working with skew data, the robust maximum likelihood estimation (MLE) can be used.

This may be particularly important when examining the critical value chi-square fit statistic in the parent and simulated samples (Curran, West, & Finch, 1996; Wang, Fan, & Wilson, 1996). Kim and Millsap (2014) advocate the use of robust MLE for both the real and generated samples. Analyses by the Kim and Millsap (2014) indicated that the original assumptions about non-normality of data in simulated studies by Millsap (2012) may have been overly rigorous. Kim and Millsap (2014), however, advocate that small samples may lead to higher levels of discrepancy between fit indices in the simulated and original data. Given that the sample in the current investigation is very small, it is important to investigate the differences in model fit indices and parameter estimates reported in the parent and simulated data sets.

In addition, the Bollen-Stine bootstrap (residuals bootstrap) produces a correct bootstrapped sampling distribution for chi-square, and thus a correct bootstrapped p-value, without presuming a specific distribution of the data (Muthén & Muthén, 2002). Because the Bollen-Stine technique preserves the characteristics of the original data, the technique may be particularly useful when the source data are non-normal.

The Bollen-Stine bootstrap can be used to correct for standard error and fit statistical bias that occur in SEM applications because of non-normal data. Bollen and Stine (1992) perform bootstraps whereby the original data are rotated to conform to the fitted structure. By default, the Bollen-Stine technique re-estimates the model with rotated data and uses the estimates as starting values for each bootstrap iteration. It also rejects samples where convergence was not achieved (implemented through reject [e-converged = 0] option supplied to bootstrap) (Millsap, 2012)

It is also possible to use confidence intervals and bootstrapping to gain greater confidence in findings. This involves investigating 'real' sampling variability without assuming specific distribution for the data. Bollen-Stine bootstrap (residuals bootstrap) produces correct bootstrapped sampling distribution for chi-square, and thus correct bootstrapped p-values. Re-sampling variability used to get bootstrapped p-values are confidence intervals that can be used to aid in the interpretation of model parameters (Bollen & Stine, 1992; Millsap, 2012).

In each case, the results obtained from the original data were compared to the results generated with the Monte Carlo simulations and Bollen-Stine bias-corrected bootstrapping. The comparative results may contribute to the AC literature by demonstrating the utility of re-sampling techniques when working with relatively small sample sizes. It is important to emphasise that the re-sampling methods are not a `silver bullet' for small sample sizes, as any sampling error contained in the sample from which re-sampling is drawn will be included in the bootstrapped sample (Enders, 2005). Moreover, any errors are likely to be duplicated in re-sampled data sets when missing data analysis techniques are applied. However, we believe that the benefits of re-sampling techniques (improved statistical power, bias-corrected standard errors and confidence intervals around parameter estimates) outweigh the alternative, which is to do nothing.

Ethical consideration

This article followed all ethical standards for a research without direct contact with human or animal subjects.

 

Results

The primary objective of this study was to examine the validation of a CBST in-basket exercise within an ADC. This objective involves proving the behavioural validity of the workplace simulation. It further implies that if construct validity is intact, then the exercises comply with the principles of the ADC and may lead to valid development and selection decisions.

The results of the study are discussed according to the following structure:

· frequencies and descriptive statistics;

· screening the data;

· examining the appropriateness of the data for multivariate CFA;

· specification and estimation of CFA model;

· evaluating the model according to goodness-of-fit indices;

· evaluating the model according to model parameters;

· using Monte Carlo estimates;

· using bootstrap (BS) bias-corrected bootstraps.

As with other multivariate linear statistical procedures, CFA requires that certain assumptions must be met with regard to the sample. Therefore, prior to formally fitting the CFA model to the data, the assumptions of multivariate normality, linearity and adequacy of variance were assessed. In general, no serious violations of these assumptions were detected in the data. However, the data did not follow a multivariate normal distribution and therefore robust maximum likelihood (RML) was specified as the estimation technique. Basic descriptive statistics were generated to assess the variability and central tendency of PEDRs. The means and standard deviations of PEDRs are presented in Table 2.

 

 

The results in Table 2 suggested that the range of scores was restricted as one would expect to find when assessing job incumbents. Next, we assessed the bivariate correlations between PEDRs prior to specifying the CFA model. In total there were 26 indicators, and there were thus 325 inter-correlations in the correlation matrix, of which 22 reported bivariate correlations greater than 0.90. This was problematic because it suggested that many of the PEDR scores lacked discriminant validity. Furthermore, variables that are perfect linear combinations of each other or are extremely highly correlated prevent the covariance matrices from being inverted (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). The 22 high correlations are presented in Appendix 1.

When the total CBST model was specified as CFA model, MPLUS issued a warning that the sample covariance matrix may be singular and that the model could not converge. Based on the singular covariance matrix, it was impossible to specify and assess the total CBST. One possible remedy would be to collapse highly correlated sub-dimensions into broader competencies. In previous studies, Hoffman et al. (2011a) found support for broad competencies in PEDR scores rather than smaller idiosyncratic competencies.

Collapsing dimensions into broader competencies may make sense from a theoretical and methodological perspective. From a methodological perspective, treating dimension scores (PEDRs) as indicators of broader dimensions will increase the indicator to dimension ratio. Monahan et al. (2013) found that greater indicator to dimension ratios leads to improved termination and admissibility in CFA models. Secondly, Hoffman et al. (2011b) argue that the dimensions-as-items approach has been used extensively to validate taxonomies of managerial performance, models of organisational citizenship behaviour, multisource performance ratings and measures of managerial skills. Howard (2008) advocates the use of broad facets where indicators form the basic input to factor analytic models. For this reason, it seems to make methodological and theoretical sense to group dimensions that are strongly correlated together in broader dimensions as long as they clearly share conceptual overlap.

In Appendix 1, five of the correlations with a correlation of 1.0 belonged to the Learning meta-competency. The same was true for the Executing meta-competencies (six correlations r > 0.955) and Directing (six correlations r > 0.994). That basically left the authors with the Entrepreneurship (four-dimension ratings) and Interaction (six-dimension ratings) meta-competencies to assess. The Vision meta-competency was not considered because only three sub-dimensions can be used as indicators in the CFA model and two of them were highly correlated. Against this background it was decided to focus on the Interaction meta-competency because this dimension had the most dimension ratings that could be used as indicators and seemed to report moderate positive correlations between the sub-dimensions. However, even within the Interaction meta-competency, multicollinearity seemed to be evident, although it was significantly lower than in the other meta-competencies. The bivariate correlations of the Interaction meta-competency are presented in Table 3.

 

 

Table 3 includes some problematic correlations. In particular, within the Interaction cluster, Promoting Diversity correlated highly with Intercultural Sensitivity and Motivating Others correlated highly with Fostering Teamwork. From a measurement theory perspective, these two pairs of items should be combined into two single factors because there seems to be very little distinction between them. Based on the content, it was deemed theoretically permissible to combine these item pairs. Thus, Motivating Others was combined with Fostering Teamwork to become INT_MOFT and Promoting Diversity was combined with Intercultural Sensitivity to become INT_PDIS. After combining these constructs, the CFA solution converged to an admissible solution with satisfactory model fit. In addition, the multicollinearity problem had at least been addressed. None of the remaining bivariate correlations within the Interaction cluster was greater than 0.90. The correlation matrix for the revised Interaction meta-competency is presented in Table 4.

 

 

Because non-normal data can lead to bias fit indices and standard errors in the simulated data when using Monte Carlo, the normality of the observed variables was assessed with SPSS (Version 25, IBM, 2017). Although visual inspection indicated that most of the observed variables were non-normal, the simple test of dividing the skewness score by its associated standard error indicated that most variables followed a normal distribution. If the results are greater than ±1.96, it suggests that the data are not normal with respect to this specific statistic (Rose, Spinks, & Canhoto, 2015). The results of the analyses are summarised in Table 5.

 

 

Results from Table 5 suggest that most of the variables are normally distributed with the exception of Interaction Motivating Others and Fostering Teamwork. For this reason, we decided to specify the RML estimator as suggested by Muthén and Muthén (1998-2017). According to the authors, the parameter estimates should be the same irrespective of whether RML or maximum likelihood is used. It is only the standard errors that will be adjusted when using RML. For this reason, Muthén and Muthén (1998-2017) recommend using RML as the default estimated in CFA analyses irrespective of the data distribution.

The correlations in Table 4 suggest that none of the remaining correlations was problematic. After two rounds of revision, we specified a CFA model with four indicators. The CFA solution converged to an admissible solution. Goodness-of-fit indices are reported in Table 6.

 

 

The overall model fit can be regarded as satisfactory based on the criteria and cut-off rules reported in the methodology section. The CFI and Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) were in excess of 0.95, and the RMSEA and SRMR are close to the normative cut-off value of 0.05.

The unstandardised and standardised results demonstrated that most of the model parameters were indicative of good model fit. This provides further support for the revised Interaction measurement model. A summary of the model parameters is presented in Table 7.

 

 

The results in Table 7 suggest that the four broad dimension ratings are good indicators of the latent competency of Interaction. Monte Carlo simulations were once again conducted using the original input model configuration as a basis for the estimation. Tables 8 and 9 contain the mean and standard deviation of the chi-square and RMSEA fit indices over the 1000 replications of the Monte Carlo analyses.

 

 

 

 

Table 8 indicates the critical chi-square value given two degrees of freedom. Thus, the value in column 1 in Table 8 provides the probability that the chi-square value exceeds the critical percentile value of 5.991. Column 2 provides the proportion of replications for which the critical value is exceeded, 0.051, which is close to the expected value of 0.050. This suggests that the chi-square distribution is well approximated in the current investigation because the expected and observed percentiles and distributions are close to one another in absolute value.

Similar results are displayed in Table 9, which indicates the probability that the RMSEA value exceeds the critical value.

The critical RMSEA value of 0.052 is exceeded in approximately 9.5% of the 1000 replications. Although the mean RMSEA value in the simulated data is indicative of good fit (0.014), the relatively large deviation between the expected and observed proportions containing the critical value raises concern regarding the approximate fit of the original CFA model, given the results of the Monte Carlo simulation.

The standard error, Monte Carlo-derived standard error, average standard deviation and average coverage values are presented in Table 10. The column labelled Population provides the parameter values in the sample data. The column Average provides the average model parameters across the 1000 replications. The difference between these two values can be regarded as the proportion bias in parameter estimates presented in the last column of Table 10. The column labelled Standard deviation provides the standard deviation of parameter estimates across the Monte Carlo replications. This value can also be regarded as the population standard error (Muthén & Muthén, 2002). The column labelled MSE gives the mean square error of each parameter, while the column labelled 95% Cover gives the proportion of replications for which the 95% confidence interval contains the population parameter value. In contrast to the original data, the 95% coverage was respectable, with most values exceeding 0.80. The coverage values reflect the proportion of replications for which the 95% confidence interval contains the true parameter value. A value of 0.80 would imply that in 80% of the replications the true parameter point estimate was present. Muthén and Muthén (2002) suggest that the coverage should remain between 0.91 and 0.98. Finally, the column labelled percentage significant coefficients provides an estimate of the proportion of replications for which the null hypothesis that a parameter is equal to zero is rejected at the 0.05 level. For parameters with population values equal to zero, this value is an estimate of power with respect to a single parameter, that is, the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is false (type I error) (Muthén & Muthén, 1998-2017).

Against this background, the information in Table 10 provides a mixed picture of the Monte Carlo results with regard to the Interaction dimension. Although the 95% coverage indicates that a relatively large proportion of the 95% confidence interval contains the population parameter value across the 1000 replications, the power to reject the null hypothesis stating that the parameter is equal to zero in the sample is relatively large. However, the deviation between the average population parameter estimates and the sample estimates indicates that the parameters may be biased. This would indicate that the generated data did not estimate model parameters with a high degree of accuracy.

Next, we discuss the results from the Bollen-Stine residual bootstrapped standard errors and bias-corrected confidence intervals generated with regard to the Interaction sub-scale with 1000 bootstrap draws. The intention of this analysis is to provide valid inferences from the sample data to some large universe of potential data; in other words, to provide information about the population from statistics generated with random smaller samples. Because it would be virtually impossible to obtain access to random samples from populations that have the same characteristics as the larger population, statistical methods have been developed to determine the confidence with which such inferences can be drawn, given the characteristics of the available sample (Cohen, Cohen, West, & Aiken, 2003). The variability of model parameters as a function of the unreliability of scores can be inferred by means of confidence intervals.

Bootstrapping and other re-sampling techniques complement traditional confidence intervals by estimating standard errors of parameter estimates over a large number of hypothetical sample draws (Hancock & Nevitt, 1999). Results from the bias-corrected bootstrap procedure are delineated in Appendix 2.

The results of the bias-corrected bootstrapping indicate that the 95% confidence intervals between model parameters are quite broad, which erodes confidence in the replication of specific point estimates in the population. In addition, the difference between the population parameter estimates and mean values recovered by Monte Carol draws, indicates substantial bias in the parameter estimates. The same conclusion can be reached with regard to the standard errors.

Considering all this information collectively, one would have to conclude that the construct validity evidence for the original CBST is limited. For example, the overall measurement model did not converge and was eventually abandoned because of high multicollinearity between dimension ratings. Consequently, only a small subsection of the measure was further investigated with additional analysis. Even these models of the Interaction dimension required extensive modification and manipulation before they showed acceptable fit to the data.

More supportive evidence for construct validity was found with regard to the revised Interaction meta-competency after the sub-dimensions of Motivating Others (INT_MO) and Fostering Teamwork (INT_FT), as well as the sub-dimensions of Promoting Diversity (INT_PD) and Intercultural Sensitivity (INT_IS) were combined. The newly combined sub-dimensions were labelled INT_PDIS (Promoting Diversity and Interpersonal Sensitivity) and INT_MOFT (Team Motivation). Theoretically it makes sense to group the dimension ratings of Promoting Diversity and Interpersonal Sensitivity, as well as Motivating Others and Fostering Teamwork.

 

Discussion

Outline of the results

The primary research objective was to examine the construct validity of an electronic in-basket using CBST technology. In the end, only a revised version of one of the six meta-competencies could be assessed. The results suggest that AC methodologies packaged in interactive software applications are not immune to the problems that face traditional sample-based assessments. Multicollinearity remains a particularly thorny issue, in part, because not enough consideration is awarded to the conceptual definition of competencies at the design stage. However, this problem does not seem to be unique to the current study. Hoffman et al. (2011a, 2011b) found that narrow dimensions grouped together in broader dimensions provide better model fit than models that contain many dimensions. Thus, when dimensions were modelled in a way that took the similarity between them into account, it was possible to find evidence for dimension factors in ACs. Similarly, Kuncel and Sackett (2014) found that greater levels of aggregation compound common variance and reduce error variance. This should improve convergence and fit in CFA models. An alternative explanation that cannot be ruled out is the impact of frame-of-reference training on assessor ratings. Often rigorous frame-of-reference training results in ratings that are very similar for multiple raters of the same participant in the AC. Although this practice may promote inter-rater reliability it may restrict the range of dimension ratings. In addition, the high correlations between dimensions further suggest that the scoring mechanism failed to indicate the relative differences between dimensions in a single simulation. However, this result is not unique. Previous AC research consistently found that behaviour is consistent across dimensions within exercises, rather than across exercises of the same dimensions.

The lack of correspondence among the same dimension observations across AC exercises has often been regarded as problematic, and several innovative interventions have been proposed to remedy the problem. However, proponents of the exercise-centric ideology will highlight the link between exercise effects and criterion scores. However, recent studies suggest that ACs have been misspecified and as a result the contribution of dimensions have historically been underestimated in AC ratings. This holds important implications for practice because most AC applications are probably still expressed in dimension-centric discourse.

In the second round of data analysis, we investigated the model parameters by way of two re-sampling techniques, namely, Monte Carlo simulations and bias-corrected bootstrapping. Confidence intervals were provided from the bias-corrected draws to assess the variability of model parameters because of the calculated population standard errors. In accordance with the original results, we found the bootstrap confidence intervals to be quite wide and coverage levels below the suggested level of 0.90. This provided further support that the results should be interpreted with caution because estimates may be biased. More specifically, these techniques may provide AC scholars and practitioners with another set of tools to assess the validity of ratings, especially when samples are relatively small. We may have arrived at a different conclusion regarding the validity of the revised Interaction dimension, albeit not the whole in-basket, if these two re-sampling techniques had not been employed. In general, the CFA results of the revised Interaction model showed satisfactory fit, low residuals and robust factor loadings. However, the re-sampling techniques indicate that the results may not be trustworthy and may be because of type I errors. These two approaches provide valuable tools for AC practitioners and researchers who often have to conduct research with very small sample sizes.

Limitations of the study

Although the study provided a lot of useful findings, there are some conflicting results that need to be reported. One of the biggest limitations is that only one exercise type, namely, an in-basket, was used in the current study. This made the specification and estimation of method effects impossible. Typically, the size of the exercise effects provides important information regarding the functioning and internal structure of simulations. Based on best practice guidelines for the use of the AC method in South Africa, Meiring and Buckett (2016) stipulate that a single electronic in-basket exercise does not constitute an AC. This stipulation originates from the classic definition of an AC, which posits that multiple exercises and multiple observers are key differentiators between ACs and other evaluation methods. For this reason, results reported in the current study cannot be generalised to other traditional ACs.

Another limitation was the structure and design of the CBST. Ratings of competencies were reflected as PEDRs and not behavioural indicators. This greatly limited the number of data points to specify each of the meta-competencies. If meta-competencies were specified with behavioural indicators, the researcher could delete behavioural indicators that demonstrated collinearity, yet still measure the six meta-competencies. However, in the current study the researchers could only specify and evaluate the Interaction meta-competency because the other competencies had too few PEDR scores to combine into broader competencies.

An additional limitation of this study is that the performance ratings from managers, as well as the success of a follow-up supervisory development programme could not be investigated. As a result, the criterion validity of the six meta-competencies and job performance could not be investigated. It would have been interesting to see if differences on the meta-competencies translated into significant criterion-related differences.

Practical implications

The research value and contribution of this study can be best described by discussing multiple perspectives. From a practical perspective, this application of CBST demonstrates that faster, more accurate solutions exist for conducting ACs for the purposes of selection and development. From a theoretical perspective, the research results and learning points from the CBST in-basket exercise depict the real-life events of the manager and may act as a workplace or business simulation, which adds to the incremental validity of selection or development strategy. From a corporate perspective, the accelerating rate of change and the increasing uncertainty in the outcomes of change are evident across the whole business arena. This is enhanced by the increased demand for experienced talent. From a research perspective, there is considerable bias in model parameters when using small samples. However, bias-corrected bootstrapping techniques and Monte Carlo simulations may be used productively to evaluate the bias in model parameters.

 

Conclusion

This study set out to evaluate the construct validity of an electronic in-basket by investigating the internal structure of the exercise. The selection of competencies was based on job analyses and each of the six meta-competencies has a number of sub-dimensions. This design is similar to traditional AC exercises. The initial goal of the study was to assess the internal structure of the entire in-basket with a CFA methodology using MTMM matrices. However, initial statistical screening of the data suggested that a large number of dimensions were highly correlated and lacked discriminant validity. To remedy this problem, dimensions were collapsed whenever it made theoretical sense to do so. In the end, only one meta-competency, the Interaction dimension, could be evaluated with a CFA approach. The results showed that the proposed model fitted the sample data well.

However, results from the two re-sampling techniques suggested that the model parameters were contaminated by bias and may lead to invalid inferences. This study demonstrates how these two techniques can be used when using CFA approaches in small samples. Finally, the study demonstrates that for all the potential benefits associated with electronic- and Internet-delivered simulations, the a priori design and scoring mechanism should comply with best practice if one hopes to find support for construct validity in AC ratings.

 

Acknowledgements

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationship(s) that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

Authors' contributions

J.B. wrote the article and conducted the statistical analyses. D.M. conceptualised the literature review and J.H.v.d.W. collected the data and wrote the original master's thesis which forms the basis of the current article.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability statement

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views expressed in this article are of the authors' own, and do not represent the position of any related institutions or funding agencies. No funding was received by the authors during the process of completing the research contained in the current article.

 

References

Arthur, W. Jr., Day, E. A., McNelly, T. L., & Edens, P. S. (2003). A meta-analysis of the criterion-related validity of assessment center dimensions. Personnel Psychology, 56(1), 125-153. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2003.tb00146.x        [ Links ]

Arthur, W., Jr., Day, E. A., & Woehr, D. J. (2008). Mend it, don't end it: An alternative view of assessment center construct-related validity evidence. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 1(1), 105-111. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1754-9434.2007.00019        [ Links ]

Bentler, P. M. (1990). Comparative fit indexes in structural models. Psychological Bulletin, 107(2), 238-246. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.107.2.238        [ Links ]

Bollen, K. A., & Stine, R. A. (1992). Bootstrapping goodness-of-fit measures in structural equation models. Sociological Methods and Research, 21(2), 205-229. https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124192021002004        [ Links ]

Bowler, M. C., & Woehr, D. J. (2006). A meta-analytic evaluation of the impact of dimensions and exercise factors on assessment center ratings. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91(5), 1114-1124. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.91.5.1114        [ Links ]

Bowler, M. C., & Woehr, D. J. (2008). Evaluating assessment center construct-related validity via variance partitioning. In B. J. Hoffman (Ed.), Reexamining assessment centers: Alternate approaches. Paper presented at the 23rd annual meeting of the Society for Industrial and Organisational Psychology, San Francisco, CA.         [ Links ]

Brits, N., Meiring, D., & Becker, J. R. (2013). Investigating the construct validity of a development assessment centre. South African Journal of Industrial Psychology, 39(1), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v39i1.1092        [ Links ]

Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1993). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. In K. A. Bollen & J. S. Long (Eds.), Testing structural equation models (pp. 136-162). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.         [ Links ]

Byrne, B. M. (2016). Structural equation modeling with AMOS: Basic concepts, applications, and programming. London: Routledge.         [ Links ]

Campbell, D. T., & Fiske, D. W. (1959). Convergent and discriminant validation by the multitrait-multimethod matrix. Psychological Bulletin, 56(2), 81-105 Retrieved from psycnet.apa.org.         [ Links ]

Cohen, J., Cohen, P., West, S. G., & Aiken, L. S. (2003). Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences. Hamilton, NJ: Hamilton Printing Company.         [ Links ]

Curran, P. J., West, S. G., & Finch, J. F. (1996). The robustness of test statistics to nonnormality and specification error in confirmatory factor analysis. Psychological Methods, 1(1), 16-29. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.1.1.16        [ Links ]

Davidian, S. (2005). Simulation studies in statistics. What is a Monte Carlo study? Retrieved from http://www4.stat.ncsu.edu/~davidian/st810a/simulation_handout.pdf.         [ Links ]

Efron, B. (1979). Bootstrap methods: Another look at the jackknife. The Annals of Statistics, 7(1), 1-26. https://doi.org/10.1214/aos/1176344552        [ Links ]

Enders, C. K. (2005). An SAS macro for implementing the modified Bollen-Stine bootstrap for missing data: Implementing the bootstrap using existing structural equation modeling software. Structural Equation Modeling, 12, 620-641. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15328007sem1204_6        [ Links ]

Gaugler, B. B., Rosenthal, D. B., Thornton, G. C., & Bentson, C. (1987). Meta-analysis of assessment center validity. Journal of Applied Psychology Monograph, 72(3), 493-511. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.72.3.493        [ Links ]

Haaland, S., & Christiansen, N. D. (2002). Implications of trait-activation theory for evaluating the construct validity of assessment center ratings. Personnel Psychology, 55(1), 137-163. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2002.tb00106.x        [ Links ]

Hancock, G. R., & Nevitt, J. (1999). Bootstrapping and the identification of exogenous latent variables within structural equation models. Structural Equation Modeling, 6(4), 394-399. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540142        [ Links ]

Hermelin, E., Lievens, F., & Robertson, I. (2007). The validity of assessment centre for the prediction of supervisory performance rankings: A meta-analysis. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 15(4), 405-411. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2389.2007.00399.x        [ Links ]

Hoffman, B. J. (2012). Exercises, dimensions, and the Battle of Lilliput: Evidence for a mixed-model interpretation of AC performance. In D. J. R. Jackson, C. E. Lance, & B. J. Hoffman (Eds.), The psychology of assessment centers (pp. 281-306). New York: Routledge.         [ Links ]

Hoffman, B. J., Melchers, K. G., Blair, C. A., Kleinmann, M., & Ladd, R. T. (2011a). Center validity exercises and dimensions are the currency of assessment centers. Personnel Psychology, 64(2), 351-395. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2011.01213.x        [ Links ]

Hoffman, B. J., Melchers, K. G., Blair, C. A., Kleinmann, M., & Ladd, R. T. (2011b). Exercises and dimensions are the currency of assessment centres [Electronic version]. Personnel Psychology, 64(2), 351-395. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2011.01213.x        [ Links ]

Howard, A. (2008). Making assessment centres work the way they are supposed to. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 1, 98-104. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1754-9434.2007.00018.x        [ Links ]

Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6(1), 1-55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118        [ Links ]

IBM Corporation. (2017). IBM SPSS statistics for windows. New York: IBM Corporation.         [ Links ]

International Task Force on Assessment Center Guidelines. (2015). Guidelines and ethical considerations for assessment center operations. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 17(3), 243-253. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2389.2009.00467.x        [ Links ]

Jackson, D., Lance, C. E., & Hoffman, B. (2012). The psychology of assessment centres. London: Routledge.         [ Links ]

Joreskog, K. G., & Sorbom, D. (1993). USREL vi: Analysis of linear structural relationships by the method of maximum likelihood. Chicago, IL: National Educational Resources.         [ Links ]

Kim, H., & Millsap, R. (2014). Using the Bollen-Stine bootstrapping method for evaluating approximate fit indices. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 49(6), 581-596. https://doi.org/10.1080/00273171.2014.947352        [ Links ]

Kleinmann, M., Ingold, P. V., Lievens, F., Jansen, A., Melchers, K. G., & König, C. J. (2011). A different look at why selection procedures work: The role of candidates' ability to identify criteria. Organizational Psychology Review, 1(2), 128-146. https://doi.org/10.1177/2041386610387000        [ Links ]

Kuncel, N. R., & Sackett, P. R. (2014). Resolving the assessment center construct validity problem (as we know it). Journal of Applied Psychology, 99(1), 38-47. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034147        [ Links ]

Lance, C. E. (2008). Where have we been, how did we get there and where shall we go? Industrial and Organisational Psychology: Perspectives on Science and Practice, 1(1), 140-146. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1754-9434.2007.00028.x        [ Links ]

Lance, C. E., Lambert, T. A., Gewin, A. G., Lievens, F., & Conway, J. M. (2004). Revised estimates of dimension and exercise variance components in assessment center post exercise dimension ratings. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(2), 377-385. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.89.2.377        [ Links ]

Lance, C. E., Woehr, D. J., & Meade, A. W. (2005, April). A Monte Carlo investigation of assessment centre construct validity models. Published paper delivered at the 20th Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Los Angeles, CA.         [ Links ]

Lance, C. E., Woehr, D. J., & Meade, A. W. (2007). Case study: A Monte Carlo investigation of assessment center exercise factors represent cross-situational specific, not method bias. Human Performance, 13(4), 323-353.         [ Links ]

Lievens, F. (2009). Assessment centres: A tale about dimensions, exercises, and dancing bears. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 18(1), 102-121. https://doi.org/10.1080/13594320802058997        [ Links ]

Lievens, F., & Christiansen, N. D. (2010). Core debates in assessment center research: Dimensions versus exercises. In D. Jackson, C. Lance, & B. Hoffman (Eds.), The psychology of assessment centers (pp. 68-94). New York: Routledge.         [ Links ]

Lievens, F., & Conway, J. M. (2001). Dimensions and exercise variance in assessment center scores: A large-scale evaluation of multitrait-multimethod studies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(6), 1202-1222. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.86.6.1202        [ Links ]

Lievens, F., Dilchert, S., & Ones, D. S. (2009). The importance of exercise and dimension factors in assessment centers: Simultaneous examinations of construct-related and criterion-related validity. Human Performance, 22(5), 375-390. https://doi.org/10.1080/08959280903248310        [ Links ]

Lievens, F., & Thornton, G. C., III. (2005). Assessment centers: Recent developments in practice and research. In A. Evers, O. Smit-Voskuijl, & N. Anderson (Eds.), Handbook of selection (pp. 243-264). New Jersey: Blackwell Publishing.         [ Links ]

MacKinnon, D. P., Lockwood, C. M., & Williams, J. (2004). Confidence limits for the indirect effect: Distribution of the product and resampling methods. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 39(1), 99-128. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327906mbr3901_4        [ Links ]

Meiring, D., Becker, R. J., Gericke, S., & Louw, N. (2015). Assessment centers: Latest developments on construct validity. In I. Nikolaou & J. K. Oostrom (Eds.), Employee recruitment, selection, and assessment. Contemporary issues for theory and practice (pp. 190-206). London: Psychological Press-Taylor & Francis.         [ Links ]

Meiring, D., & Buckett, A. (2016). Best practice guidelines for the use of the assessment centre method in South Africa. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 42(1), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v42i1.1298        [ Links ]

Meiring, D., & Van der Westhuizen, J. H. (2011). Computer-based simulation technology as part of the AC and DAC: A global South African review. In N. Povah & G. C Thornton (Eds.), Assessment and development centres: Strategies for global talent management. Surrey, UK: Gower Publishing Ltd.         [ Links ]

Millsap, R. E. (2012). A simulation paradigm for evaluating model fit. In M. Edwards & R. MacCallum (Eds.), Current issues in the theory and application of latent variable models (pp. 165-182). New York: Routledge.         [ Links ]

Monahan, E. L., Hoffman, B. J., Lance, C. E., Jackson, D. J. R., & Foster, M. R. (2013). Now you see them, now you do not: The influence of indicator-factor ratio on support for assessment center dimensions. Personnel Psychology, 66(4), 1009-1047. https://doi.org/10.1111/peps.12049        [ Links ]

Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2002). How to use a Monte Carlo study to decide on sample size and determine power. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 9(4), 599-620. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15328007SEM0904_8        [ Links ]

Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998-2017). Mplus user's guide (7th edn.). Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.         [ Links ]

Nikolaou, I., Anderson, N., & Salgado, J. (2012). Special issue on advances in selection and assessment in Europe. International Journal of Selection & Assessment, 20(4), 383-384. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijsa.12000        [ Links ]

Rose, S., Spinks, N., & Canhoto, A. I. (2015). Management research: Applying principles. New York: Routledge Taylor and Francis.         [ Links ]

Sackett, P. R., Lievens, F., Van Iddekinge, C., & Kuncel, N. (2017). Individual differences and their measurement: A review of 100 years of research. Journal of Applied Psychology, 102(3), 254-273. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000151        [ Links ]

Sackett, P. R., & Dreher, G. F. (1982). Constructs and assessment center dimensions: Some troubling empirical findings. Journal of Applied Psychology, 67(4), 401-410. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.67.4.401        [ Links ]

Sackett, P. R., Shewach, O. R., & Keiser, H. N. (2017). Assessment centers versus cognitive ability tests: Challenging the conventional wisdom on criterion-related validity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 102(10), 1435. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000236        [ Links ]

Schmidt, F. L., & Oh, I. (2015). The validity and utility of selection methods in personnel psychology: Practical and theoretical implications of 100 years of research findings. Working Paper. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.18843.26400        [ Links ]

Schmitt, N. (Ed.). (2012). The Oxford handbook of personnel selection and assessment. New York: Oxford University Press.         [ Links ]

Steiger, J. H., & Lind, J. C. (1980). Statistically-based tests for the number of common factors. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Psychometric Iowa, Taylor and Francis, Iowa City.         [ Links ]

Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using multivariate statistics (7th edn.). New York: Pearson.         [ Links ]

Tett, R. P., & Burnett, D. D. (2003). A personality trait-based interactionist model of job performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(3), 500-517. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.3.500        [ Links ]

Thornton, G. C., & Gibbons, A. M. (2009). Validity of assessment centres for personnel selection. Human Resource Management Review, 19(2), 169-187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hrmr.2009.02.002        [ Links ]

Thornton, G. C., III, Mueller-Hanson, R. A., & Rupp, D. E. (2017). Developing organizational simulations: A guide for practitioners, students, and researchers. London: Routledge.         [ Links ]

Thornton, G. C., III, & Rupp, D. E. (2012). Research into dimension-based assessment centers. In D. J. Jackson, B. J. Hoffman, & C. E. Lance (Eds.), The psychology of assessment centers (pp. 141-170). New York: Routledge.         [ Links ]

Thornton, G. C., & Rupp, D. R. (2006). Assessment centers in human resource management: Strategies for prediction, diagnosis, and development. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.         [ Links ]

Wang, L., Fan, X., & Wilson, V. L. (1996). Effects of non-normal data on parameter estimates and fit indices for a model with latent and manifest variables: An empirical study. Structural Equation Modeling, 3(3), 228-247. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519609540042        [ Links ]

 

 

Correspondence:
Jurgen Becker
jbecker@uwc.ac.za

Received: 23 Aug. 2018
Accepted: 09 July 2019
Published: 26 Sept. 2019

 

 

Appendix 1

 

 

Appendix 2

 

Table 1 A-2 - Click to enlarge

 

^rND^sArthur^nW. Jr.^rND^sDay^nE. A.^rND^sMcNelly^nT. L.^rND^sEdens^nP. S.^rND^sArthur^nW., Jr.^rND^sDay^nE. A.^rND^sWoehr^nD. J.^rND^sBentler^nP. M.^rND^sBollen^nK. A.^rND^sStine^nR. A.^rND^sBowler^nM. C.^rND^sWoehr^nD. J.^rND^sBowler^nM. C.^rND^sWoehr^nD. J.^rND^sBrits^nN.^rND^sMeiring^nD.^rND^sBecker^nJ. R.^rND^sBrowne^nM. W.^rND^sCudeck^nR.^rND^sCampbell^nD. T.^rND^sFiske^nD. W.^rND^sCurran^nP. J.^rND^sWest^nS. G.^rND^sFinch^nJ. F.^rND^sEfron^nB.^rND^sEnders^nC. K.^rND^sGaugler^nB. B.^rND^sRosenthal^nD. B.^rND^sThornton^nG. C.^rND^sBentson^nC.^rND^sHaaland^nS.^rND^sChristiansen^nN. D.^rND^sHancock^nG. R.^rND^sNevitt^nJ.^rND^sHermelin^nE.^rND^sLievens^nF.^rND^sRobertson^nI.^rND^sHoffman^nB. J.^rND^sHoffman^nB. J.^rND^sMelchers^nK. G.^rND^sBlair^nC. A.^rND^sKleinmann^nM.^rND^sLadd^nR. T.^rND^sHoffman^nB. J.^rND^sMelchers^nK. G.^rND^sBlair^nC. A.^rND^sKleinmann^nM.^rND^sLadd^nR. T.^rND^sHoward^nA.^rND^sHu^nL. T.^rND^sBentler^nP. M.^rND^sKim^nH.^rND^sMillsap^nR.^rND^sKleinmann^nM.^rND^sIngold^nP. V.^rND^sLievens^nF.^rND^sJansen^nA.^rND^sMelchers^nK. G.^rND^sKönig^nC. J.^rND^sKuncel^nN. R.^rND^sSackett^nP. R.^rND^sLance^nC. E.^rND^sLance^nC. E.^rND^sLambert^nT. A.^rND^sGewin^nA. G.^rND^sLievens^nF.^rND^sConway^nJ. M.^rND^sLance^nC. E.^rND^sWoehr^nD. J.^rND^sMeade^nA. W.^rND^sLievens^nF.^rND^sLievens^nF.^rND^sChristiansen^nN. D.^rND^sLievens^nF.^rND^sConway^nJ. M.^rND^sLievens^nF.^rND^sDilchert^nS.^rND^sOnes^nD. S.^rND^sLievens^nF.^rND^sThornton^nG. C., III^rND^sMacKinnon^nD. P.^rND^sLockwood^nC. M.^rND^sWilliams^nJ.^rND^sMeiring^nD.^rND^sBecker^nR. J.^rND^sGericke^nS.^rND^sLouw^nN.^rND^sMeiring^nD.^rND^sBuckett^nA.^rND^sMeiring^nD.^rND^sVan der Westhuizen^nJ. H.^rND^sMillsap^nR. E.^rND^sMonahan^nE. L.^rND^sHoffman^nB. J.^rND^sLance^nC. E.^rND^sJackson^nD. J. R.^rND^sFoster^nM. R.^rND^sMuthén^nL. K.^rND^sMuthén^nB. O.^rND^sNikolaou^nI.^rND^sAnderson^nN.^rND^sSalgado^nJ.^rND^sSackett^nP. R.^rND^sLievens^nF.^rND^sVan Iddekinge^nC.^rND^sKuncel^nN.^rND^sSackett^nP. R.^rND^sDreher^nG. F.^rND^sSackett^nP. R.^rND^sShewach^nO. R.^rND^sKeiser^nH. N.^rND^sTett^nR. P.^rND^sBurnett^nD. D.^rND^sThornton^nG. C.^rND^sGibbons^nA. M.^rND^sThornton^nG. C., III^rND^sRupp^nD. E.^rND^sWang^nL.^rND^sFan^nX.^rND^sWilson^nV. L.^rND^1A01^nNadia^sMorton^rND^1A01^nCarin^sHill^rND^1A02^nDeon^sMeiring^rND^1A03^nLeon T.^sde Beer^rND^1A01^nNadia^sMorton^rND^1A01^nCarin^sHill^rND^1A02^nDeon^sMeiring^rND^1A03^nLeon T.^sde Beer^rND^1A01^nNadia^sMorton^rND^1A01^nCarin^sHill^rND^1A02^nDeon^sMeiring^rND^1A03^nLeon T^sde Beer

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Investigating the factor structure of the South African Personality Inventory - English version

 

 

Nadia Morton^I; Carin Hill^I; Deon Meiring^{II, †}; Leon T. de Beer^III

^IDepartment of Industrial Psychology and People Management, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg. South Africa
^IIDepartment of Human Resource Management, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
^IIIWorkWell Research Unit, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

---

ABSTRACT

ORIENTATION: Most psychological measuring instruments developed in Western, educated, industrial, rich, democratic (W.E.I.R.D.) countries have been found to inadequately capture and represent personality outside the borders of these countries. Consequently, culturally informed or indigenous measuring instruments need to be developed
RESEARCH PURPOSE: This study aimed to inspect whether an overlap exists between the empirical data obtained and the theoretical six-factor SAPI framework, providing evidence for an indigenous personality structure in a multi-cultural context
MOTIVATION FOR THE STUDY: Psychological professionals in South Africa have been criticised for using culturally biased instruments that do not display an accurate representation of the 11 official cultural groups. The South African Personality Inventory (SAPI) aims to address these criticisms, highlighting the importance of establishing the cultural applicability of the model through model-fit analyses.
RESEARCH APPROACH/DESIGN AND METHOD: A quantitative, cross-sectional design was used to administer the SAPI-English version to a sample of employed, unemployed and employment-seeking South Africans (N = 3912). Exploratory Structural Equation Modelling (ESEM) was used to model the data.
MAIN FINDINGS: The results revealed that the model was a good fit to the data and that the SAPI factors accurately represent personality in a multi-cultural context
PRACTICAL/MANAGERIAL IMPLICATION: Using a well-researched indigenous personality assessment like the SAPI can assist South African organisations to fairly and reliably assess people across the 11 official cultural groups.
CONTRIBUTION/VALUE-ADD: This study advances the processes surrounding indigenous test development through the establishment of a personality model and measure that encapsulates personality traits exhibited in a multi-cultural context.

Keywords: Personality; South African Personality Inventory; SAPI; factor structure; assessment; South Africa.

---

 

 

Introduction

In the fields of psychological testing and assessment, research has reached many difficult-to-attain goals (Laher & Cockroft, 2014). However, most psychological tests and assessments stemming from research conducted in Western, educated, industrial, rich, democratic (W.E.I.R.D.) countries fail to acknowledge psychological principles in non-W.E.I.R.D. contexts (Henrich, Heine, & Norenzayan, 2010). In the South African context, many psychological tests and assessments have been criticised for inadequately capturing and representing cultures outside the countries of origin, mainly in Europe and North America (Blokland, 2016), especially because individuals within a multi-cultural context such as South Africa have traditions and beliefs that are quite distinct from those found in Europe and America (Moletsane, 2016). These cultural differences also influence how individuals perceive personality and exhibit behaviours related to it. As such, personality assessment within the South African context has shifted focus from studying mainly universal traits across cultures to also studying personality traits specific or unique within various cultures (cf. Valchev et al., 2011; Valchev et al., 2012; Valchev, Van de Vijver, Nel, Rothmann, & Meiring, 2013; Valchev et al., 2014) using an emic-etic approach. The emic-etic, a combined approach, outlines universal and culture-specific aspects of personality (Cheung 2012; Cheung, Van de Vijver, & Leong, 2011) to identify critical aspects pertaining to personality (in South Africa in this case) and attain a detailed, integrated and balanced view of personality (Cheung et al., 2011).

In the South African context, personality research has mostly followed international trends, using adapted existing models and measuring instruments (Valchev et al., 2011; Valchev et al., 2012). However, in the early 1990s, the South African Personality Questionnaire (SAPQ) (Taylor, 1987) was developed, in which researchers attempted to develop an instrument that captures the personality characteristics evident in South Africa's multi-cultural context. Unfortunately, the SAPQ did not succeed, with a few studies investigating and confirming bias within the measurement (Retief, 1992; Taylor & Boeyens, 1991). The existence of bias could be ascribed to overreliance on Western and European models and theories. The adapted measuring instruments did not adequately tap into the underlying personality constructs within the cultural groups found in South Africa (Van de Vijver & Leung, 2001), raising questions surrounding fairness in assessment in the South African context.

Another matter influencing the South African psychological assessment landscape is South African legislation. The Employment Equity Act 55 of 1998 (Republic of South Africa, 1998) emphasises the use of valid, reliable and fair assessments and tests as a means to eliminate unfair discrimination, promote affirmative action and redress any previous disadvantages individuals from minority groups might have experienced. The requirements stipulated in the Employment Equity Act provide a framework and guideline for researchers aiming to develop and publish psychological measuring instruments, by emphasising the importance of fairness and cross-cultural application within psychological testing and assessment.

 

South African Personality Inventory

To address the issues surrounding valid, reliable and fair assessment in a multi-cultural context, the South African Personality Inventory (SAPI) project was initiated, aimed to develop a personality model and instrument that is applicable to the various cultural and language groups evident in South Africa (Hill et al., 2013; Nel, 2008). The commencement of the SAPI project assisted in deriving authentic, culturally relevant and accurate personality-descriptive terms from each of the 11 official languages in South Africa (Nel, 2008), involving both a qualitative and a quantitative phase.¹

The SAPI was initially represented by a qualitatively identified nine-factor structure, such as conscientiousness, emotional stability, extraversion, facilitation, integrity, intellect, openness, relationship harmony and soft-heartedness (Nel, 2008). Validation studies conducted on the preliminary SAPI proved that each of the initial nine clusters mentioned above was relevant to the linguistic and cultural groups found in South Africa (Valchev et al., 2014).

However, a more recent quantitative study by Fetvadjiev, Meiring, Van de Vijver, Nel, and Hill (2015) proposed that the SAPI personality model works best with six factors, such as conscientiousness, extraversion, neuroticism, openness, positive social-relational disposition and negative social-relational disposition. Within Fetvadjiev and colleagues' (2015) study, 18 facet scales (see Figure 1) representing the SAPI were used with a combination of 146 items that were based on the per-cluster factor analysis conducted in the last stage of item selection of the project. The conscientiousness, extraversion, neuroticism and openness factors of the SAPI are similar to those of the Big Five, with the positive and negative social-relational disposition being unique to the SAPI (Fetvadjiev et al., 2015) and personality in the South African context. To date, no studies have been conducted to confirm this six-factor SAPI structure.

Therefore, the purpose of this study was to explore the extent to which the six-factor SAPI model fits the data, using two different factor analytical techniques, such as confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and ESEM.

 

Analysing the factor structure of the South African Personality Inventory

Fetvadjiev and colleagues (2015) reduced the initial SAPI item pool from 2574 to 146 items and subsequently extracted the six-factor structure with its accompanying facets using exploratory factor analysis (EFA). Cronbach's alpha coefficients for the facets ranged between 0.60 and 0.84, except for the deceitfulness (0.58) and traditional-religiosity (0.57) facets whose low reliability coefficients were most likely because of the facets comprising three and four items, respectively. Fetvadjiev et al. (2015) also investigated the correlations between the various SAPI factors, and found that '…there may be a common element of presumably norm-driven, effortful self-regulation that underlies variation both of conscientiousness in endeavour-related contexts and of SR-Positive in interpersonal context…' (p. 830). Thereafter the equivalence of the factor structure across the African, mixed race, Indian and white ethnic groups was assessed, and it was found that 19 of the 24 Tucker's φ congruence coefficients were above 0.95, indicating structure equivalence. Lastly, Fetvadjiev et al. (2015) used an independent sample of African and white students to assess the six-factor solution's stability and subsequently replicated the factor structure reasonably well.

Mouton (2017) conducted a study aimed at understanding the dimensionality and model fit of both the first- and second-order SAPI models, using the LISREL statistical software package adopting a CFA analysis method. The dimensionality was analysed by subjecting each of the 20 personality subscales in the SAPI to an unrestricted principal axis factor analysis with oblique rotation. Mouton (2017) found that most of the test items do reflect the corresponding latent constructs (facets), as depicted in the theoretical framework developed during the qualitative phase. In addition, the first-order model (six factors and 20 facets) was found to fit the broader society of South Africa very well. However, the model fit of the second-order model could not be computed and evaluated, as the model did not converge successfully and as such produced inadmissible results (see Mouton, 2017).

Confirmatory factor analysis would generally be the approach of choice to confirm an empirically proposed personality model such as the SAPI. It provides researchers with the opportunity to draw direct comparisons between alternative models of relationships (Strauss & Smith, 2009) and to analyse relationships between latent constructs (Marsh, Morin, Parker, & Kaur, 2014). However, reliable psychological models are unfit when researchers evaluated them using CFA (Marsh et al., 2014; McCrae, 1996; Xiao, Liu, & Hua, 2019). The strict requirement of zero cross-loadings in CFA forces researchers to assume a parsimonious model that does not always provide sufficient support for a psychological construct that has previously been identified and established via EFA (Asparouhov & Muthén, 2009; Marsh et al., 2014). Specifically, within personality research, CFA has been found to provide insufficient support for standard measures such as the Five Factor Model (FFM), leading researchers to believe that such measures did not adequately fit the data (Marsh, Nagengast, & Morin, 2013). Asparouhov and Muthén (2009) stated that the restrictions imposed when using CFA could result in researchers developing measuring instruments that have a simple measuring structure. The credibility and replicability of such a measure can subsequently be doubted (Asparouhov & Muthén, 2009) and a priori structures not being supported by the data (Marsh et al., 2010).

To counter the possible inconsistencies between EFA and CFA models, more recent studies have found that an ESEM could be used to get a more accurate understanding of a confirmed hypothesised model (Asparouhov & Muthén, 2009; Marsh et al., 2013; Marsh et al., 2014; Morin, & Marsh, 2010; Xiao et al., 2019). Exploratory structural equation modelling combines the best properties of both EFA and CFA to provide researchers with relations between the latent factors such as personality (Marsh et al., 2014), accurately examine the broad applicability of such complex measurement structures in a cross-cultural context (Asparouhov & Muthén, 2009; Marsh et al., 2010). Marsh et al. (2014) indicated that ESEM provides a general framework that combines both EFA and CFA procedures, leaving researchers with the 'best of both worlds' in which realistic estimates usually inflated in traditional CFA analyses can be expected. Asparouhov and Muthén (2009) further added that ESEM uses all the structural equation modelling parameters mostly used by researchers and combines it with the factor loading rotations found in EFA. Exploratory structural equation modelling overcomes the restrictions imposed during standard CFA and provides a richer set of a priori models that are more supportive of the hypothesised psychological model in focus (Marsh et al., 2010).

For the current study, CFA was chosen as a starting point within the analysis process because of its simple processes and results. However, the researchers were expecting to find CFA results that indicated the SAPI measurement instrument and model did not accurately represent personality within a multi-cultural context when inspecting the model-fit indices, and that refinements would have to be made to the current model. They anticipated that developing a simple-structure measuring instrument would not be plausible with a multi-dimensional construct such as personality (Church & Burke, 1994; Marsh et al., 2010) and that a method such as ESEM should be used in second-round validation studies. Exploratory structural equation modelling could answer questions surrounding multi-dimensional models such as personality that are usually left unanswered through traditional EFA and CFA procedures (Marsh et al., 2010).

 

Objectives

The primary objective of this study was to examine the model-fit of the SAPI and thus determine whether the SAPI produces results that are per the theoretical and empirically determined framework developed to date. The following research questions were investigated:

· Can the six-factor measurement model as suggested by Fetvadjiev et al. (2015) be closely replicated within the current sample?

· Will the cross-loadings of the facets on their designated latent SAPI factors be statistically significant?

· To what extent will the latent SAPI factors correlate with each other?

· Will the reliabilities of the latent SAPI factors be acceptable?

 

Research design

Research approach

A cross-sectional, quantitative research design was used to transform the information obtained into numerical terms for statistical purposes (Marshall, 1996) and to enhance the communication of the multi-dimensional results (Netemeyer, Bearden, & Sharma, 2003). Also, the quantitative design was further chosen for the researchers to draw a sample demonstrative of the different cultural groups within the South African population that can assist with the understanding of, and generalisation of, the results (Marshall, 1996).

Research method

Research participants

Convenience sampling was used between 2015 and 2016 to approach individuals and organisations willing to take part in the research. The participants included tertiary students, job-seekers and working adults from various industries in the South African workforce and at various organisational levels (N = 3912) (Table 1).

 

 

Table 1 indicates that most of the participants were female (55%), while more than half of the participants were from the white (33%) and African (22%) cultural groups. Many of the participants (33%) did not indicate the ethnic group to which they belonged and were consequently removed from the analyses. Most of the participants (80%) matriculated between 1999 and 2014; therefore, the approximate age of that section of the sample ranged between 20 and 44. The majority of the participants had obtained a qualification after leaving school (74%) and indicated that they had a good English reading ability (78%). Many applicants worked in industries not mentioned in the biographical questionnaire (13%); of those industry options provided, most participants worked within the Information Technology or Computing (9%) sector, within the Human Resource Management industry (7%), or were currently studying (9%).

Measuring instrument

SAPI-188-E

The English version of the SAPI, based on the newly identified model, was used. Fetvadjiev et al. (2015) found the SAPI to consist of six factors, 18 facets and 146 items² that were rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale with responses ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Fetvadjiev et al. (2015) calculated the mean reliability of α = 0.77 for the 18 SAPI facets. Upon reviewing Fetvadjiev's results, the authors elected to include 24 additional items to strengthen the conscientiousness, openness, negative social-relational disposition and positive social-relational disposition factors. Two additional facets were added: empathy (positive social-relational disposition) and arrogance (negative social-relational disposition). These items were selected from the existing SAPI item bank. The final instrument, therefore, contained 170 items and 20 facets that represented the six SAPI factors and that were randomly placed and administered. The scale also included 18 social-desirability items, specially developed for the SAPI. These items were not included in the data analysis of this study.

Research procedure

Research participants from various sectors (educational institutions, public and private organisations) and with varying employment statuses (employed, unemployed, seeking employment) were invited to complete an online version of the SAPI voluntarily. Prior to completing the questionnaire, participants were ensured of (1) the aim of the questionnaire (to collect information regarding personality), (2) the secure nature of the data, (3) the lack of psychological risk associated with the study, (4) the confidentiality of the research project and (5) the aggregate use of the data. Participants had to give consent before commencing with the questionnaire. The institution's research ethics committee provided ethical clearance for the study.

Statistical analysis

To analyse the data and assess the model fit to the data, Mplus Version 8.0 was used (Muthén & Muthén, 2017). A CFA and an ESEM model were compared.³ The initial analyses consisted of a traditional CFA to evaluate the fit of the postulated six-factor model of the SAPI (see Appendix 1 for the CFA input syntax). During CFA, the proposed six-factor model of the SAPI was fitted to the observed data, using maximum likelihood estimation and allowing the six factors to correlate with each other. The researchers were particularly interested in applying ESEM to the SAPI model. The ESEM approach allows for all the facets in the SAPI to cross-load on all factors in the attempt to determine the potential impact of the facets on the factors that measure personality. Facets were computed using the mean score of the individual items. During the ESEM procedure, the suggested oblique rotation and maximum likelihood rotation (MLR) were used (see Appendix 2 for the ESEM input syntax; De Beer & Van Zyl, 2019):

The fit of the two models was investigated using various Mplus fit statistics:

1. Absolute fit indices included the χ² statistic, the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA; values ≤0.05 are acceptable) and standardised root mean square residual (SRMR; values ≤0.10 are acceptable).

2. An incremental fit index, namely, the Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI; values ≥0.90 are acceptable), and the Comparative Fit Index (CFI; values ≥0.95 are acceptable) (Cangur & Ercan, 2015; Hair, Black, Babin, & Anderson, 2010; Hu & Bentler, 1999; Yu, 2002).

The χ² statistic is generally investigated to allow the researcher to assess the existence of any discrepancies between the model and observed covariance matrices and the magnitude of one discrepancy (Hu & Bentler, 1999). Wheaton, Muthen, Alwin, and Summer (1997) recommend that χ²/df should be smaller than for an acceptable fit. However, Markland (2007) noted that in certain instances the χ² test could be ignored. Markland (2007) stated that the χ² test tends to be hypercritical when used within large sample sizes and in such cases will easily identify misfit. Furthermore, in an attempt to modify or respecify the model or its underlying theory, it may amount to fishing for significant results since '… such model modifications based on observed discrepancies might be capitalizing on chance sampling fluctuations in the data, improving fit at the expense of theoretical meaningfulness' (Markland, 2007, p. 865). Therefore, the researchers decided to consider the χ² with prudence because the current study obtained a very large sample size and the researchers decided not to modify the model or its fundamental theory.

The RMSEA was inspected to indicate how well the model, with unknown but optimally chosen parameter estimates, would fit the populations' covariance matrix (Byrne, 1998). The SRMR was inspected to determine the average of standardised residuals between the observed and the hypothesised covariance matrices (Chen, 2007). The TLI, also referred to as a relative fit index, compares the χ² indices for the models tested to a null model, a model indicating that all measured variables are uncorrelated and that the χ² indices are very large (Bentler, 1990). The CFI compares the sample covariance matrix with the null model, which assumes that all latent variables are uncorrelated (Hooper, Coughlan, & Mullen 2008).

When inspecting the factor loadings of the facets, loadings ≥0.30 were deemed acceptable and representative of the respective factors (Brace, Kemp, & Snelgar, 2009). The correlations between the SAPI factors were obtained on the factor level. The correlations between the SAPI factors with correlations having values >0.10 were said to display small effect sizes, correlations having values >0.30 indicated medium effect sizes, and correlations having values >0.50 showed large effect sizes (Cohen, 1988, 1992). The reliability of the factors was calculated using Cronbach's alpha (α) and McDonald's omega (ω) coefficients.

Ethical consideration

Ethical clearance for the study was granted by the Department of Industrial Psychology and People Management (IPPM) Research Ethics Committee, at the University of Johannesburg, South Africa.

 

Results

The descriptive statistics for the SAPI scales are presented in Table 2.

 

 

Table 2 indicates that the means (standard deviation [SD]) for the positively worded facets ranged between 3.58 (0.72) and 4.35 (0.42); the participants therefore mainly selected the 'Agree' response scale when answering these items. The means (SD) for the negatively worded facets ranged between 2.02 (0.63) and 2.95 (0.66); the participants therefore predominantly selected the 'Disagree' response scale when answering these items. The SDs were following the 99% confidence level set to test for statistical significance. All SD values showed the scores obtained by the extended sample to be close to the mean, with limited differences between the participants. The skewness and kurtosis of each of the facets were satisfactory, as only factors with skewness of >|2| and kurtosis of >4 are deemed unsatisfactory and unsuitable for factor analysis (Field & Miles, 2010); therefore, all the facets were included in the analyses.

Table 3 reflects the goodness-of-fit indices as produced by the different analysis methods. Combining the results allowed the researchers to draw direct comparisons between the methods and to identify noteworthy results easily.

The CFA results show that the SAPI model did not fit the observed data produced by the measuring instrument (χ² = 7170.946; df = 154; χ²/df = 46.56; CFI = 0.827; TLI = 0.786), implying that the researchers would have to modify the instrument to get a good fit. In additional, the CFA results indicate that the SAPI model does not fit the population in focus (RMSEA = 0.108) and question whether the model can be applied to the broader society within South Africa. The results obtained through the preliminary CFA analysis are therefore unsatisfactory and highlight the necessity of ESEM as an alternative method of analysis.

The ESEM results yielded more satisfactory results, with both the CFI and TLI increasing substantially (χ² = 1353.034; df = 85; χ²/df = 15.92; CFI = 0.975; TLI = 0.944; RMSEA = 0.062) because of cross-loadings being allowed within the ESEM model, thus indicating a better fit between the conceptual and observed data found in the SAPI measuring instrument. The decrease in RMSEA further indicates that, with ESEM, the SAPI model is a better fit to the data compared to the more restricted CFA model. This is also substantiated by the AIC and BIC values for the models, which show that the ESEM model was the better-fitting model.

Next, the parameter estimates of the ESEM analysis were used to inspect the general factors of personality, as explained by the variance of each facet within the SAPI model. The cross-loadings are reported because the ESEM analysis allows for the latent variables in the model to correlate with each other.

The results (Table 4) reflect modest factor loadings (λ = 0.48-0.93) for the majority of the facets. Traditionalism-religiosity (λ = 0.26) displayed a poor factor loading on its expected factor but had a stronger significant loading social-relational positive (λ = 0.32). Most of the facets further displayed significant cross-loadings <0.30, with all the other SAPI factors. Integrity, as expected, loaded on both conscientiousness (λ = 0.30) and social-relational positive (λ = 0.38).

The researchers can determine the facets most representative of the SAPI factor they load onto when looking at each factor individually. In the conscientiousness factor, orderliness yielded the highest loading (λ = 0.88) and traditionalism-religiosity the lowest (λ = 0.26). Sociability yielded a high factor loading (λ = 0.92) on extraversion. In the openness-factor, epistemic curiosity proved to have the highest factor loading (λ = 0.84). Negative emotionality presented a high loading (λ = 0.84) on the neuroticism, while emotional balance yielded an average, yet negative loading (λ = −0.55). In the positive social-relational disposition factor, warm-heartedness (λ = 0.93) displayed a high loading. All the facets within negative social-relational disposition yielded high factor loadings, with hostility-egoism demonstrating the average to highest factor loading (λ = 0.86), indicating that this factor is well defined by its facets.

Next, the factor correlations were inspected to determine the extent to which the six factors within the SAPI correlate with one another.

As shown in Table 5, which displays the correlation coefficients between the SAPI factors, the correlation between the social-relational negative and extraversion factors was the only non-significant correlation. Social-relational positive and extraversion (r = 0.58; large effect size) and social-relational positive and openness (r = 0.57; large effect size) produced the highest correlation coefficients. Furthermore, in terms of discriminant validity all of the correlations between the variables were far below the guideline of 0.85 (Brown, 2015), which would indicate problematic overlap of variance.

Table 5 further reflects the reliability coefficients of the respective SAPI factors. Both the Cronbach's α ranged between 0.70 and 0.89, indicating acceptable levels of internal consistency for the factors (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994). Similarly, the ω values ranged between 0.73 and 0.90, indicating the acceptable reliability generated by the facets with regard to their associated factors

 

Discussion

The focus of this study was to assess the model-fit of the postulated SAPI model. Two different approaches were used to analyse the data, with each approach displaying varying results. The initial CFA analysis did not yield satisfactory results, resulting in a conclusion that the respective methods of analysis is not adequate for the intended analysis on the SAPI. The CFA thus provided insufficient support for the SAPI model previously established through EFA (Asparouhov & Muthén, 2009; Marsh et al., 2014), indicating that the SAPI does not meet the criteria associated with model-fit (Marsh et al., 2010). The unsatisfactory results obtained through CFA can be ascribed to the inherent zero-loading requirement of the method (Marsh et al., 2010; Marsh et al., 2014). Consequently, an ESEM analysis was applied to obtain a more accurate understanding of the confirmed hypothesised SAPI model (Asparouhov & Muthén, 2009; Marsh et al., 2014).

The ESEM analysis indicated a better, more suitable fit of the SAPI model, addressing questions regarding the broad applicability (Marsh et al., 2010) of the SAPI that were not accounted for during CFA, and evident in the findings of Mouton (2017). The satisfactory results obtained through ESEM indicate that the six factors underpinning the SAPI model can be used to explain the personality characteristics, with accompanying behaviours, exhibited most often within the South African sphere.

With model-fit obtained, it was necessary to inspect the parameter estimates to investigate the internal structure of the psychological model and compare the current results with those found by Fetvadjiev et al. (2015). The investigation involved the factor loadings of the facets representing the six SAPI factors. Each of the six SAPI factors had both high-loading and low-loading facets, presenting noteworthy descriptions of personality in South Africa. Furthermore, the results obtained confirmed the findings of Fetvadjiev et al. (2015), with minor exceptions. The higher factor loadings obtained in this study indicate that all of the SAPI factors were better represented by their respective facets, except for conscientiousness that had two facets with lower factor loadings. The high factor loadings indicate that the facets and their respective items in the measuring instrument accurately describe personality in the South African sphere and that individuals find it easy to relate to the items and identify the associating behaviours while completing the questionnaire.

With regard to the conscientiousness factor, traits of being organised, punctual, precise, and thorough in everything one does, as well as being motivated and hard-working to achieve goals, are mostly associated with being conscientious (Bergh, 2013). The noticeably low factor loading of the traditionalism-religiosity facet implies that upholding traditions do not account for individuals striving to complete tasks and adhering to deadlines, confirming the empirical findings of Fetvadjiev et al. (2015) and contrasting previous theoretical postulations by Nel et al. (2012). The limited representativeness of traditionalism-religiosity can further be ascribed to the facet containing only a few items, having reliability coefficients that were low and not being suitable for cross-validation (see Fetvadjiev et al., 2015). However, the traditionalism-religiosity facet produced a higher loading onto the social-relational positive factor which is discussed further below.

With regard to the integrity facet, Fetvadjiev et al. (2015) found that integrity had a notable and equally strong double loading on both the conscientiousness and social-relational positive factors. Given the similar factor loadings on both factors, Fetvadjiev et al. (2015) postulated that there might be an underlying 'norm-driven, effortful self-regulation' (p. 4) communality between an individual's level of conscientiousness and the extent to which such an individual engages in positive interpersonal contexts. The remainder of the social-relational positive facets represents the factor very well, along with the cross-loading of the traditionalism-religiosity facet, possibly indicating that being respectful towards one's own culture could aid in maintaining good relationships with others.

The extraversion, openness, neuroticism and social-relational negative factors also seem to be well represented by their facets because most of their loadings were slightly higher than those presented by Fetvadjiev et al. (2015). The higher factor loadings are indicative of the theoretical model being well represented by the empirical data and that, at item level, personality is similarly perceived and described by individuals in South Africa. The strong loadings confirm the initial findings of Nel (2008) and later confirmation by Valchev et al. (2014) of the South African context present personality factors in addition to those found within the Big Five model.

The correlations further yielded results similar to those found by Fetvadjiev et al. (2015). Social-relational negative and extraversion did not produce significant correlations, suggesting opposing theoretical frameworks for each factor. Extraversion is said to resemble behaviours aimed at being sociable and communicating openly with others (Nel, 2008), while social-relational negative relates to deceptive and hostile behaviour, causing one to move away from social interactions (Valchev et al., 2014). The medium-to-high correlations existing between social-relational positive and conscientiousness, and extraversion, respectively, are also confirmatory of previous research conducted on the social-relational influence on personality in South Africa (see Valchev et al., 2012; Valchev et al., 2014). The strong relationship between social-relational positive and conscientiousness can be a direct result of the strong presence of the integrity facet, indicating that dependability, loyalty, and honesty are needed to uphold relationships and obtain high achievements in life (Fetvadjiev et al. 2015; Jensen-Campbell, Knack, Waldrip, & Campbell, 2007). Emphasising interpersonal relationships and positively managing them can further be ascribed to individuals enjoying being surrounded by people and engaging socially (Bergh, 2013). The correlations in this study also provide evidence for a strong relationship between social-relational positive and openness, corroborating the postulation of Fetvadjiev at al. (2015) that assessing openness outside the FFM allows for the openness facets to correlate with the broad factor of social-relatedness.

The representativeness of the social-relational factors evident in the results is further enhanced by the high reliability coefficients obtained for these factors, confirming the findings of Valchev et al. (2012), Valchev et al. (2014), and Fetvadjiev et al. (2015). Having higher alpha scores than the remaining four factors highlights the internal consistency of the test items and perhaps the uniqueness of personality in South Africa, and the replicability of the factors to the overall population in South Africa. Thus, individuals in the multi-cultural context are oriented towards building and fostering relationships with others, irrespective of the relationships starting controversially. The acceptable levels of consistency found in the conscientiousness, extraversion, openness and neuroticism factors confirm the findings of Fetvadjiev et al. (2015) that these SAPI factors correspond with the FFM and highlight the universality of the FFM found by McCrae and Costa (1997).

 

Conclusion

The overall results were deemed satisfactory and answered all of the research questions of the study. The results added to the progress of establishing a personality measure that encapsulates personality traits exhibited in a multi-cultural context. The model-fit and estimates obtained increased the confidence with which the SAPI can be applied to the broader society within South Africa and the generalisability of the personality traits to individuals from all 11 official cultural groups.

This study provided insight into the dynamics of personality within South Africa, with the ESEM application and the indicated cross-loadings; different personality facets may have a contribution to factors in reality that is not captured by regular CFA. Although the SAPI aligns with the FFM, personality within the South African context can only be fully understood through how relationships are formed, maintained and nurtured.

However, some limitations prevented more detailed results were obtained. Firstly, no control variables were added to the modelling. Secondly, the traditionalism-religiosity facet in the conscientiousness factor only consisting of three items and underperforming in the analyses, brought the relevance of this facet into question. Therefore, the underperforming facet should be redefined and possibly extended by developing additional items or adding those already existing in the SAPI item bank. Furthermore, based on the large data set and complexity of the SAPI, it is recommended that Bayesian Structural Equation Modeling (BSEM) be used to further consider the results obtained, as BSEM is not limited by the rotation method one selects and can produce a more detailed factor pattern (Xiao et al., 2019).

 

Dedication

The authors would like to dedicate this article in honour of two colleagues: Prof. Fons van de Vijver who sadly passed away on the 01 June 2019 while this article was under review. The authors would also like to dedicate this article in honour of Prof. Deon Meiring who passed away on 04 October 2019. Both men made substantial contributions to not only the SAPI-project, but also in the lives of others. Rest in peace.

 

Acknowledgements

This article was partially based on and part of the first author's PhD thesis. The authors thank the following people for their input and guidance with regard to the current article: Prof. Fons van de Vijver and Dr Velichko Fetvadjiev.

Competing interests

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Authors' contributions

N.M. was the lead author, wrote up the article and was responsible for data collection. C.H. was the main postgraduate supervisor of the lead author, analysed the data and provided editorial input. D.M. gave conceptual guidance and provided editorial input and provided the SAPI data. L.T.d.B. performed with the statistical analyses and provided editorial input.

Funding information

This study was supported by the National Research Foundation (NRF), Grant No. (111764). The conclusions derived and opinions expressed are those of the authors and should not be ascribed to the NRF.

Data availability statement

The data are the intellectual property of the South African Personality Inventory Project and not for sharing.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the authors.

 

References

Asparouhov, T., & Muthén, B. (2009). Exploratory structural equation modeling. Structural Equation Modeling, 16, 397-438. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705510903008204        [ Links ]

Bentler, P.M. (1990). Comparative fit indices in structural models, Psychological Bulletin, 107(2), 238-246. https://doi.org/10.1037//0033-2909.107.2.238        [ Links ]

Bergh, Z. (2013). The nature of personality and fundamental assumptions in personality study. In Z. Bergh and D. Geldenhuys (Eds.), Psychology in the work context (5th edn., pp. 290-314). Cape Town, SA: Oxford University Press.         [ Links ]

Blokland, L.M.E. (2016). Non-Western (African) views of psychological constructs: Current context of psychological assessment in South Africa. In R. Ferreira (Ed.), Psychological Assessment: Thinking innovatively in the contexts of diversity (pp. 37-51). Cape Town: Juta and Company (Pty) Ltd.         [ Links ]

Brace, N., Kemp, R., & Snelgar, R. (2009). SPSS for psychologists. Houndmills, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillian.         [ Links ]

Brown, T.A. (2015). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research (2nd edn.). New York: Guilford Press.         [ Links ]

Byrne, B.M. (1998). Structural Equation Modeling with LISREL, PRELIS and SIMPLIS: Basic concepts, applications and programming. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.         [ Links ]

Cangur, S., & Ercan, I. (2015). Comparison of model fit indices used in structural equation modeling under multivariate normality. Journal of Modern Applied Statistical Methods, 14(1), 14. https://doi.org/10.22237/jmasm/1430453580        [ Links ]

Chen, F.F. (2007). Sensitivity of goodness of fit indexes to lack of measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling, 14, 464-504. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705510701301834        [ Links ]

Cheung, F.M. (2012). Mainstreaming culture in personality. American Psychologist, 67(8), 721-730. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029876        [ Links ]

Cheung, F.M., Van de Vijver, F.J.R., & Leong, F.T.L. (2011). Toward a new approach to the study of personality in culture. American Psychologist, 66(7), 593-603. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022389        [ Links ]

Church, A.T., & Burke, P.J. (1994). Exploratory and confirmatory tests of the Big Five and Tellegen's three- and four-dimensional models. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 93-114. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.66.1.93        [ Links ]

Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for behavioural sciences (2nd edn.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.         [ Links ]

Cohen, J. (1992). Quantitative methods in psychology: A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112(1), 155-159. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.112.1.155        [ Links ]

De Beer, L.T., & Van Zyl, L.E. (2019). ESEM code generator for Mplus. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.8320250        [ Links ]

Fetvadjiev, V.H., Meiring, D., Van de Vijver, F.J.R., Nel, J.A., & Hill, C. (2015). The South African Personality Inventory (SAPI): A culture-informed instrument for the country's main ethnocultural groups. Psychological Assessment, 27(3), 827-837. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000078        [ Links ]

Field, A., & Miles, J. (2010). Discovering statistics using SAS. London: Sage.         [ Links ]

Hair, J.F., Black, W.C., Babin, B.J., & Anderson, R.E. (2010). Multivariate data analysis: International version, Pearson, New Jersey.         [ Links ]

Henrich, J., Heine, S.J., & Norenzayan, A. (2010). The weirdest people in the world? Behavioral and brain sciences, 33(2-3), 61-83. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X0999152X        [ Links ]

Hill, C., Nel, J.A., Van de Vijver, F.J.R., Meiring, D., Valchev, V.H., Adams, B.G., & De Bruin, G.P. (2013). Developing and testing items for the South African Personality Inventory (SAPI). South African Journal of Industrial Psychology, 39(1), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v39i1.1122        [ Links ]

Hooper, D., Coughlan, J., & Mullen, M.R. (2008). Structural equation modeling: Guidelines for determining model fit. Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods, 6(1), 53-60.         [ Links ]

Hu, L.T., & Bentler, P.M. (1999). Cut-off criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6(1), 1-55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118        [ Links ]

Jensen-Campbell, L.A., Knack, J.M., Waldrip, A.M., & Campbell, S.D. (2007). Do Big Five personality traits associated with self-control influence the regulation of anger and aggression? Journal of Research in Personality, 41(2), 403-424. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2006.05.001        [ Links ]

Laher, S., & Cockroft, K. (2014). Psychological assessment in post-apartheid South Africa: The way forward. South African Journal of Psychology, 44(3), 303-314. https://doi.org/10.1177/0081246314533634        [ Links ]

Markland, D. (2007). The golden rule is that there are no golden rules: A commentary on Paul Barrett's recommendations for reporting model fit in structural equation modelling. Personality and Individual Differences, 42(5), 851-858. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2006.09.023        [ Links ]

Marsh, H.W., Lüdtke, O., Muthén, B., Asparouhov, T., Morin, A.J.S., Tratwein, U., & Nagengast, B. (2010). A new look at the Big Five Factor structure through Exploratory Structural Equation Modeling. Psychological Assessment, 22(3), 471-491. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019227        [ Links ]

Marsh, H.W., Morin, A.J.S., Parker, P.D., & Kaur, G. (2014). Exploratory Structural Equation Modeling: An integration of the best features of Exploratory and Confirmatory Factor Analysis. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 10, 85-110. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032813-153700        [ Links ]

Marsh, H.W., Nagengast, B., & Morin, A.J.S. (2013). Measurement invariance of Big-Five factors over the life span: ESEM tests of gender, age, plasticity, maturity, and La Dolce Vita effect. Developmental Psychology, 49(6), 1194-1218. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026913        [ Links ]

Marshall, M.N. (1996). Sampling for qualitative research. Family Practice - An International Journal, 13(6), 522-525. https://doi.org/10.1093/fampra/13.6.522        [ Links ]

McCrae, R.R. (1996). Social consequences of experiential openness. Psychological Bulletin, 120(3), 323. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.120.3.323        [ Links ]

McCrae, R.R., & Costa, P.T. (1997). Personality trait structure as a human universal. American Psychologist, 52, 509-516. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066X.52.5.509        [ Links ]

Moletsane, M. (2016). Understanding the role of indigenous knowledge in psychological assessment and intervention in a multicultural South African context. In R Ferreira (Ed.), Psychological Assessment: Thinking innovatively in the context of diversity (pp. 20-36). Cape Town: Juta and Company (Pty) Ltd.         [ Links ]

Morin, A.J.S., & Marsh, H.W. (2013). Exploratory structural equation modeling. In G.R. Hancock, & R.O. Mueller (Eds.). Structural equation modeling: A second course (2nd edn.). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing, Inc.         [ Links ]

Mouton, S. (2017). An investigation into the first and second-order factor structure of the South African Personality Inventory (SAPI). Unpublished master's thesis, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa.         [ Links ]

Muthén, B., & Muthén, L. (1998-2017). Mplus user's guide (8th edn.). Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.         [ Links ]

Nel, J.A. (2008). Uncovering personality dimensions in eleven different language groups in South Africa: An exploratory study. Unpublished doctoral thesis, North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, Potchefstroom, South Africa.         [ Links ]

Nel, J.A., Valchev, V.H., Rothmann, S., Van de Vijver, F.J.R., Meiring, D., & De Bruin, G.P. (2012). Exploring the personality structure in the 11 languages of South Africa. Journal of Personality, 80, 915-948. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2011.00751.x        [ Links ]

Netemeyer, R.G., Bearden, W.O., & Sharma, S. (2003). Scaling procedures: Issues and applications. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.         [ Links ]

Nunnally, J.C., & Bernstein, I.H. (1994). The assessment of reliability. Psychometric Theory, 3, 248-292.         [ Links ]

Republic of South Africa. (1998). Employment Equity Act, 1998, Government Gazette, 400 (19740), Cape Town, 19 October 1998, Retrieved from https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/201409/a55-980.pdf.         [ Links ]

Retief, A. (1992). The cross-cultural utility of the SAPQ: Bias or fruitful differences? South African Journal of Psychology, 17, 202-207. https://doi.org/10.1177/008124639202200403        [ Links ]

Strauss, M.E., & Smith, G.T. (2009). Construct validity: Advances in theory and methodology. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 5, 1-25. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.032408.153639.         [ Links ]

Taylor, T.R. (1987). Test bias: The roles and responsibilities of test user and test publisher. Johannesburg: National Institute for Personnel Research.         [ Links ]

Taylor, T.R., & Boeyens, J.C.A. (1991). A comparison of black and white responses to the South African Personality Questionnaire. Pretoria: Human Sciences Research Council.         [ Links ]

Valchev, V.H., Van de Vijver, F.J.R., Nel, J.A., Rothmann, S., Meiring, D., & De Bruin, G.P. (2011). Implicit personality conceptions of the Nguni cultural-linguistic groups of South Africa. Cross-Cultural Research, 45, 235-266. https://doi.org/10.1177/1069397111402462        [ Links ]

Valchev, V.H., Nel, J.A., Van de Vijver, F.J.R., Meiring, D., De Bruin, G.P., & Rothmann, S. (2012). Similarities and differences in implicit personality concepts across ethnocultural groups in South Africa. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 44, 365-388. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022112443856        [ Links ]

Valchev, V.H., Van de Vijver, F.J.R., Nel, J.A., Rothman, S., & Meiring, D. (2013). The use of traits and contextual information in free personality descriptions across ethnocultural groups in South Africa. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 104(6), 1077-1091. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032276        [ Links ]

Valchev, V.H., Van de Vijver, F.J.R., Meiring, D., Nel, J.A., Hill, C., Laher, S., & Adams, B.G. (2014). Beyond agreeableness: Social-relational personality concepts from an indigenous and cross-cultural perspective. Journal of Research in Personality, 48(1), 17-32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2013.10.003        [ Links ]

Van de Vijver, F., & Leung, K. (2001). Personality in cultural context: Methodological issues. Journal of Personality, 69, 1007-1031. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-6494.696173        [ Links ]

Wheaton, B., Muthen, B., Alwin, D.F., & Summers, G. (1977). Assessing reliability and stability in panel models, Sociological Methodology, 8(1), 84-136. https://doi.org/10.2307/270754        [ Links ]

Xiao, Y., Liu, H., & Hau, K. (2019). A comparison of CFA, ESEM, and BSEM in test structure analysis. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705511.2018.1562928        [ Links ]

Yu, C.Y. (2002). Evaluating cutoff criteria of model fit indices for latent variable models with binary and continuous outcomes (Vol. 30). Los Angeles, CA: University of California.         [ Links ]

 

 

Correspondence:
Carin Hill
chill@uj.ac.za

Received: 30 May 2018
Accepted: 21 July 2019
Published: 17 Oct. 2019

 

 

†, 1967-2019.
1. The qualitative and quantitative process outlined in this article provides only an overview of the progress to date and a full description of the phases can be found in Fetvadjiev et al. (2015); Hill et al. (2013); Nel (2008); Nel et al. (2015); and Valchev (2011, 2012, 2013).
2. The instrument is copyright-protected, therefore no verbatim examples of the items are included.
3. The data was analysed at facet-level as it has an increased likelihood of cross-cultural replication and can be better used in future research.

 

 

Appendix 1

Mplus syntax for confirmatory factor analysis (CFA)

TITLE: SAPI CFA

DATA:

FILE IS data.txt;

VARIABLE:

NAMES ARE empathy integrity interrel socialintel warmheart arrogance confseek deceit hosego emobal-negem play-sociability achievement orderliness tradrel broadmind episcur intellect;

USEVARIABLES ARE ALL;

MISSING ARE ALL (-999);

ANALYSIS:

ESTIMATOR=MLR;

PROCESSORS=8;

STARTS=20;

MODEL:

POSRELD by

empathy-warmheart;

NEGRELD by

arrogance-hosego;

NEUROT by

emobal-negem;

EXTRA by

play-sociability;

CONSCIENCE by

achievement

orderliness

tradrel

integrity;

OPEN by

broadmind-intellect;

OUTPUT: stdyx; tech4;

 

Appendix 2

Mplus syntax for exploratory structural equation model

TITLE: SAPI ESEM

!Generated with the ESEM code generator for Mplus (De Beer & Van Zyl, 2019)

DATA:

FILE IS data.txt;

VARIABLE:

NAMES ARE empathy integrity interrel socialintel warmheart arrogance confseek deceit hosego emobal-negem play-sociability achievement orderliness tradrel broadmind episcur intellect;

USEVARIABLES ARE ALL;

MISSING ARE ALL (-999);

ANALYSIS:

ESTIMATOR=MLR;

PROCESSORS=8;

STARTS=20;

ROTATION=TARGET;

MODEL:

POSRELD by

empathy-warmheart

arrogance-hosego~0

emobal-negem~0

play-sociability~0

achievement-tradrel~0

broadmind-intellect~0 (*1);

NEGRELD by

arrogance-hosego

empathy-warmheart~0

emobal-negem~0

play-sociability~0

achievement-tradrel~0

broadmind-intellect~0 (*1);

NEUROT by

emobal-negem

empathy-warmheart~0

arrogance-hosego~0

play-sociability~0

achievement-tradrel~0

broadmind-intellect~0 (*1);

EXTRA by

play-sociability

emobal-negem~0

empathy-warmheart~0

arrogance-hosego~0

achievement-tradrel~0

broadmind-intellect~0 (*1);

CONSCIENCE by

achievement-tradrel integrity

play-sociability~0

emobal-negem~0

empathy-warmheart~0

arrogance-hosego~0

broadmind-intellect~0 (*1);

OPEN by

broadmind-intellect

achievement-tradrel~0

play-sociability~0

emobal-negem~0

empathy-warmheart~0

arrogance-hosego~0 (*1);

OUTPUT: stdyx; tech4;

^rND^sAsparouhov^nT.^rND^sMuthén^nB.^rND^sBentler^nP.M.^rND^sBergh^nZ.^rND^sBlokland^nL.M.E.^rND^sCangur^nS.^rND^sErcan^nI.^rND^sChen^nF.F.^rND^sCheung^nF.M.^rND^sCheung^nF.M.^rND^sVan de Vijver^nF.J.R.^rND^sLeong^nF.T.L.^rND^sChurch^nA.T.^rND^sBurke^nP.J.^rND^sCohen^nJ.^rND^sFetvadjiev^nV.H.^rND^sMeiring^nD.^rND^sVan de Vijver^nF.J.R.^rND^sNel^nJ.A.^rND^sHill^nC.^rND^sHenrich^nJ.^rND^sHeine^nS.J.^rND^sNorenzayan^nA.^rND^sHill^nC.^rND^sNel^nJ.A.^rND^sVan de Vijver^nF.J.R.^rND^sMeiring^nD.^rND^sValchev^nV.H.^rND^sAdams^nB.G.^rND^sDe Bruin^nG.P.^rND^sHooper^nD.^rND^sCoughlan^nJ.^rND^sMullen^nM.R.^rND^sHu^nL.T.^rND^sBentler^nP.M.^rND^sJensen-Campbell^nL.A.^rND^sKnack^nJ.M.^rND^sWaldrip^nA.M.^rND^sCampbell^nS.D.^rND^sLaher^nS.^rND^sCockroft^nK.^rND^sMarkland^nD.^rND^sMarsh^nH.W.^rND^sLüdtke^nO.^rND^sMuthén^nB.^rND^sAsparouhov^nT.^rND^sMorin^nA.J.S.^rND^sTratwein^nU.^rND^sNagengast^nB.^rND^sMarsh^nH.W.^rND^sMorin^nA.J.S.^rND^sParker^nP.D.^rND^sKaur^nG.^rND^sMarsh^nH.W.^rND^sNagengast^nB.^rND^sMorin^nA.J.S.^rND^sMarshall^nM.N.^rND^sMcCrae^nR.R.^rND^sMcCrae^nR.R.^rND^sCosta^nP.T.^rND^sMoletsane^nM.^rND^sMorin^nA.J.S.^rND^sMarsh^nH.W.^rND^sNel^nJ.A.^rND^sValchev^nV.H.^rND^sRothmann^nS.^rND^sVan de Vijver^nF.J.R.^rND^sMeiring^nD.^rND^sDe Bruin^nG.P.^rND^sNunnally^nJ.C.^rND^sBernstein^nI.H.^rND^sRetief^nA.^rND^sStrauss^nM.E.^rND^sSmith^nG.T.^rND^sValchev^nV.H.^rND^sVan de Vijver^nF.J.R.^rND^sNel^nJ.A.^rND^sRothmann^nS.^rND^sMeiring^nD.^rND^sDe Bruin^nG.P.^rND^sValchev^nV.H.^rND^sNel^nJ.A.^rND^sVan de Vijver^nF.J.R.^rND^sMeiring^nD.^rND^sDe Bruin^nG.P.^rND^sRothmann^nS.^rND^sValchev^nV.H.^rND^sVan de Vijver^nF.J.R.^rND^sNel^nJ.A.^rND^sRothman^nS.^rND^sMeiring^nD.^rND^sValchev^nV.H.^rND^sVan de Vijver^nF.J.R.^rND^sMeiring^nD.^rND^sNel^nJ.A.^rND^sHill^nC.^rND^sLaher^nS.^rND^sAdams^nB.G.^rND^sVan de Vijver^nF.^rND^sLeung^nK.^rND^sWheaton^nB.^rND^sMuthen^nB.^rND^sAlwin^nD.F.^rND^sSummers^nG.^rND^sXiao^nY.^rND^sLiu^nH.^rND^sHau^nK.^rND^nPieter^sKoortzen^rND^1A01^nRudolf M.^sOosthuizen^rND^nPieter^sKoortzen^rND^1A01^nRudolf M.^sOosthuizen^rND^nPieter^sKoortzen^rND^1A01^nRudolf M^sOosthuizen

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Integrity and derailment of senior leaders in the Southern African context

 

 

Pieter Koortzen^I; Rudolf M. Oosthuizen^II

^IOrganisation Development, Investec Bank PLC, London, United Kingdom
^IIDepartment of Industrial and Organisational Psychology, School of Management Sciences, College of Economic and Management Sciences, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

---

ABSTRACT

ORIENTATION: In recruiting and developing senior leaders for the organisation, great emphasis is placed on the personality of these individuals and on the resulting manifestations of their behaviour in the work context
RESEARCH PURPOSE: The objective of this study was to explore the relationship between integrity and derailment to identify the dimensions of integrity that may reduce the risks of derailing in a group of senior leaders
MOTIVATION FOR THE STUDY: As organisations become more complex, a higher quality of leadership is demanded. The quality of leadership is often determined by, among other things, the level of leaders' integrity and the manner in which they are able to manage their own derailment at work. In this study, integrity is defined as the conflict and balance between our instincts (i.e. vices) and our ability to reason (i.e. our virtues), while leadership derailment is defined as the way in which leaders behave under stress or when they overuse a particular strength. Both constructs are of particular concern when they manifest in the organisation's pool of high-potential leaders, who are the organisation's future successors. However, most derailment cases are predictable and can be managed effectively with proper intervention.
RESEARCH APPROACH/DESIGN AND METHOD: A cross-sectional quantitative, correlational research design was followed. A non-probability purposive sample of 108 senior leaders in companies in Southern Africa participated in the study.
MAIN FINDINGS: The results enabled the researchers to assess the relationship between integrity and derailment in order to identify the dimensions of integrity that are associated with a lowered risk of derailing in a group of senior leaders. It is apparent from the results that several of the integrity dimensions measured in the current study acted as significant predictors of derailment. The results indicate that the Giotto scales predict five of the Hogan scales to a degree that could be regarded as practically significant and are associated with medium to large effect sizes). These are Excitable, Cautious, Leisurely, Bold and Colourful. The prediction of Cautious can be described as practically important, while the prediction of the remainder of the Hogan scales was practically non-significant
PRACTICAL/MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS: From a practical point of view, the research findings allow leadership development practitioners, consultants and coaches to assist leaders in identifying the ways in which leaders will probably derail based on the results of the Giotto integrity test. Those involved in the development of leaders will also be able to develop the leaders' level of integrity in order to reduce unnecessary derailment at work.
CONTRIBUTION/VALUE-ADD: The study findings contribute valuable information on the relationship between integrity and derailment and the dimensions of integrity, which may reduce the risks of derailment of senior leaders.

Keywords: Integrity; Giotto integrity questionnaire; leadership derailment; Hogan Development Questionnaire; senior leaders; South Africa.

---

 

 

Introduction

Background of the study

In recruiting and developing senior leaders for the organisation, great emphasis is placed on the personality of these individuals and on the resulting manifestations of their behaviour in the work context. According to Perschel (2009, p. 1), the phrase 'executives are hired on experience and fired on personality' is well known in the executive search business and summarises the years of collective experience and the prevailing findings emanating from executive derailment research. The manifesting behaviour can be studied under normal circumstances, as well as during times of stress when some leaders tend to derail. However, the authors believe that it is not all doom and gloom because there are ways to predict and avoid hiring a poor fit, as well as ways of detecting the early warning signs of derailment. As organisations are becoming more complex, a higher quality of leadership is demanded. In reality, however, it is estimated that the base rate for leadership failure is 30% - 50% (Gentry & Chappelow, 2009). Leadership derailment is of particular concern as it usually involves an organisation's pool of high-potential leaders (Prince, 2005), the organisation's future successors. However, most derailment cases are predictable and with proper intervention they can be overcome (Sejeli & Mansor, 2015).

Smart (1999) believes that the financial cost of a single failed senior leader can run into millions of rand. Moreover, according to Hogan, Hogan and Kaiser (2009), these financial losses do not include severance agreements, losses related to intellectual capital, the goodwill of the firm's reputation, unmet business opportunities and goals, damage to employee productivity and effectiveness, or the cost to the external environment. Gentry and Chappelow (2009), Kovach (1989) and Watkins (2003) make reference to nine independent studies that recorded an average failure rate of 47% for senior managers and executives. They also point out that the majority of these failures took place after the leaders transitioned into new roles. The most prevalent cause in these research projects was not a lack of technical skills or business acumen but personality factors. The dark side of senior leaders' personalities, which is not detectable during the interview process, only shows up later and can result in a number of negative outcomes (McCall & Lombardo, 1983; Shipper & Dillard, 2000).

Lombardo and McCauley (1988) from the Centre for Creative Leadership attempted to identify traits and behaviours associated with leaders who derail. The results of their studies indicate that successful leaders are very similar in some respects to those who derailed. Most of these leaders were visionaries, had strong technical skills, had a history of career successes and were frequently viewed as 'fast-risers' in their organisations. While every leader had both strengths and weaknesses, the research indicated six basic clusters of flaws in the leaders who derailed. These included problems with interpersonal relationships, difficulties selecting and building a team, difficulties in transitioning from the technical/tactical level to the general/strategic level, lack of follow-through, overdependence and strategic differences with management.

In some of their other studies, Lombardo and McCauley (1988) also found a number of personality traits that made leaders less likely to derail. These included diversity of experience, emotional stability, handling mistakes without defensiveness, interpersonal skills and integrity. With regard to integrity, it was found that many of the leaders who derailed were ambitious about advancing their career at the expense of others. They were also less dependable because they were more likely to betray or break a promise. In contrast, successful leaders had strong integrity. These leaders were more focused on the immediate task and the needs of subordinates than on competing with rivals or impressing superiors. Furthermore, they demanded excellence from their people in problem solving and in so doing often helped develop them (Van Niekerk & May, 2019).

Business conditions today are different from what they were in the past. Public sectors are becoming more dynamic, intricate and ambiguous (Van Velsor, McCauley, & Ruderman, 2010). In addition, leaders in the public sector are facing greater scrutiny from various sources (Van Velsor et al., 2010). In fact, public sector environments are relatively more dynamic than the private sector. Leadership derailment is closely associated with change (Nazir & Shah, 2014; Van Velsor & Leslie, 1995), a process that most organisations today are experiencing (Marks, 2007).

Research purpose and objectives

The objective of this study was to explore the relationship between integrity and derailment to identify the dimensions of integrity that may reduce the risks of derailment in a group of senior leaders.

The potential value-add of the study

The findings of this study contribute valuable information regarding the relationship between integrity and derailment and the dimensions of integrity that may reduce the risk of derailment of senior leaders. Organisations require an optimal balance of characteristics among their senior leaders in order to utilise their strengths and accommodate their weaknesses. Integrity assessment is one of the best predictors of overall work performance and is more accurate than personality assessment in identifying counterproductive behaviour (Mauer, 2002). Findings obtained from the Giotto Integrity Questionnaire may be used with a considerable degree of confidence in identifying senior leaders with a risk profile of unethical behaviour. Findings obtained from the Hogan Development Questionnaire, on the other hand, provide the ability to develop high-potential leaders to become executive-level leaders, and determine ways to maximise productivity throughout the organisation. This questionnaire evaluates career derailers by identifying and mitigating performance risks that may decrease leadership success and damage relationships and professional reputation. Senior leaders could be developed by taking advantage of the self-awareness gained through the Hogan evaluation.

 

Literature review

Integrity

The term 'integrity' is originated from the Latin adjective integer, which means the state or quality of being complete or whole (Monga, 2016). Sackett, Burris and Callahan (1989) distinguish between two different conceptualisations of integrity and integrity tests. According to these authors, integrity can be studied and assessed by using overt and personality-based integrity tests. Sackett and Wanek (1996) describe overt integrity tests (alternately labelled 'clear purpose tests') as commonly consisting of two sections. The first section focuses on theft attitudes and generally includes questions about beliefs about the frequency and extent of theft, the punitiveness associated with theft, ruminations about theft, perceived ease of theft, endorsement of common rationalisations for theft and assessments of one's own honesty. The second part focuses on requests for admissions of theft and other wrongdoing. However, this research does not focus on the other theft-related components of integrity. Instead the research is more aligned to the personality-orientated conceptualisations and measures (alternatively labelled 'disguised purpose tests'), which are closely linked to normal-range personality assessment devices. These approaches and assessment are considerably broader in focus, and include constructs such as dependability, conscientiousness, social conformity, thrill-seeking, trouble with authority and hostility. The second approach is also more indicative of the direction that integrity testing has taken in recent years.

In line with this view, Barnard, Schurink and De Beer (2008) define integrity as a multifaceted and dynamic phenomenon based on a set of moral beliefs and inner drives that is affectively and cognitively managed to produce context-appropriate, integrity-related behaviours. These authors, as well as Palanski and Yammarino (2007, 2009), agree that the accurate measurement of integrity depends on a scientific operationalisation of the workplace integrity construct. What is clear from their research is that integrity tests are complex and multidimensional, that is, personality research that is linked to a broad array of workplace behaviours, including both productive and counterproductive behaviours (Sackett & Wanek, 1996). This differs significantly from the earlier views of integrity testing, which regarded it as an activity on the fringes, removed from other mainstream psychological testings and linked to a very limited set of counterproductive behaviours. Although integrity tests could help to combat disruptive and counterproductive employee behaviour (Camara & Schneider, 1994; Cullen & Sackett, 2004), the goal posts have shifted and the need exists to predict job performance rather than disruptive behaviour. Thomassen, Strand and Heggen (2017) state that the concept of integrity is used as a psychosocial concept to describe the tensions and dilemmas experienced by professional and semi-professional workers in neoliberal working life. In general terms, the concept refers to the degree to which professionals experience that their internalised professional standards can be realised (Van Niekerk & May, 2019).

Sackett and Wanek (1996) mention that individuals scoring high on integrity tests tend to avoid counterproductive work behaviours and are more careful, persistent and productive workers. Sackett et al. (1989) point out that personality-based (also known as 'disguised purpose tests') integrity tests, in fact, measure components of personality and only differ from other personality tests in the nature of the traits being assessed. The case in favour of the use of integrity testing in predicting job performance is also made by Ones and her colleagues (Collins & Schmidt, 1993; Ones, Viswesvaran, & Schmidt, 1993, 1995; Schmidt, Ones, & Hunter, 1992). These authors report a series of meta-analytic studies that reviewed the evidence for the validity of integrity testing and concluded that the evidence is substantial and that the broad construct of integrity is probably as good as or a better predictor of overall job performance than any one of the Big Five personality factors.

The classical integrity theory of Prudentius

Rust (1999) explains that many of the ideas of modern personality theory, including Eysenck's extraversion and neuroticism, can be traced back to ideas first explored in the classical period of Greece and Rome over 2000 years ago. Even the theories based on relatively new statistical techniques, such as factor analysis, are dependent on their interrelationships with the 'natural language trait descriptors' of human characteristics. Allport and Odbert (1936) listed about 18 000 words (or natural language trait descriptors) in four categories, namely, personal traits, temporary moods or activities, judgements of personal conduct and capacities and talents.

Before these trait descriptors existed, classical scholars used natural language personality descriptors to describe personality characteristics or traits. One of the most influential of these, according to Rust (1999), was the Psychomachia of Prudentius (348-405 AD) (Bergman, 1926; Thompson, 1949). This model was adapted by theologians and thinkers throughout Christianity and Islam, who referred to the traits as the vices (passions) and virtues (sentiments). While there are far more commonly used personality descriptors in English today than in the Latin of the 4th century AD, the conceptual framework established by Prudentius still underpins many of the relationships between them.

Aurelius Prudentius Clementis lived between 348 and 405 AD and, according to Rust (1999), one of Prudentius' writings, Psychomachia (The Battle for the Mind), was probably his most influential work. In this work, Prudentius describes the development of personality throughout the four stages of life in terms of a continuous battle between the human's rationality and basic animal nature. However, in spite of this conflict, there is an underlying trend towards a resolution where reason will ultimately reign supreme. Prudentius divided his battling entities into two camps, which he referred to as the vices (vitium) and the virtues (virtute). These vices and virtues were described as justice or injustice, hope or despair, charity or envy, faith or idolatry, temperance or anger, fortitude or inconstancy and prudence or folly. Rust (1999) used this structure as a framework for the traits specified in the integrity testing literature and the development of the Giotto integrity test.

Rust (1999) points out that the increased interest in integrity testing follows largely from a recognition that such tests address the attributes of candidates that are most important in the employment of new employees. The same can be said of leaders. In contrast, most of the more traditional personality tests focus on psychiatric diagnosis and are more suitable for the general population than employee populations. Rust (1999) further believes that the medical model implies that a personality profile is merely diagnostic (there are no 'right' or 'wrong' answers), and this may be less valuable in the work context. One way of avoiding clinical personality traits in occupational settings is by using assessments based on the Big Five. However, this may not uncover all the dimensions that affect job performance in light of the fact that only one trait, namely conscientiousness, seems to predict employment success. Organisations seem to require a more comprehensive way of predicting job performance and derailment, of which conscientiousness is but one.

Leadership derailment

According to Hogan et al. (2009), the economic literature clearly shows that good management enhances organisational performance and that some managers are better than others. Kramer (2008) and other critics agree that there is little consensus in the psychological literature on the characteristics of good managers (Hogan, 2007, pp. 106-109). In contrast, Khan, Yusoff and Khan (2014) have categorised derailment factors into five themes: (1) problems with interpersonal relationships, (2) failure to build and lead a team, (3) failure to meet business objectives, (4) inability to change or adapt during a transition and (5) a too narrow functional orientation (Sejeli & Mansor, 2015). This research is important for both economic and moral reasons. Not only does it cost thousands to replace a failed leader but organisational climate surveys also routinely show that about 75% of working adults report that the most stressful aspect of their job is their immediate boss (Khan, Imran, & Anwar, 2019).

In an online survey of 245 employed adults, Curphy (2008) asked employees about how many managers or leaders they had worked for and how many they would be willing to work for again, to which the respondents reported that they would be willing to work for only 38% of their former bosses again. These results are consistent with several published estimates of the frequency of managerial failure. Bentz (1967) pioneered the study of managerial derailment and McCall and Lombardo (1983) replicated and extended Bentz's study by conducting interviews with 20 senior executives from three different corporations. Each executive took part in two interviews, of which one was about a 'successful' executive and one about a 'derailed' executive. This research led to the definition of derailed executives as:

… people who were very successful in their careers (spanning 20-30 years and reaching very high levels) but who, in the eyes of the organisation, did not live up to their full potential. One thing they had in common, however, was that their halted progression was not voluntary. (McCall & Lombardo, 1983, p. 1)

The reasons for derailment in this study corresponded largely with those for derailers identified in a group of female leaders by Morrison, White and Van Velsor (1987), with the exception that females also struggled with the poor image they had in the organisation. In contrast to men, women were less derailed with regard to poor relationships in the organisation.

Lombardo and Eichinger (2004) also identified five themes to classify behaviours associated with derailment. The first theme is 'does not relate well to others', which describes managers as insensitive, unable to adapt to differences, defensive and unwilling to learn from others. The second theme, 'self-centredness', examines whether a manager is overly ambitious, arrogant, apolitical, lacks composure, cannot be trusted and generally lacks appropriate ethics and values. The third theme, 'doesn't inspire or build talent', involves a manager's failure to build a team and staff effectively, and inclination to overmanage direct reports. The fourth theme is referred to as 'too narrow' and illustrates a manager who is non-strategic, overdependent on an advocate, overdependent on a single skill and is key-skill deficient. Finally, the fifth theme, 'doesn't deliver results', relates to a manager's performance problems and poor administrative skills (Tang, Dai, & De Meuse, 2013).

In more recent derailment research by the Centre for Creative Leadership, Gentry, Hannum, Ekelund and De Jong (2007) showed how relationship problems, leadership problems and failure to adapt led to the derailment of middle managers, while Gentry, Mondore and Cox (2007) identified how derailing behaviours are linked to personality. Gentry and Chappelow (2009) found with supporting research on the dynamics of derailment that derailment could, ironically, often result from strengths. Strengths that caused managers to be promoted in the initial phases of their careers could become liabilities in more senior jobs and weaknesses that were tolerated early in a career but eventually matter at more senior levels. Hogan et al. (2009) also warn that success that goes to one's head and events beyond a manager's control can overwhelm intention and effort.

The research findings over the last 30 years have thus produced consistent findings across time, organisations, organisational levels, national culture and even gender. Leadership derailment is a state in which a leader whom an organisation believes to be qualified and capable of assuming higher positions in the organisation, performs below expectation and eventually experiences a career plateau, demotion or job termination (Gentry & Chappelow, 2009). The reasons managers derail and ultimately fail stem from poor business performance, poor leadership, lack of self-control and, especially, lack of relationship management. Many of these include personality-related areas. These problems are often exacerbated by major change and periods of increased stress. This has resulted in more research on leadership and personality (Judge, Bono, Ilies, & Gerhardt, 2002). The research into the Five-Factor Model (FFM) shows that the FFM themes characterise people when they are at their best and define the 'bright side' of personality (Hogan, Curphy, & Hogan, 1994). Personality flaws characterise the 'dark side' of personality (Hogan & Hogan, 2001; Hogan, Raskin, & Fazzini, 1990). Both sets of characteristics are in the realm of normal personality; the dark side characteristics are undesirable in managers but do not meet the clinical criteria for personality disorders.

Another facet of personality is the maladaptive personality-based behaviours or 'derailers', that is, tendencies that manifest under stressful conditions (Guenole, 2014; Hogan, Hogan, & Warrenfeltz, 2007; Khan et al., 2019). Although these scales are thought to be somewhat stable over time, they have also been described as being open to influence and coaching engagements (Dotlich & Cairo, 2003; Hogan & Kaiser, 2010; Nelson & Hogan, 2009). As a result, many organisational development interventions and talent management programmes that take full advantage of these types of measure (e.g. those that reflect observable manifestations of personality), might expect to see changes over time. Also, self-awareness, coaching and individual development efforts should be made with the feedback recipient and/or other environmental or situational factors present (e.g. reward systems used to reinforce behaviour change) (Church et al., 2016).

Studies on derailment therefore focus on traits or factors that can cause a leader to derail from the initial promising career path (Van Velsor & Leslie, 1996). Studies indicate that derailed leaders lack certain positive traits (Torregiante, 2005). These traits, according to researchers from the Centre for Creative Leadership (2013), include social, technical and adaptation skills (Sejeli & Mansor, 2015). Boredom and a lack of social vigilance are also associated with troublesome interpersonal behaviour, when one is 'just being oneself'. Dysfunctional behaviour is also more likely to appear in weak or ambiguous situations (Green & Sedikides, 2001; Koch, 2002) when leaders have too much discretion (Kaiser & Hogan, 2007). Organisational culture can also potentiate dysfunctional behaviour (Balthazard, Cooke, & Potter, 2006; VanFleet & Griffin, 2006). Thus, personality and situational and organisational influences interact to promote dysfunctional behaviours (Tett & Burnett, 2003; Tett & Guterman, 2000). According to Furnham and Taylor (2004), behaviours associated with the dark side include emotional outbursts, bullying, intimidation and excessive deference to authority. Persistently engaging in these behaviours will undermine a manager's ability to lead a high functioning team. Everyone has a bright side and a dark side, and most aspiring managers have attractive bright sides that effectively mask their dark sides.

Derailment can almost always be traced to relationship problems (cf. Van Velsor & Leslie, 1995). When relationships are strong, people will forgive mistakes, but when relationships erode, tolerance disappears and mistakes do get managers fired. Horney's (1950) taxonomy of flawed interpersonal tendencies refers to three general themes: (1) moving away from people - managing insecurities by intimidating and avoiding others; (2) moving against people - managing self-doubts by manipulating and charming others; and (3) moving towards people - managing insecurities by ingratiating others and building alliances.

Derailment occurs when leaders who were perceived to have the ability to move up the career ladder in an organisation, plateau early, and are demoted or fired (Lombardo & Eichinger, 1989). Historically, managerial derailment was conceptualised in terms of lacking critical characteristics for success. Recently, however, several researchers have suggested that derailment is related more to possessing undesirable behaviour rather than lacking desirable behaviour, (Bentz, 1985; Dotlich & Cairo, 2003; Gentry & Chappelow, 2009; Hogan & Hogan, 2001; Hogan & Kaiser, 2005; Rasch, Shen, Davies, & Bono, 2008). In general, research and theories of derailment can be categorised into two types: the behavioural approach and the personality or trait approach (Hogan, Minnullina, Sheppard, Leith, & Crittenden, 2010). The behavioural approach investigates the surface level and observable behavioural patterns associated with management derailment. The personality approach, on the other hand, focuses on the underlying schemas that can be used to explain derailment behaviours. Hogan and Hogan's (2001) theory of the dark side personality is such an example (Tang et al., 2013).

Brown, Trevino and Harrison (2005) propose that a combination of integrity, ethical standards and fair treatment of employees may reduce the risks of derailing in a group of senior leaders. Integrity can therefore be described as a component of leadership. Integrity is seen as a value, whereas leadership is a behaviour in the process of creating an ethical climate. If senior leaders' integrity is highly regarded, they will demonstrate consistency in personal behaviour that is based on moral values (Palanski & Yammarino, 2007). This characteristic of integrity will be a significant driver for senior leaders to engage in ethical behaviour and ethical leadership in an attempt to influence followers (Engelbrecht & Mahembe, 2015). According to Palanski and Yammarino (2007), different theories of leadership refer to a conceptual link between integrity and leadership. Den Hartog and Belschak (2012) also state that leaders integrate integrity, trust and shared values in their own identity. Therefore, a hypothesis can be formed that integrity may reduce the risks of derailing in a group of senior leaders.

In conclusion, Schabracq (2003) refers to integrity as a working life concept and relates integrity to the work stress debate. He argues that workers' sense of experiencing integrity at and in work is vital to expand the understanding of mechanisms causing stress/distress in modern working life, which could contribute to derailment in senior leaders. Schabracq (2003, p. 16) draws on Fromm and Erikson and their elaborations of integrity as the crown in the development of identity. Schabracq further defines integrity as a state of congruence, that is, a state in which we experience continuity and connectedness between our surroundings and ourselves: '[i]ntegrity is used here first in its meaning of an intact whole' (Schabracq, 2003, p. 14). A too narrow functional orientation could cause derailment in senior leaders (Thomassen et al., 2017).

Integrity is thus associated with a moral capacity to maintain and defend specific values. Pressure emanating from the environment may cause leaders to abandon these values, which could derail senior leaders. In a similar vein, Cribb (2011) describes integrity as an 'inner moral compass' guiding the thoughts and actions of senior leaders. Cleary, Walter and Horsfall (2013) argue even more directly for the necessity of senior leaders to stand up for their personal integrity as a reaction to new forms of organising that undermine quality in work (Thomassen et al., 2017). The concept of 'professional derailment' describes the negative psychological experience, which arises when 'professional leaders' experience a discrepancy between integrity and what is practically achievable at work.

In view of the research findings discussed above, the central hypothesis that was investigated in the current study proposes that the components of integrity as positive personality characteristics correlate negatively with flawed interpersonal tendencies, as proposed by Horney (1950). These tendencies are the embodiment of the various undesirable behavioural causes of derailment in senior leaders. In other words, the components of integrity serve to act as meaningful predictors of derailment in senior leaders.

 

Research design

Research approach

A quantitative correlational research design with a cross-sectional survey as the method to collect data in pursuit of the research objectives was followed. In the study, the prevalence of the specific phenomena of integrity and derailment of senior leaders was investigated. Empirical data sets were used in the data analysis process.

 

Research method

Research participants and sampling

A non-probability purposive sample of senior leaders (N = 108) in companies in Southern Africa participated in the study. Men (88.9%) comprised the majority of the participants. The majority of participants were white people (61.1%), followed by black people (23.1%), Indians (10.2%) and mixed race (1.9%). In terms of the country of residence of the sample, South Africans (47.2%) formed the majority of the sample, followed by Malawians (7.0%), Swazis (6.0%), Tanzanians (5.0%) and Mozambicans (4.0%). The majority of participants were between 50 and 54 years of age (27.0%), followed by participants between 55 and 59 years (23.0%). The smallest group of participants were between 25 and 29 years of age (2.0%). The majority of participants had between 5 and 7 years of service (27.0%), followed by those with 3-4 years of service (17.0%). The smallest group of participants (3.0%) had more than 26 years of service experience in their work environment.

Measuring instruments

Giotto Integrity Questionnaire

Integrity was measured by using the Giotto Integrity Questionnaire, which is a work-based personality questionnaire consisting of 101 items. Scores are generated on seven scales based on the Prudentius model of personality. These are: (1) Prudence - related to work proficiency, conscientiousness, reliability, responsibility and consistency; (2) Fortitude - related to work commitment, working with enthusiasm as against only as necessary; (3) Temperance - related to patience, hostility, settling disputes through reconciliation or by aggression; (4) Justice - related to unbiased judgement, being trusting or suspicious in dealings with others; (5) Faith - related to dependability, loyalty, respect; (6) Charity - related to honesty, trustworthiness, openness; and (7) Hope - related to welcoming or resisting change, initiative and energy level. The questionnaire utilises an ipsative format in which forced choice items (Least like me; Most like me) are matched for social desirability. Examples of the items are Shallow, Threatening, Ethical and Unselfish. The intrinsic non-linearity of the ipsative framework is addressed using neural network programming techniques. Giotto has been standardised on 701 people in a variety of employment positions.

Several studies supporting the validity of the Giotto Integrity Questionnaire are reported. High scores on the questionnaire are indicative of high integrity. The questionnaire is registered in South Africa and uses local norms (Rust, 1999). The test has been standardised in South Africa on all race groups and across a broad range of occupational levels. The test conforms to South African labour and equity legislation. The Giotto SA test is classified as a psychological test by the Professional Board of Psychology of the Health Professions Council of South Africa. Professor Ricky Mauer conducted the research on the reliability and predictive validity of the South African version of the test. The Cronbach's alpha coefficient ranged between 0.71 and 0.78, with only that of the Hope scale being slightly lower at 0.65. The prediction validity of the test was explored using match samples of members of the public and perpetrators of financial crimes. Using discriminant analysis, the predictive validity was calculated at 94% (Mauer, 2002). The seven scales are presented in Table 1.

Hogan Development Questionnaire

The Hogan Development Survey (HDS) is an instrument with 154 items, designed to assess 11 'derailer' or maladaptive behavioural dimensions (Excitable, Sceptical, Cautious, Reserved, Leisurely, Bold, Mischievous, Colourful, Imaginative, Diligent and Dutiful) and 33 subscales to help senior leaders recognise shortcomings, maximise strengths and build successful teams (Hogan, 1997). In this scale, respondents indicate to what extent they 'agree' or 'disagree' with the items. Examples of the items are 'sometimes at work I get pretty discouraged', 'I have a reputation as a risk-taker' and 'I like to make a schedule and stick to it'. The measure has been cross-validated with measures of abnormal personality, such as the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory. The internal reliabilities for the scales have been reported in the measure's manual at an average alpha of 0.67, with a test-retest reliability at an average of 0.75. This tool represents the behavioural manifestation type of personality assessment. Table 2 lists the categories described by Hogan and Hogan (2001).

Research procedure and ethical considerations

The purpose of the study was explained to the participants in an email prior to commencing the administration of the questionnaires. This email positioned the assessments as part of a larger leadership development process. Both instruments were administered using the online versions. Participants completed the questionnaires voluntarily and received individual feedback on the assessment results. They also took part in a three-day leadership development programme, which allowed them to explore the results further and share them with their work teams. Based on the assessment results and the feedback they received from their colleagues, they developed their own development plans. Although the leadership development process was very personal in nature, the participants granted permission for the data to be used for research purposes, given that their anonymity was guaranteed. The researchers maintained confidentiality during the analysis and reporting process.

Ethical consideration

This article followed all ethical standards for a research without direct contact with human or animal subjects.

 

Results

In Table 3, the descriptive statistics of the Giotto Integrity Test and the Hogan Derailers Questionnaire are provided. With regard to internal consistency reliability, the Cronbach's alphas for the seven Giotto subscales and the 11 Derailment scales were not computed because of the fact that the item scores were not available, and only the total of the scales was available. The correlations between the scales of the Giotto Integrity Test and the Hogan Derailers Questionnaire were subsequently computed and the results are presented in Table 3.

The results presented in Table 3 show that there are a number of statistically significant (p < 0.05) correlations between the scales of the two instruments. Both statistically and practically significant correlations are reported. An inspection of Table 3 reveals that correlations with a medium or large effect size include the correlations of the Excitable and Leisurely scales of the Hogan with the Hope and Justice Giotto scales. The Cautious and Colourful scales yielded medium to large effect sizes with the Hope Giotto scale, and Diligent yielded a medium effect size correlation with Prudence of the Giotto. The Hope Giotto scale appeared to yield the highest correlations with the various Hogan scales, with Justice in the second position. It is important to note that there were several statistically significant positive correlations that are indicative of high scores on the Giotto scales being associated with high scores on the Hogan scales.

A number of stepwise regression analyses were performed using SPSS24 to assess the degree to which the Giotto scales predict the Hogan scales, in other words, to determine whether the integrity measures may be used to predict derailment. Prior to the regression analyses, the assumptions of regression were assessed. Multicollinearity was assessed by requesting collinearity diagnostics. The normality of residuals was checked by requesting histograms of residuals, while linearity was established by plotting the observed cumulative probability against the expected cumulative probability. Lastly, homoscedasticity was assessed by requesting plots of the standardised predicted values against the standardised residuals. Inspection of these diagnostics showed that the assumptions for regression were met and the analyses were subsequently performed. A series of stepwise regressions was conducted, entering all the Giotto scales as independent variables and establishing which of these were significant predictors of each of the Hogan scales. Effect size measures were used as suggested by Ellis and Steyn (2003). R-squared values smaller than 0.13 were regarded as representing a small effect size or non-significant result. Values between 0.13 and 0.25 were regarded as a medium effect size or a significant result, whereas values larger than 0.25 were deemed to represent a large effect size or a practically important result. A summary of the regression analyses predicting each of the Hogan dimensions by means of the Giotto integrity traits is provided in Table 4.

Table 4 indicates that the Giotto scales predict five of the Hogan scales to a degree that could be regarded as practically significant and are associated with medium to large effect sizes (Ellis & Steyn, 2003). These are Excitable, Cautious, Leisurely, Bold and Colourful. The prediction of Cautious can be described as practically important. The prediction of the remainder of the Hogan scales was practically non-significant. Fortitude, Justice and Hope were significant predictors of Excitable. Low scores on Justice and Hope and high scores on Fortitude were associated with high scores on Excitable.

Hope, Faith and Justice predicted the Cautious scale, with low scores on Hope and high scores on Faith being associated with high scores on the Cautious scale. Low scores on both Hope and Justice were associated with high scores on Leisurely, while low scores on Justice and high scores on Prudence and Hope were associated with high scores on the Bold scale. High scores on Hope and low scores on Faith were associated with high scores on the Colourful scale.

 

Discussion

Outline of the results

In this research, the focus was on the personality of senior leaders, as measured by a personality-based integrity test and the relationship with certain manifestations of behaviour, called derailers, as measured by the Hogan development report. The manifesting behaviour can be studied under normal circumstances but is more commonly identified during times of stress or when leaders overuse a strength (Hogan & Hogan, 2001). Research into leadership derailment is particularly important because it usually involves an organisation's pool of high-potential leaders (Prince, 2005). Other researchers believe that most cases of leadership derailment are predictable and can even be overcome (Sejeli & Mansor, 2015). It is also clear from the available research that derailment tends to occur among senior leaders when they transition into new roles. Gentry and Chappelow (2009), Kovach (1989) and Watkins (2003) agree that derailment is not the result of a lack of technical skills or business acumen, but it is directly related to personality factors.

While it is widely accepted that leaders have both strengths and weaknesses, some of the earliest research seems to indicate that there are six basic clusters of personality flaws associated with leaders who derail. These are described as problems with interpersonal relationships, difficulties in selecting and developing their teams, difficulties in transitioning from a tactical level to a strategic level of work, a lack of follow-through, an overdependence on others and strategic differences with other members of their leadership team (Lombardo & McCauley, 1988). Work-related personality research has also shown how relationship problems, leadership problems and failure to adapt lead to the derailment of managers. In related studies, a number of personality traits were identified that made leaders less likely to derail. In particular, diversity of experience, emotional stability, handling mistakes without defensiveness, interpersonal skills and integrity seem to prevent many leaders from derailing at work (Lombardo & McCauley, 1988). This research was of particular interest to the authors and provided some initial evidence for the relationship between integrity (as part of personality) and derailment at work. The question that arose now was how integrity could prevent leaders from derailing.

The authors were not only interested in how higher levels of integrity could prevent derailment but also how lower levels could potentially lead to derailment. With regard to the latter, it was found that many of the leaders who derailed were ambitious about advancing their careers at the expense of others and that they were also less dependable because they were more likely to betray a trust or break a promise. On the other hand, successful leaders had strong integrity. These leaders were found to be more focused on the immediate task and on subordinates' needs than on competing with colleagues and impressing superiors. They also demanded excellence in problem solving from their subordinates, which they often used as one of the vehicles to develop them (Van Niekerk & May, 2019). The research on the topic has thus progressed significantly over the last 40 years and the authors aspired to contribute to it.

An overview of the literature led the authors to the following conclusions about derailment: (1) derailed senior leaders can be defined as 'people who were very successful in their careers but who, in the eyes of the organisation, did not live up to their full potential' (McCall & Lombardo, 1983). There is also a theme of poor relationships in the organisation, which runs through all the research (Gentry & Chappelow, 2009). (2) The reasons why senior leaders derail and ultimately fail, arise from poor performance, which in turn results from personality dynamics. (3) These problems are often exacerbated by major change and periods of increased stress (Gentry & Chappelow, 2009). (4) Gentry and Chappelow (2009), Kovach (1989) and Watkins (2003) agree that derailment is not the result of a lack of technical skills or business acumen but it is directly related to personality factors. (5) Gentry and Chappelow (2009) found supporting research on the dynamics of derailment to show that derailment could often, ironically, result from strengths or from the overuse of a personality strength which becomes a defence.

The authors further concluded that derailment can be categorised into two types: the behavioural approach and the personality or trait approach. The behavioural approach focuses on the surface level and observable behavioural patterns associated with management derailment. The personality approach, in contrast, focuses on the underlying schemas that can assist in explaining derailment behaviours. This is also commonly called the dark side personality. These maladaptive personality dynamics can be linked directly to work behaviours or 'derailers', which commonly manifest under stressful conditions and are defined as such.

Lombardo and Eichinger (2004), in our opinion, were the first to illustrate that derailment had both behavioural and personality components by identifying the five themes of derailment. These include 'does not relate well to others', 'self-centredness', 'doesn't inspire or build talent', 'too narrow' with regard to strategy and 'doesn't deliver results' (Tang et al., 2013). Gentry and Chappelow (2009) similarly believe that managers derail and ultimately fail as a result of poor business performance, and a lack of leadership, self-control and, especially, relationship management. These are a combination of behavioural and personality elements.

With the realisation that derailment arises from personality characteristics, it was the logical next step to conduct research on the FFM, which shows the characteristics of people at their best, defined as the 'bright side' of personality and the personality flaws as the 'dark side' (Hogan & Hogan, 2001; Hogan et al., 1990; Hogan et al., 1994). Both sets of characteristics are however still within the realm of normal personality because the dark side characteristics, even though undesirable in senior leaders, do not meet the clinical criteria for personality disorders.

Derailment as a result of these personality flaws can almost always be traced to relationship problems (Van Velsor & Leslie, 1995). When relationships are strong, people will forgive mistakes, but when relationships erode, tolerance disappears and mistakes are found, senior leaders are fired. Horney's (1950) taxonomy of flawed interpersonal tendencies refers to three general themes: (1) moving away from people - managing insecurities by intimidating and avoiding others; (2) moving against people - managing self-doubts by manipulating and charming others; and (3) moving towards people - managing insecurities by ingratiating others and building alliances.

The literature also provided valuable information on how integrity could, theoretically, reduce derailment. Brown et al. (2005), for example, propose that the combination of integrity, ethical standards and fair treatment of employees will reduce the risks of derailment and support the importance of investigating integrity as part of a multidimensional perspective of personality. Integrity is thus seen as an integral part of the values component of personality, whereas leadership produces the manifesting behaviour in, for example, the process of creating an ethical climate. If senior leaders' integrity is highly regarded, they will demonstrate consistency in personal behaviour that is based on moral values and this will make them less likely to derail in stressful situations.

With this theoretical understanding at hand, the authors then decided to use an integrity test rather than a personality test because integrity tests represent the complex and multidimensional nature of personality and the results can be linked to both productive and counterproductive behaviours. The authors thus hypothesised about the relationship between integrity and derailment. Are the counterproductive behaviours (derailments) related to lower levels of integrity? Or, in other words, how can the results of an integrity test assist the researchers in predicting some of the derailing behaviours? Can personality dimensions such as conscientiousness lead to counterproductive behaviour or derailment as suggested by Sackett and Wanek (1996)? This seems to happen when senior leaders experience stress in a changing organisation and, in an attempt to maintain control, they overuse a strength by being more conscientious than usual, which ultimately may lead to burnout. In the context of this research, one may, for example, ask whether a high level of fortitude on the Giotto integrity test relates to a high level on dutiful or diligent, which are derailers as measured by the HDS.

The empirical results suggest that the Giotto scales predict five of the Hogan scales to a practically significant degree and are associated with medium to large effect sizes. These are Excitable, Cautious, Leisurely, Bold and Colourful. Cautious was predicted at a level that may be described as practically important. The rest of the Giotto scales did not predict any of the derailers in a significant way, while Fortitude, Justice and Hope were found to be significant predictors of Excitable.

Low scores on Justice and Hope, and high scores on Fortitude, were associated with high scores on Excitable. The Excitable derailer manifests when a person expects to be disappointed in relationships and is on the alert to signs that others may treat them badly. When they think they have been mistreated, they erupt in emotional displays that represent a lack of emotional intelligence (EQ). This behaviour is predicted to manifest when the person has a lower justice or judgement ability, is biased or partial, and is generally dissatisfied, unreasonable and suspicious. They also have low hope, resist change and are easily discouraged. This behaviour may manifest even though the person is generally committed and loyal to the organisation and is a hard worker.

Hope, Faith and Justice predicted the Cautious scale, with low scores on Hope and high scores on Faith being associated with high scores on the Cautious scale. This implies that individuals who derail because of being overly cautious follow the rules and stick to tried and tested ways for themselves and their teams in an attempt not to be criticised, blamed or possibly disgraced can possibly be identified through their low levels of Hope (resisting change, inability to cope with change, passive obstructiveness, being discouraged and disheartened and generally being negative) even if they are fiercely loyal to the organisation and committed to their work (faith).

Low scores on both Hope and Justice were associated with high scores on Leisurely. People who derail on the leisurely dimension seem overtly pleasant and cooperative, but privately they expect to be mistreated and often feel unappreciated. These individuals come across as stubborn and independent minded, with a cynical view on the talents and intentions of others (superiors), and insist on working at their own pace. When pressed for extra output, they slow down instead of speed up. The results seem to indicate that this form of derailment will be observed in people who are low on Hope (a negative future orientation and an inability to cope with change), as well as low on Justice, which includes poor judgement, being biased or partial, bearing grudges and being dissatisfied, unreasonable and suspicious. The bearing of grudges may be of particular importance if this behaviour manifests in relationships that have been in existence for a long time.

While low scores on Justice and high scores on Prudence and Hope were associated with high scores on the Bold scale, people who are high on Bold (arrogance) expect to be admired, praised, indulged and obeyed. They generally believe that they will excel at whatever they do, they believe in their own legacy, and when their expectations are frustrated they explode with 'narcissistic rage'. To others they come across as self-assured which often gives them a certain social presence. They are often the first to speak in a group, and they do so with great confidence, even when they are wrong. This form of derailment can be predicted by low Justice (poor judgement, being biased or partial, bearing grudges and being dissatisfied, unreasonable and suspicious), high Prudence or work proficiency and cautiousness (being prudent and cautious when carrying out tasks, focused on the detail and working accurately and meticulously), which may explain some of their assuredness, and high Hope, which includes being welcoming of change, being optimistic or positive, innovative, resourceful and enthusiastic and having an ability to adapt to change.

High scores on Hope and low scores on Faith were associated with high scores on the Colourful scale. Highly colourful people expect others to find them attractive and entertaining and expect to be the natural focus of attention. They are good at drawing attention to themselves because they know how to make dramatic entrances and exits; they have flair, wear attention-grabbing clothes and act as if they are constantly on stage. They are also impulsive and unpredictable, unfocused, distractible, over-committed and always in search of the spotlight. The results seem to indicate that this form of derailment can be predicted in a high level of Hope (welcoming change, being optimistic or positive, innovative and resourceful, having the ability to adapt to change and enthusiasm) and exists with a low level of Faith, which implies that the person is loyal only to himself or herself, as well as being self-centred and independent minded.

It is also worth mentioning that Hope appears to be a strong predictor of the HDS because it appeared as a predictor in four of the five significant predictions. Justice played a role in three significant predictions and Faith in two. Prudence and Fortitude were present in one significant regression analysis each. In conclusion, the empirical findings confirm the hypothesis and support the general theoretical idea that derailment is associated with integrity.

Practical implications

From a practical point of view, the research findings allow leadership development practitioners, consultants and coaches to assist leaders in identifying the ways in which they will probably derail based on the results of the Giotto integrity test results. Those involved in the development of leaders will also be able to develop the leaders' level of integrity in order to reduce unnecessary derailment at work.

Limitations and recommendations

Some limitations of the research reported should be noted. The first one is the cross-sectional nature of the data of the current study. The observation regarding how dimensions of integrity may reduce the risk of derailment among senior leaders should be validated, using a longitudinal research paradigm. The second one is the sample size of the study. Future studies should also use a larger sample chosen on the basis of greater probability and randomness to ensure that the sample is more representative of senior leaders in companies in Southern Africa. The third limitation is that this study was a single-source study. Multiple sources of data could be considered in future studies, such as leaders' self-assessments of their own integrity and ethical leadership, as well as peer ratings.

Future research and interventions will hopefully empirically examine, refine and expand our theorising to better understand that several of the integrity dimensions measured in the current study acted as significant predictors of derailment. Future studies should also include an integrity framework that has practical implications for organisations and senior leaders. It could be used as a guide or checklist when framing organisational policies and procedures to facilitate behaviour with integrity. For senior leaders it emphasises the need for the alignment of personal values and organisational values in order for a senior leader to act with integrity to curtail the risk of derailment. Secondly, future studies should explore other mediating and moderating variables (e.g. integrity-related personality traits, altruism, psychological empowerment, ethical climate and organisational justice) that may influence integrity in senior leaders. It is also recommended that situational antecedents should be assessed and managed to help identify and minimise the risk of derailment of senior leaders, especially when integrity is low.

 

Conclusion

Notwithstanding the limitations pointed out, this study makes an important contribution in terms of the significance of the relationship between integrity and derailment. In light of the paucity of research on integrity and derailment, the value-add of the present findings lies in the dimensions of integrity that may reduce the risks of derailment in senior leaders. It is apparent from the results that several of the integrity dimensions measured in the current study acted as significant predictors of derailment.

 

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Dr Liezel Korf for the assistance with the statistical analyses.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships which may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

Authors' contributions

P.K. was the project leader of the study. P.K and R.M.O. wrote and approved the final manuscript.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability statement

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views expressed in this article are the authors' own views and not an official position of the organisations.

 

References

Allport, G.W., & Odbert, H.S. (1936). Trait names: A lexical study. Psychological Monographs, 47(1), 211. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0093360        [ Links ]

Balthazard, P.A., Cooke, R.A., & Potter, R.E. (2006). Dysfunctional culture, dysfunctional organization: Capturing the behavioral norms that form organizational culture and drive performance. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 21, 709-732. https://doi.org/10.1108/02683940610713253        [ Links ]

Barnard, A., Schurink, W., & De Beer, M. (2008). A conceptual framework of integrity. South African Journal of Industrial Psychology, 34(2), 40-49. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v34i2.427        [ Links ]

Bentz, V.J. (1967). The Sears experience in the investigation, description, and prediction of executive behavior. In F.R. Wickert, & D.E. McFarland (Eds.), Measuring executive effectiveness (pp. 147-206). New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.         [ Links ]

Bentz, V.J. (1985). A view of the top: A thirty-year perspective of research devoted to the discovery, description and prediction of executive behavior. Paper presented at the Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Los Angeles, CA, August 23-27.         [ Links ]

Bergman, J. (1926). Aurelli Prudenti Clementis. Corpus Scriptorum Ecceliasticorum Latinorum 61. Vienna: Hoelder-Pichler-Tempsky A.G.         [ Links ]

Brown, M.E., Trevino, L.K., & Harrison, D. (2005). Ethical leadership: A social learning perspective for construct development and testing. Organisational Behaviour and Human Decision Processes, 97, 117-134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2005.03.002        [ Links ]

Camara, W.J., & Schneider, D.L. (1994). Integrity tests: Facts and unresolved issues. American Psychologist, 49, 112-119. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.49.2.112        [ Links ]

Centre for Creative Leadership. (2013). 360 By design: Library of competencies and derailment factors. Retrieved from http://www.ccl.org/leadership/pdf/assessments/360BDLibraryCompetencies        [ Links ]

Church, A.H., Fleck, C.R., Foster, G.C., Levine, R.C., Lopez, F.J., & Rotolo, C.T. (2016). Does purpose matter? The stability of personality assessments in organization development and talent management applications over time. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 52(4), 450-481. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021886316668748        [ Links ]

Cleary, M., Walter, G., & Horsfall, J. (2013). Promoting integrity in the workplace: A priority for all academic professionals. Contemporary Nurse, 45(2), 264-268. https://doi.org/10.5172/conu.2013.45.2.264        [ Links ]

Collins, J.M., & Schmidt, F.L. (1993). Integrity, personality and white-collar crime: A construct validity study. Personnel Psychology, 46, 295-311. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.1993.tb00875.x        [ Links ]

Cribb, A. (2011). Integrity at work: Managing routine moral stress in professional roles. Nursing Philosophy, 12, 119-127. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1466-769X.2011.00484.x        [ Links ]

Cullen, M.J., & Sackett, P. (2004). Integrity testing in the workplace. In J.C. Thomace (Ed.), The comprehensive handbook of psychological testing (Vol. 4). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.         [ Links ]

Curphy, G.J. (2008). Dr Gordy test results. Retrieved from http://www.leadershipkeynote.net/on.         [ Links ]

Den Hartog, D.N., & Belschak, F.D. (2012). Work engagement and Machiavellianism in the ethical leadership process. Journal of Business Ethics, 107, 35-47. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-012-1296-4        [ Links ]

Dotlich, D.L., & Cairo, P.C. (2003). Why CEOs fail. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.         [ Links ]

Ellis, S.M., & Steyn, H.S. (2003). Practical significance (effect sizes) versus or in combination with statistical significance (p-values). Management Dynamics, 12(4), 51-53.         [ Links ]

Engelbrecht, A.S., & Mahembe, B. (2015). The influence of integrity and ethical leadership on trust in the leader. Management Dynamics, 24(1), 2-10.         [ Links ]

Furnham, A., & Taylor, J. (2004). The dark side of behaviour at work: Understanding and avoiding employees leaving, thieving, and deceiving. Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan.         [ Links ]

Gentry, W.A., & Chappelow, C. (2009). Managerial derailment: Weaknesses that can be fixed. In R.B. Kaiser (Ed.), The perils of accentuating the positive (pp. 97-114). Tulsa, OK: Hogan Press.         [ Links ]

Gentry, W.A., Hannum, K.M., Ekelund, B.Z., & De Jong, A. (2007). A study of the discrepancy between self- and observer-ratings on managerial derailment characteristics of European managers. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 16, 295-325. https://doi.org/10.1080/13594320701394188        [ Links ]

Gentry, W.A., Mondore, S.P., & Cox, B.D. (2007). An exploratory study of managerial derailment characteristics and personality preferences. Journal of Management Development, 26, 857-873. https://doi.org/10.1108/02621710710819348        [ Links ]

Goleman, D. (1997). Beyond IQ: Developing the leadership competencies of emotional intelligence, in 2nd International Competency Conference, 10-11 October 1997, London: n.p.         [ Links ]

Green, J.D., & Sedikides, C. (2001). When do self-schemas shape social perception? The role of descriptive ambiguity. Motivation and Emotion, 25, 67-83. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1010611922816        [ Links ]

Guenole, N. (2014). Maladaptive personality at work: Exploring the darkness. Industrial and Organizational Psychology: Perspectives on Science and Practice, 7, 85-97. https://doi.org/10.1111/iops.12114        [ Links ]

Hogan, R. (1997). Hogan development survey manual. Tulsa, OK: Hogan Assessment Systems.         [ Links ]

Hogan, R. (2007). Personality and the fate of organizations. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.         [ Links ]

Hogan, E.J., Minnullina, G., Sheppard, L.J., Leith, I.D., & Crittenden, P.D. (2010). Response of phosphomonoesterase activity in the lichen Cladonia portentosa to nitrogen and phosphorus enrichment in a field manipulation experiment. New Phytologist, 186(4), 926-933.         [ Links ]

Hogan, R., Curphy, G.J., & Hogan, J. (1994). What we know about leadership: Effectiveness and personality. American Psychologist, 49, 493-504. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.49.6.493        [ Links ]

Hogan, R., & Hogan, J. (2001). Assessing leadership: A view of the dark side. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 9, 40-51. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-2389.00162        [ Links ]

Hogan, J., Hogan, R., & Kaiser, R.B. (2009). Management derailment, personality assessment and mitigation. In S. Zedeck (Ed.), American Psychological Association handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (vol. 3, pp. 555-575). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.         [ Links ]

Hogan, R., Hogan, J., & Warrenfeltz, R. (2007). The Hogan guide: Interpretation and use of Hogan inventories. Tulsa, OK: Hogan Assessment Systems.         [ Links ]

Hogan, R., & Kaiser, R.B. (2005). What we know about leadership. Review of General Psychology, 9(2), 169-180. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.9.2.169        [ Links ]

Hogan, R., & Kaiser, R.B. (2010). Personality. In J.C. Scott & D.H. Reynolds (Eds.), The handbook of workplace assessment: Evidenced based practices for selecting and developing organizational talent (pp. 81-108). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.         [ Links ]

Hogan, R., Raskin, R., & Fazzini, D. (1990). The dark side of charisma. In K.E. Clark & M.B. Clark (Eds.), Measures of leadership (pp. 343-354). West Orange, NJ: Leadership.         [ Links ]

Horney, K. (1950). Neurosis and human growth. New York: Norton.         [ Links ]

Judge, T.A., Bono, J.E., Ilies, R., & Gerhardt, M.W. (2002). Personality and leadership: A qualitative and quantitative review. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 765-780. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.87.4.765        [ Links ]

Kaiser, R.B., & Hogan, R. (2007). The dark side of discretion: Leader personality and organizational decline. In R. Hooijberg, J. Hunt, J. Antonakis, & K. Boal (Eds.), Being there even when you are not: Leading through strategy, systems and structures. Monographs in leadership and management (Vol. 4, pp. 177-197). London: Elsevier Science.         [ Links ]

Khan, F., Yusoff, R.M., & Khan, A. (2014). Job demands, burnout and resources in teaching a conceptual review. World Applied Sciences Journal, 30(1), 20-28.         [ Links ]

Khan, N.Z.A., Imran, A., & Anwar, A. (2019). Destructive leadership and job stress: Causal effect of emotional exhaustion on job satisfaction of employees in call centres. International Journal of Information, Business and Management, 11(1), 135.         [ Links ]

Koch, E.J. (2002). Relational schemas, self-esteem, and the processing of social stimuli. Self and Identity, 1, 271-279. https://doi.org/10.1080/152988602760124883        [ Links ]

Kovach, B.E. (1989). Successful derailment: What fast-trackers can learn while they're off the track. Organizational Dynamics, 18(2), 33-47. https://doi.org/10.1016/0090-2616(89)90041-7        [ Links ]

Kramer, R.J. (2008). Have we learned anything about leadership development? Conference Board Review, 45, 26-30.         [ Links ]

Lombardo, M.M., & Eichinger, R.W. (1989). Preventing derailment: What to do before it's too late. Greensboro, NC: Center for Creative Leadership.         [ Links ]

Lombardo, M.M., & Eichinger, R.W. (2004). The leadership machine. Minneapolis, MN: Lominger.         [ Links ]

Lombardo, M.M., & McCauley, C.D. (1988). The dynamics of management derailment. Technical Report No. 34. Greensboro, NC: Center For Creative Leadership.         [ Links ]

Marks, L.M. (2007). Framework for facilitating adaptation. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 20(5), 721-739. https://doi.org/10.1108/09534810710779126        [ Links ]

McCall, M.W. Jr., & Lombardo, M.M. (1983). Off the track: Why and how successful executives get derailed. Technical Report No. 21. Greensboro, NC: Center for Creative Leadership.         [ Links ]

Monga, M. (2016). Integrity and its antecedent: A unified conceptual framework of integrity. The Journal of Developing Areas, 50(5), 415-421.         [ Links ]

Morrison, A.M., White, R.P., & Van Velsor, E. (1987). Breaking the glass ceiling. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.         [ Links ]

Mauer, K.F. (2002). A comparison of tests of integrity registered with the Professional Board for Psychology. Prepared for Nedcor, January, pp. 1-79.         [ Links ]

Nazir, T., & Shah, S.F.H. (2014). Mediating effect of knowledge sharing between participative decision making, transformational leadership and organization performance. Journal of Management Info, 1(1), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.31580/jmi.v1i1.2        [ Links ]

Nelson, E., & Hogan, R. (2009). Coaching on the dark side. International Coaching Psychology Review, 4, 9-21.         [ Links ]

Ones, D.S., Viswesvaran, C., & Schmidt, F.L. (1993). Comprehensive meta-analysis of integrity test validities: Findings and implications for personnel selection and theories of job performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 679-703. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.78.4.679        [ Links ]

Ones, D.S., Viswesvaran, C., & Schmidt, F.L. (1995). Integrity tests: Overlooked facts, resolved issues, and remaining questions about predictive validity, construct validity, and in-house research. American Psychologist, 50, 456-457. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.50.6.456        [ Links ]

Palanski, M.E., & Yammarino, F.J. (2007). Integrity and leadership: Clearing the conceptual confusion. European Management Journal, 25(3), 171-184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.emj.2007.04.006        [ Links ]

Palanski, M.E., & Yammarino, F.J. (2009). Integrity and leadership: A multi-level conceptual model. The Leadership Quarterly, 20(3), 405-420. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2009.03.008        [ Links ]

Perschel, A. (2009). Avoiding the high cost of executive mis-fits. ZurickDavis Great People, Great Results, pp. 2-4.         [ Links ]

Prince, D.W. (2005). Avoiding executive derailment: Individual and organisational responsibilities. Business Leadership Review, 2(1), 99-121.         [ Links ]

Rasch, R., Shen, W., Davies, S.E., & Bono, J. (2008). The development of a taxonomy of ineffective leadership behaviour. Paper presented at the 23rd Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, San Francisco, CA, April 10-12.         [ Links ]

Rust, J. (1999). The validity of the Giotto Integrity Test. Personality and Individual Differences, 27, 755-768. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(98)00277-3        [ Links ]

Sackett, P.R., Burris, L.R., & Callahan, C. (1989). Integrity testing for personnel selection: An update. Personnel Psychology, 2, 491-529. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.1989.tb00666.x        [ Links ]

Sackett, P.R., & Wanek, J.E. (1996). New developments in the use of measures of honesty, integrity, conscientiousness, dependability, trustworthiness and reliability for personnel selection. Personnel Psychology, 49(4), 787-830. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.1996.tb02450.x        [ Links ]

Schabracq, M.J. (2003). Everyday well-being and stress in work and organisations. In M.J. Schabracq, J.A.M. Winnubst, & C.L. Cooper (Eds.), The handbook of work & health psychology (pp. 9-36). West Sussex: Wiley.         [ Links ]

Schmidt, F.L., Ones, D.S., & Hunter, J.E. (1992). Personnel selection. Annual Review of Psychology, 43, 627-670. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ps.43.020192.003211        [ Links ]

Sejeli, D.S., & Mansor, N.A. (2015). Leadership derailment: Does self-leadership matter? International Journal of Economics and Financial Issues, 5, 22-26.         [ Links ]

Shipper, F., & Dillard, J. (2000). A study of impending derailment and recovery of middle managers across career stages. Human Resource Management, 39, 331-347.         [ Links ]

Smart, B.D. (1999). Topgrading. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.         [ Links ]

Tang, K.Y., Dai, G., & De Meuse, K.P. (2013). Assessing leadership derailment factors in 3601 feedback differences across position levels and self-other agreement. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 34(4), 326-343. https://doi.org/10.1108/LODJ-07-2011-0070        [ Links ]

Tett, R.P., & Burnett, D.B. (2003). A personality trait based interactionist model of job performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 500-517. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.3.500        [ Links ]

Tett, R.P., & Guterman, H.A. (2000). Situation trait relevance, trait expression, and cross-situational consistency: Testing a principle of trait activation. Journal of Research in Personality, 34, 397-423. https://doi.org/10.1006/jrpe.2000.2292        [ Links ]

Thomassen, O.J., Strand, R., & Heggen, K. (2017). Exploring the concept of integrity: Toward a craft-inspired interpretation. Nordic Journal of Working Life Studies, 7(2), 39-50. https://doi.org/10.18291/njwls.v7iS2.96694        [ Links ]

Thompson, H.J. (1949). Prudentius (Latin with an English translation). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.         [ Links ]

Torregiante, K.M. (2005). Destructive personality traits and leadership performance: A pattern-oriented approach. Master's dissertation. North Carolina University.         [ Links ]

VanFleet, D.D., & Griffin, R.W. (2006). Dysfunctional organization culture: The role of leadership in motivating dysfunctional work behaviors. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 21, 698-708. https://doi.org/10.1108/02683940610713244        [ Links ]

Van Niekerk, A., & May, M.S. (2019). Co-constructing integrity: A conceptual framework. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology/SA Tydskrif vir Bedryfsielkunde, 45(0), a1498. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v45i0.1498        [ Links ]

Van Velsor, E., & Leslie, J.B. (1995). Why executives derail: Perspectives across time and cultures. Academy of Management Review, 9, 62-72. https://doi.org/10.5465/ame.1995.9512032194        [ Links ]

Van Velsor, E., & Leslie, J.B. (1996). Why executives derail: Perspectives across time and cultures. Academy of Management Executives, 9(4), 62-73. https://doi.org/10.5465/ame.1995.9512032194        [ Links ]

Van Velsor, E., McCauley, C.D., & Ruderman, M.N. (2010). The Center for Creative Leadership handbook of leadership development. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass-Wiley.         [ Links ]

Watkins, M. (2003). The first 90 days. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School Press.         [ Links ]

 

 

Correspondence:
Rudolf Oosthuizen
Oosthrm@unisa.ac.za

Received: 02 Apr. 2019
Accepted: 23 July 2019
Published: 21 Oct. 2019

^rND^sAllport^nG.W.^rND^sOdbert^nH.S.^rND^sBalthazard^nP.A.^rND^sCooke^nR.A.^rND^sPotter^nR.E.^rND^sBarnard^nA.^rND^sSchurink^nW.^rND^sDe Beer^nM.^rND^sBentz^nV.J.^rND^sBrown^nM.E.^rND^sTrevino^nL.K.^rND^sHarrison^nD.^rND^sCamara^nW.J.^rND^sSchneider^nD.L.^rND^sChurch^nA.H.^rND^sFleck^nC.R.^rND^sFoster^nG.C.^rND^sLevine^nR.C.^rND^sLopez^nF.J.^rND^sRotolo^nC.T.^rND^sCleary^nM.^rND^sWalter^nG.^rND^sHorsfall^nJ.^rND^sCollins^nJ.M.^rND^sSchmidt^nF.L.^rND^sCribb^nA.^rND^sCullen^nM.J.^rND^sSackett^nP.^rND^sDen Hartog^nD.N.^rND^sBelschak^nF.D.^rND^sEllis^nS.M.^rND^sSteyn^nH.S.^rND^sEngelbrecht^nA.S.^rND^sMahembe^nB.^rND^sGentry^nW.A.^rND^sChappelow^nC.^rND^sGentry^nW.A.^rND^sHannum^nK.M.^rND^sEkelund^nB.Z.^rND^sDe Jong^nA.^rND^sGentry^nW.A.^rND^sMondore^nS.P.^rND^sCox^nB.D.^rND^sGoleman^nD.^rND^sGreen^nJ.D.^rND^sSedikides^nC.^rND^sGuenole^nN.^rND^sHogan^nE.J.^rND^sMinnullina^nG.^rND^sSheppard^nL.J.^rND^sLeith^nI.D.^rND^sCrittenden^nP.D.^rND^sHogan^nR.^rND^sCurphy^nG.J.^rND^sHogan^nJ.^rND^sHogan^nR.^rND^sHogan^nJ.^rND^sHogan^nJ.^rND^sHogan^nR.^rND^sKaiser^nR.B.^rND^sHogan^nR.^rND^sKaiser^nR.B.^rND^sHogan^nR.^rND^sKaiser^nR.B.^rND^sHogan^nR.^rND^sRaskin^nR.^rND^sFazzini^nD.^rND^sJudge^nT.A.^rND^sBono^nJ.E.^rND^sIlies^nR.^rND^sGerhardt^nM.W.^rND^sKaiser^nR.B.^rND^sHogan^nR.^rND^sKhan^nF.^rND^sYusoff^nR.M.^rND^sKhan^nA.^rND^sKhan^nN.Z.A.^rND^sImran^nA.^rND^sAnwar^nA.^rND^sKoch^nE.J.^rND^sKovach^nB.E.^rND^sKramer^nR.J.^rND^sMarks^nL.M.^rND^sMonga^nM.^rND^sNazir^nT.^rND^sShah^nS.F.H.^rND^sNelson^nE.^rND^sHogan^nR.^rND^sOnes^nD.S.^rND^sViswesvaran^nC.^rND^sSchmidt^nF.L.^rND^sOnes^nD.S.^rND^sViswesvaran^nC.^rND^sSchmidt^nF.L.^rND^sPalanski^nM.E.^rND^sYammarino^nF.J.^rND^sPalanski^nM.E.^rND^sYammarino^nF.J.^rND^sPrince^nD.W.^rND^sRust^nJ.^rND^sSackett^nP.R.^rND^sBurris^nL.R.^rND^sCallahan^nC.^rND^sSackett^nP.R.^rND^sWanek^nJ.E.^rND^sSchabracq^nM.J.^rND^sSchmidt^nF.L.^rND^sOnes^nD.S.^rND^sHunter^nJ.E.^rND^sSejeli^nD.S.^rND^sMansor^nN.A.^rND^sShipper^nF.^rND^sDillard^nJ.^rND^sTang^nK.Y.^rND^sDai^nG.^rND^sDe Meuse^nK.P.^rND^sTett^nR.P.^rND^sBurnett^nD.B.^rND^sTett^nR.P.^rND^sGuterman^nH.A.^rND^sThomassen^nO.J.^rND^sStrand^nR.^rND^sHeggen^nK.^rND^sVanFleet^nD.D.^rND^sGriffin^nR.W.^rND^sVan Niekerk^nA.^rND^sMay^nM.S.^rND^sVan Velsor^nE.^rND^sLeslie^nJ.B.^rND^sVan Velsor^nE.^rND^sLeslie^nJ.B.^rND^1A01^nRudolf M.^sOosthuizen^rND^1A02^nClaude-Hélène^sMayer^rND^1A01^nRudolf M.^sOosthuizen^rND^1A02^nClaude-Hélène^sMayer^rND^1A01^nRudolf M^sOosthuizen^rND^1A02^nClaude-Hélène^sMayer

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

At the edge of the Fourth Industrial Revolution: Employees' perceptions of employment equity from a CIBART perspective

 

 

Rudolf M. Oosthuizen^I; Claude-Hélène Mayer^II

^IDepartment of Industrial and Organisational Psychology, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa
^IIDepartment of Industrial Psychology and People Management, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

---

ABSTRACT

ORIENTATION: In accordance with global trends, South Africa is striving for the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR). Discourses of employees' employment equity (EE) perceptions within the 4IR context are studied 25 years after apartheid
RESEARCH PURPOSE: The purpose of the study was to understand the systems psychodynamics underneath the surface of employees' perceptions of EE in South Africa within the context of the 4IR
MOTIVATION FOR THE STUDY: South African workplaces are debated nationally and urged to compete with 4IR changes on a global level. This research focuses on employees' perceptions of EE underneath the surface and aims at understanding employees' perceptions through the conflict, identity, boundaries, authority, roles, task (CIBART) model.
RESEARCH APPROACH/DESIGN AND METHOD: Altogether 83 employees in 11 organisations in South Africa participated in qualitative interviews regarding their perceptions and experiences within their changing work contexts.
MAIN FINDINGS: The findings indicate employees' perceptions of EE in terms of conflict, identity, boundary, authority, roles and tasks of the CIBART model. The discourses highlight EE, race and gender within contemporary South Africa, and show a lack of drive to engage with the discourses of the 4IR on a global level
PRACTICAL/MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS: The findings show that employees and organisations in South Africa need to open up their internal discourses anchored in the country's past to become key players in the 4IR; apartheid categories need to be overcome to develop context-specific visions and original ideas on how to create 4IR workspaces in the future.
CONTRIBUTION/VALUE-ADD: This article emphasises the gap between national discourses and global trends in employees' perceptions of EE and discusses transformational ideas from after apartheid to 4IR visions.

Keywords: Employment Equity (EE); workplace perceptions; below the workplace surface; CIBART model; Fourth Industrial Revolution.

---

 

 

Introduction

South African workplaces are striving towards the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) (Jansen van Rensburg, Telukdarie, & Dhamija, 2019), a term created in Germany, relating to cutting-edge technology activity, innovations, digital physical frameworks, the Internet of things and distributed computing (Calitz, Poisat, & Cullen, 2017). South African workplaces are affected by global changes and trends towards the 4IR, while conducting national discourses on employment equity (EE).

Organisations are encountering both cost decreases and income gains from their propelled digitalisation endeavours (Geissbauer, Vedsø, & Schrauf, 2016), including the full digitalisation of an organisation's tasks and the upgrade of items and administrations. Also, a closer connection with clients (Ind4.0, 2016), influencing the accompanying regions, such as administration and plans of action, unwavering quality and constant efficiency and the employees' instruction and abilities (training) and financial components (Calitz et al., 2017). The idea of the 4IR further portrays the subsequent interconnection of individuals and constant information trade (Spath et al., 2013), as well as smart objects becoming inserted in more extensive frameworks (Hecklaua, Galeitzke, Flachsa, & Kohl, 2016). The concept of the 4IR describes the increasing digitisation of the entire value chain and the resulting interconnection of people, objects and systems through real-time data exchange (Spath et al., 2013).

This manuscript centres around the perspectives of employees on work and organisation within the 4IR changes. As from the execution of the Employment Equity Act (EEA) (Basson, 2017), changes towards a progressively comprehensive, vote-based workforce has been actualised (Moraka & Jansen van Rensburg, 2015). These progressions appear to be 'superficial' as far as hierarchical changes and acclimation to 4IR necessities are needed (Herman, 2017). Organisations in South Africa are required by law to display EE; however, racial workplace segregation in South Africa continues (Zulu & Parumasur, 2009). Racial standards still do not coordinate with the societal statistic profile (Mayer & Barnard, 2015; Surtee & Hall, 2009) and solid discourses on expansionism, politically sanctioned racial segregation and workplace post-colonialism have emerged (Masombuka, 2016). A gradual change towards EE appears in workplaces (Breetzke & Hedding, 2016); however, how to address EE in a 4IR context remains in question (Louw, 2015; Oosthuizen, Tonelli, & Mayer, 2019).

 

Purpose and contribution

South African workplaces find themselves in national discourses on EE and 4IR transformations. This research focuses on employees' perceptions of EE under the surface, through the systems psychodynamic conflict, identity, boundaries, authority, roles, task (CIBART) model within the context of the 4IR. It provides new insights in burning issues in South African workplaces through the lens of the CIBART model.

 

Employment equity and the Fourth Industrial Revolution in South Africa

In a way, international trends define South Africa's ways of doing business and executing collaborative EE work practices. Automotive suppliers and component manufacturers have actualised community-orientated workspaces and the broad utilisation of collaborative robots (cobots), which are progressively seen as colleagues. A South African workforce that must create trust, having a culture of human-human coordinated effort and dread of joblessness, will require new EE practices in a cutting-edge 4IR workplace (Calitz et al., 2017). The South African government, organisations and society need to collaborate to develop a responsible EE approach and policies that govern the impact of the 4IR and create a pool of leaders with a deep and complex understanding of the interplay between 4IR technology and its effect on society (Hecklaua et al., 2016; Porter & Heppelmann, 2015; Stubbings, 2018).

The South African government will need to address topics such as unemployment, testing social safety nets, questions around universal basic income and identifying new income sources. South Africa will increasingly have to visualise radical new workplace trends and adjust EE approaches (Stubbings, 2018). As the 'typical' linear career path ceases to exist, perceptions of the value of the new norm of a 'portfolio career' must change. For many employees, job mobility, constant retraining and rotation will become a crucial way of improving their adaptability, employability and usefulness to society (Kagermann et al., 2013) while adjusting EE policies and racial transformation in workplaces (Oosthuizen et al., 2019). Organisations are faced with an array of choices when contemplating the future of the 4IR, requiring an understanding of the future workplace options (Ind4.0, 2016).

Organisations can build a future-orientated understanding of humans-machines collaboration to deliver a corporate purpose. The values and behaviours that underpin EE policies, processes, decision-making and priorities should be clarified. Organisations should develop sophisticated EE policies that support workforce planning and predictive analytics to manage talent in multiple future scenarios and explore how technology can enhance people offering for potential and existing employees (Dorst, Hahn, Knafla, Loewen, & Rosen, 2015). Organisations should think beyond simplistic concepts such as 'complying with EE targets and quotas'. New ways of working and learning and radically different career paths are imperative. Organisations ought to have the freedom to redesign traditional 'one-size-fits-all' EE programmes and policies to deliver on new learning and development models, career paths, capability models and the redesign of EE jobs and compensation frameworks (Porter & Heppelmann, 2015). Future work relations in South Africa will be widely affected by EE and 4IR improvements on conscious and unconscious levels.

 

Systems psychodynamics and the CIBART model

Systems psychodynamic theories give a hierarchical way to deal with the comprehension and clarifying of systemic structures (Steyn & Cilliers, 2016) and the study of affect in organisations (Dashtipour & Vidaillet, 2017). Anxiety is seen as a noteworthy power in open systems and is relied upon to cause mental agony, which the system at that point guards itself against. Defence mechanisms may fluctuate in responses, for example, splitting, projection, projective identification and idealisation (Blackman, 2004). Only if the system addresses the anxiety and integrates positive and negative aspects of itself can it cater for objective human relations to finally contain the anxiety (Cytrynbaum & Noumair, 2004; Mayer, Oosthuizen, Tonelli, & Surtee, 2018a; Mayer, Tonelli, Oosthuizen, & Surtee, 2018b; Geldenhuys, 2012).

Steyn and Cilliers (2016) provide an overview of five possible group behaviour reactions to manage anxiety in the system, such as: (1) relating to an imaginative caring parental figure, (2) pairing up of individuals and/or powerful objects to manage the pain of anxiety, (3) fight or flight against an (imaginative) enemy, (4) oneness or we-ness to create individuality, while joining in a force to experience health, and (5) me-ness, in the way of denouncing or detaching from the group affiliation to cope with emotional demands. In this study, the researchers used the CIBART model to analyse and interpret the potential impact of system psychodynamics in EE in the 4IR South African context (Cilliers & Koortzen, 2005). The model consists of six interrelated constructs in exploring intrapersonal, interpersonal and inter-group conflicts. The constructs are conflict, identity, boundary, authorisation, role and task. These can be described as follows:

C - Conflict: Conflict refers to splits experienced within the self, between the self and others, inside groups and between groups (Cilliers & Koortzen, 2005; Koortzen & Cilliers, 2007). Conflict arises because of the unconscious anxiety inherent in the workplace and employees' exposure to the good and bad parts of the system (Steyn & Cilliers, 2016). Conflict may show intra-psychologically (inside the employee), for instance, between own dynamics and values and those required by the EE job of an employee. The conflict can conceivably additionally be relational, between the employee and the business or between the employee and direct line supervisor. Employees may likewise utilise defence mechanisms, for example, projection to guarantee that the EE work environment is protected and tolerating. Employees will endeavour to make tracks in an opposite direction from this uneasiness by utilising fight or flight as defence mechanism (Mayer et al., 2018a, 2018b).

I - Identity: Identity refers to the realisation of what the individual leader stands for and what lies within one's own boundary (Cilliers & Koortzen, 2005; Koortzen & Cilliers, 2007). Thus, Identity refers to the integration of the right to perform the primary task as officially sanctioned by the system represented by leaders from above, colleagues from the side, subordinates from below and by employees themselves from within - the system's uniqueness through its psychological characteristics (Mayer et al., 2018a, 2018b). A challenge, which employees may have in such a manner, identifies with employees' endeavours to incorporate the character elements of being an EE employee, into their current personality. This incorporates better approaches for being, having new mental models and coordinating various new capabilities, abilities and practices, which are not customarily part of their organisational roles (Mayer et al., 2018a, 2018b). The reconciliation of these and the introduction of this 'new' personality in the organisation, just as the acknowledgment of this by the organisation, are a portion of the difficulties which employees need to cope with (Steyn & Cilliers, 2016).

B - Boundaries: Boundary refers to the line and/or space between parts of the system, the individual, the interpersonal relationship as well as the group of individuals (Cilliers & Koortzen, 2005; Koortzen & Cilliers, 2007). The contentions and anxiety related to dealing with the time boundaries may identify with fitting in the extra EE errands into the functional roles of employees. With respect to the space boundary, employees should cross into the region of different departments in the organisation to direct EE evaluations and may encounter tension with regard to the manner in which they expect to be acknowledged in these boundaries and the dimension of authorisation they will get here (Mayer et al., 2018a, 2018b; Steyn & Cilliers, 2016).

A - Authority: Authority refers to the right to perform the primary task as officially sanctioned by the system represented by leaders from above, colleagues from the side, subordinates from below and by employees themselves from within (Cilliers & Koortzen, 2005; Koortzen & Cilliers, 2007; Mayer et al., 2018a, 2018b; Steyn & Cilliers, 2016). In the event that every one of the three dimensions is absent, the employee will experience issues when fulfilling an EE agent role successfully.

R - Role: Role refers to the boundary around a set of tasks, duties and responsibilities on a specific level of authority and manifests as the normative (the conscious and explicit content), the existential (the employee's introjected past experiences and personality traits such as values and preferences) and the phenomenal part (the projections that the employee receives significantly from others in the organisational system) (Cytrynbaum & Noumair, 2004; Czander, 1993; Obholzer & Roberts, 1994), for instance, EE agent versus psychologist, EE agent versus tutor and EE agent versus functional manager. The apprehensions of role perplexity, role overlap and role conflicts may possibly affect the adequacy with which employees take up their roles (Cilliers & Koortzen, 2005; Koortzen & Cilliers, 2007; Mayer et al., 2018a, 2018b; Steyn & Cilliers, 2016).

T - Task: Task is the basic building block of work. Employees may be involved in primary and secondary task functioning as well as off-task and anti-task behaviour (Steyn & Cilliers, 2016). Task boundaries are a standout amongst the most essential boundaries that provide guidance to employees and contain their anxiety. It is important to get lucidity about EE task execution. Perplexity may prompt anti-task behaviour and off-task behaviour (Cilliers & Koortzen, 2005). Off-task behaviour can, for instance, manifest when the EE agent assumes liability for the advancement and learning of employees, while anti-task behaviour can manifest if the EE agent associates with the authoritative governmental issues and relational conflict of workers (Mayer et al., 2018a, 2018b).

 

Research design

This study is based on a qualitative research approach inside the hermeneutic-phenomenological inquiry about the world view (Collins & Hussey, 2014) to investigate people's work lives and social universes in-depth (Hassan & Ghauri, 2014) from a social constructivist point of view (Creswell, 2013). This point of view is orientated towards lived encounters to yield rich and detailed depictions of EE (Ramgoolam, 2005) ‒ along these lines concentrating on the verstehen (understanding) of the lived involvement (Dilthey, 2002). Phenomenology refers to an interpretive procedure where the researchers intervene between various implications of the significance of lived encounters (Creswell, 2013).

A hermeneutic way to deal with the various contextual analyses (Yin, 2009) enabled the researchers to investigate the information from the viewpoint of the researcher and the context created (Grix, 2010; Hoggett & Clarke, 2009). This study used twofold hermeneutics to interpret the voices of the participants and their comprehension of EE in the 4IR changes. Twofold hermeneutics include the reflexivity of the researchers and the inclusion of the voices of the researched within their context (Hoggett& Clarke, 2009).

 

Research method

A qualitative study reflects that the diversity of individual viewpoints on the specified topic of EE in the 4IR will potentially reveal new or dissimilar themes (Yin, 2009; Zach, 2006).

Research setting

The study is based on South African public and private organisations (see Table 1; Department of Labour, 2002; Government Gazette, 2014; Thomas, 2003).

 

 

Entrée and establishing researcher roles

Organisations from both the public and private sectors that agreed to EE enactment were approached by the researchers and welcomed to take part in the research. Consent was obtained from the organisations to conduct the study. The researchers introduced themselves and a trusting relationship was created between the organisation and the researchers and the participants and the researchers. The researchers made themselves known to the participants, responded to all questions and explained ethical considerations of the study.

Sampling

Eleven organisations took part in this research. Employees from these organisations were acquired through purposeful sampling procedures (Welman, Kruger, & Mitchell, 2012), which depended on consideration criteria, for example, race, gender, language competency (employees were required to speak English) and general availability. Three separate organisations were arranged under the 'conflict themes' heading in Table 1, 'Human resources and private sector' (Oosthuizen et al., 2019).

The participants included employees from nine different forms of organisations, as well as 13 African male, 17 African female, five mixed race male and seven mixed race female (mixed race), three Indian male and six Indian female as well as 22 white male and six white female participants across the organisations. Altogether 23 employees worked in human resources and the private sector, 16 employees worked in the banking sector, eight in short-term insurance, six in human resources in the public sector, six in medical insurance, six in professional management, five in consulting, five in the motor industry and four in fast-moving consumer goods.

Data collection methods and recording

Data were gathered over a year, which comprised 79 face-to-face semi-structured interviews of 30-60 min each. Interviews were held in English. Employees were guaranteed privacy. Ethical considerations were followed. The semi-structured interviews began with the question: 'What is your own story as far as EE inside the setting of 4IR changes?' Further questions included: 'How do you see the contemporary and the future workplace?', 'Please explain your workplace experiences', followed by questions of further clarification (Pietersen, 2007).

Data were recorded through field notes and audio recordings as indicated by participants' inclinations. Audio recordings were transcribed verbatim and data are stored electronically for a period of 5 years in password-encrypted data files. Printed copies were stored away by the university under the examination arrangements and methodology of the university with no entrance to the undertakings by the general population.

Strategies employed to ensure data quality and integrity

The trustworthiness of the data was ensured by using credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability as main quality criteria (Guba & Lincoln, 1982), contributing to the rigour of the study by including an audit trail and confirming the results with research informants (Guba, 1981; Guba & Lincoln, 1982; Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Morse, Barrett, Mayan, Olson, & Spiers, 2002; Pietersen, 2007). Credibility was established by providing insight into the research process and the research methodology, also providing the statements and voices of the participants and interpreting them. Transferability is based on the description of the research contexts and the central aspects of the study. Dependability is ensured by the replicability of the study, which is given based on the description of the study and its methodological process. Confirmability is addressed by reflecting the findings of this study with regard to previous studies in the discussion.

Data analysis

Data were examined as suggested in phenomenology (Creswell, 2013; Hoggett & Clarke, 2009) by applying the accompanying advances: (1) the information was exposed to an underlying, starter and all-encompassing appraisal, arranging and perusing; (2) topics were created; (3) information was coded to portray the manner in which the content was spoken to through inductive and deductive reasoning; (4) the body of the content was separated into significant pieces that were named; and (5) closer consideration was paid to the nuances and subtleties of the importance of inalienability in the information, through the 'twofold hermeneutics' abstracting past codes and subjects by staying inside the hermeneutic qualities of depiction, decrease and deliberateness through an iterative procedure of sense production of the information (Kafle, 2013). Data were analysed and interpreted through the reflexivity of the researchers (Hoggett & Clarke, 2009).

Ethical consideration

Approval of the research ethics was obtained from the University of South Africa (UNISA). Employees provided written consent and were informed about confidentiality and the possibility of withdrawal from the research participation.

 

Findings

The findings provided new and original ideas on how to drive 4IR trends in South Africa by transforming aspects of the evaluated, unconscious CIBART issues, which challenge the transformation towards new 4IR visions. The data show that conflict, identity, boundaries and boundary management, defining and working with authorities, roles and tasks are important issues for the employees researched.

 

Conflict

The data show four major conflicting themes that include different sub-themes (Table 1). Employees experience primarily EE-related conflicts within the contemporary workplace and are worried about future transformation and innovation, with regard to not only EE, but also regarding global changes and competitiveness of organisations. Racial and gender conflicts are addressed with regard to their implication within the 4IR context. One white female person emphasised:

'It is not that I do not have the qualifications … I could really drive the innovation … I do not have the right skin colour to lead this organisation.' (White female, employee)

This statement shows that the participant experiences that she is limited to drive 4IR innovations with regard to her organisation based on racial implications and EE policies, which remove her from agency to drive change and transformation in the workplace actively forward.

The data show that race and gender limit the individuals and their agency and innovation and transformation in the workplace. A white male employee emphasised:

'Particularly as a white man it is difficult to find a job … it is to make us white men [to] suffer for what we did in apartheid … the white man has become the black man … but everyone has the same memo: 'Reject the white man'. And it must be difficult not to give the job to the best candidate.' (White male, employee)

Again, like the white female employee, this male employee stressed that the EE policies limit his influence within the organisation. The limitations are experienced with regard to race and gender categories and the participant seems to be occupied with the experience of limited influence in the workplace because of EE policies when driving the organisation into future 4IR contexts.

The conflicts show the underlying, intra-psychological issues that arise for the employees. Many conflicts reported in the interviews, beside EE-related issues, refer to skills and skill management: they do not feel prepared for global changes and transformation within their own organisation, particularly because they feel that they experience a 'brain drain' of people who could drive the 4IR forward. These discourses are mainly led by white employees and cause conflict for them. One white male employee remarked:

'EE will chase away many professionals and as a result, the whole country will suffer. South Africa will remain a developing country - not a country at the heartbeat of advancement and global trends.' (White male, employee)

Underlying the conflict experience is a strong fear, which relates to the feeling of 'being left behind' and of not making the transition into the 4IR as other countries do with regard to global trends. Several participants of the previously disadvantaged groups¹ state that their skills are questioned because of their employment through EE procedures and programmes. This situation results in feelings of inferiority and discrimination and employees are of the opinion that they are not trusted of being able to drive 4IR advancements. A mixed race employee said:

'It really hurts when one is working hard on a career and when you think hard work has paid off … and then someone says you were appointed due to colour …' (Mixed race male, employee)

It is further conflictual for employees to experience a lack of growth opportunities within the organisations and external visions on the 4IR and global competitiveness. One white employee emphasised:

'We talk about industrial advancement … what will happen when all the doctors leave? Even black doctors are leaving the country!' (White male, employee)

This employee questions the idea of focusing on the 4IR when basic problems and conflicts are not resolved within their organisations and in primary care. The reference to the fulfilment of basic needs shows that these needs need to be fulfilled before addressing future 4IR issues. Finally, negative emotions such as anxieties of being reduced to internal (racial, gendered and EE-related) categories, fear of missing global advancements and trends of losing global standards - because of EE - cause employees to worry and create intra-psychological as well as inter-psychological conflicts. The employees refer to negative emotions only and do not transform these emotions into constructive emotions and resources. A black male employee emphasised:

'You know, there are many resentments and negative feelings towards colleagues perceived to be EE candidates.' (Black male, employee)

The negative emotions with regard to EE from members of all groups have a strong effect on employees who are entangled in the intra-societal discourses. These conflictual discourses seem to hold employees back and limit their creativeness and ideas for the transformation into the 4IR. Conflicts do not refer so much to common anticipated conflicts and problems expected in the 4IR organisational settings, but rather to apartheid categories and past problems.

 

Identity

Identity in employees is strongly determined by race, gender and the generational belonging, which relate to the individuals born during apartheid and the post-apartheid generation. Altogether 63 statements refer to the generation of the born-frees, the individuals born from the year 2000 onwards (Table 2).

 

 

Identity is strongly defined by race, gender and birth year, aiming to respond to the question of 'who am I?' within the South African workplace. The born-frees define themselves with orientation to the present and the future workplace and promote new identity concepts, which do not reverse apartheid categories, but they see themselves as the new South African employee generation which is driven by new self-definitions, quality of work performance and achievement. One mixed race employee says:

'I want to be respected for who I am and for the quality of my work. Not for the way I look.' (Mixed race male, employee)

Most of the statements towards identity mention a 'turn-away' from apartheid and a focus on the contemporary workplace which needs performance and achievement based on the education. However, employees do not make further statements with regard to their identity and the changes it could bring for them in the context of the 4IR, but they emphasise that there will be changes with regard to future workplaces. Yet, they do not connect it to themselves and/or their own identity and the possibilities it could bring for them. Identity is, on the one hand, defined by achievement, performance and success on the job and, on the other hand, by EE-related job positions. Employees feel that their identity is defined by getting a job through EE or they feel that their identity is reduced by EE policies. One white employee defines himself through self-ascribed values:

'In my culture … we do not just sit and blame others for opportunities or the lack thereof. We go and create opportunities. This is where I inherit the ability to work hard. It is part of me.' (White male, employee)

This employee feels that he is part of creating workplaces, of making things possible. He also refers to it with regard to future workplaces and highlights that he plays an active role in managing the workplace, which can influence personal opportunities, also with regard to the 4IR. The belief in the personal agency is strongly interlinked with boundary management.

 

Boundary

Employees experience boundaries within their job context with regard to different themes (Table 3), such as physical features, EE-related opinions, attitudes and emotions. The physical features are bound to race, gender, disability and stereotypes.

 

 

'Disabled people feel stigmatised by the ignorance of people. They are discriminated against. We need a platform of equality for the disabled. That is where we stand.' (Black female, employee)

Within the inner discourse on boundary management, employees focus on diversity issues such as race, gender, disability and age. Thereby, the boundaries are mainly created in the mindset of apartheid categories and EE and appear to be related to stereotypes and stigmatisation. This boundary constructed shows that boundaries for the employees are again drawn very tight regarding apartheid issues, and employees do not seem to have the ability to delve into future-related work issues, such as 4IR, as they are caught up in past mindsets and categories. Employees criticise themselves and others for a lack of inclusiveness with regard to diversity criteria, while they display the exclusiveness of employment and workplace topics by cutting future topics out of the discourse. It rather seems as if the employees are still preoccupied with past employment and exclusiveness issues and that they are not yet prepared to deal with new challenges. Members of all groups highlight diversity as important, but not the possibility to see beyond the surface. One Indian female employee said:

'It is everyone's responsibility to drive and promote diversity in the company … That is the main thing to do now … When we get this right now, we can move forward.' (Indian female, employee)

This means that the preoccupation with apartheid-related topics and EE must be dealt with before the employees will be able to manage their boundaries towards new topics differently. Underlying this tight boundary management with regard to the topics of the 4IR and future workplace orientation are negative emotions. Employees seem to be driven strongly by unconscious fears and anxieties of job loss or inferiority issues. These anxieties are associated with their standing in their own situation, fear of losing their jobs or failure that they do not strive to match global topics or even advancements. Based on these fears, a self-centeredness crops up which limits the thoughts and ideas within the context which is perceived as 'given'. Instead of seeing the opportunities in the technological, economic or value-based advancement outside their immediate work and living context, employees limit themselves to negative self-perceptions that exclude advancements that are connected to the 4IR. One female employee remarked:

'Women feel inadequate to do the job. We are too anxious to just do it. They think we do not know anything about cars … about technology, innovation … so we are limited. I would love companies to hire more females as we are dominated by males and cannot move forward as we would like to. We are side-lined.' (Mixed race female, employee)

Female employees feel unacknowledged and not entitled to drive change in organisations towards the 4IR ‒ and they connect technology advancements with the 4IR. Because they feel dominated by male employees, they think that they cannot move forward in the 4IR and do not take on the agency to manage or even talk about 4IR topics. They do not feel that this is their territory, particularly because of not having authority and agency in organisations.

 

Authority

Authority is connected to the themes in this study: compliance, race and authority and system authority versus individual authority (Table 4). Compliance is discussed with regard to legislation and impact, internal governance compliance and compliance to quota. Employees feel that authority is established through the legislation and its interpretation, the impact of the legislation and the quota in terms of EE. It is presented through the internal governance of compliance or non-compliance and connects strongly to categories of apartheid. Again, authority issues are not future-bound, but rather past-related. A black female employee stated:

 

 

'An individual should be given a fair chance to compete for certain positions … EE is not always practised equally within the organisations. But we have to comply with the rules, taking the Constitution into account. And there should be penalties for non-compliance when EE is not properly enforced.' (Black female, employee)

Again, competition relates to apartheid-related categories and EE and authority is ascribed to rules and the Constitution that were created as a reaction to apartheid. Authority further refers to race and the absence of black people in senior management within organisations. A black male employee said:

'How do you expect us to be ready for management positions, if they do not train you?… We are represented at management level, but this is where it stops … they speak about training empowerment and succession planning, but nothing is happening.' (Black male, employee)

Authority is not bound to future orientation, insight and advancement and innovation, but rather to questions relating to race. This employee, as the voice of black employees, feels that authority is still in the hands of members of other groups and access to reach positions of authority is denied or at least limited in terms of experience and training for higher positions of authority. One male Indian employee pointed out:

'Mentoring programmes should be installed to move people beyond the ordinary so that they are supported by the leaders to focus on excelling in their positions and move forward in the context of global advancements. Take agency and feel empowered to get into a new era of workplaces.' (Indian male, employee)

Employees express a strong wish to move out of the previously defined categories and to strive for new visions and global connection. It appears as if they would like to step out of the previously defined categories, but because of strong boundary management, they do not seem to be able to take on the authority to do so and move forward into the 4IR. The findings show that there is a struggle about system authority and individual authority regarding decision-making, value implementation and employment, as well as EE. One individual remarked:

'Managers should be the drivers of new processes and they are the decision makers for the company to move forward. Human Resources should be responsible for EE processes … They should further help to move companies and employees towards new topics and issues.' (White male, employee)

Employees wish for the authority anchored in the system to move forward into a new era of workplace and organisational development. It seems as if they feel that there is no possibility to move forward themselves, but that they should rather seek support in moving forward.

 

Role

In terms of their roles within the organisations, employees feel that it is defined by role determinations (Theme 1) and the sub-categories of race and gender, performance and mentorship (Table 5). One white female employee said:

 

 

'I believe we need to change attitudes first. Then we can mentor and assure quality in our roles as employees and managers.' (White female, employee)

Roles are strongly defined and limited by inner attitudes. They are impacted through role conflicts, which are anchored in the realm of EE-related role conflicts and the idea that work is not advanced to the contentment of employees because of their involvement in EE discourses and political discussions at work. One employee emphasised:

'No rules and acts can change peoples' perceptions. EE is a forced approach and what we actually need to fulfil our roles is that we implement a paradigm shift, that people are not stereotyped. EE gives the country direction. But we also have to look beyond it. We must drive for an economic future.' (Black female, employee)

Again, the statement shows that there is a strong wish to move beyond (post-)apartheid discourses and become part of the future-orientated, global community. They know that there are topics which must be addressed ‒ now and in future ‒ but do not have a clear idea about roles and how to manage new and innovate influences and identities and 4IR-related topics. A white male employee pointed out:

'We need to work twice as hard. Often, talented EE staff are headhunted by other companies or jump between departments. We need to use all of our talents to compete globally.' (White male, employee)

White employees feel that they have to organise the talented staff to work towards a global future and to compete globally. This takes effort and talent. White employees feel that employees across cultures need to work together for the future goals of the organisation and workplaces and must use EE practices to work for the good of the organisation.

 

Task

Tasks and the management of tasks play a role as employees question task-related promotions within the organisation and blame EE for promoting selected employees (Table 6). An employee remarked:

 

 

'Company standards are jeopardised and people don't do their jobs. Policies in organisations must be flexible enough to fit practice. What do we do with people who do not do their tasks and move forward?' (White male, employee)

This employee, like others, complains about employees being unable to manage tasks while defining themselves with regard to the discourses on individual and EE-related task management to move towards future organisational topics. Employees hardly address task management, which supports them to develop new, creative and original ideas. They are anchored within their present day-to-day task management, but they do not allocate time to task management that could support them to manage future-orientated tasks needed in the 4IR. One mixed race female employee said:

'We want to strive and move on, but we are only given very easy tasks which do not help us to strive for the best. When we get positions, we do not have influence. Like this, we will not make the ends meet out there in the globalised world.' (Mixed race female, employee)

This employee fears that South African organisations will not take the step into the 4IR when there is still too much inequality amongst employees. She feels that mixed race female employees are not even given the chance to strive for the best and for the future because mixed race females are not trusted with tasks related to future developments.

 

Discussion

The study aimed at focusing on employees' perceptions of workplaces in contemporary South Africa and the issues underneath the surface of daily systems psychodynamic discourses (Steyn & Cilliers, 2016). According to the employees, systemic structures (Steyn & Cilliers, 2016) are strongly defined by EE models. The core themes, which cause conflict within the organisation, relate to race and gender in most of the work-related experiences. Conflict is defined by experiences of splitting (Blackman, 2004), which is primarily caused and enforced by EE policies and the splitting of employees of a certain race, gender and (ascribed) skills. Furthermore, there is a split within the group of employees with ascribed skills: the ones staying in South African organisations and the ones leaving the country. The findings also show a split in the perceptions of employees: the ones who do not have enough growth opportunities within South Africa and the idea that growth is possible elsewhere. Additionally, a split occurs with regard to the idea of the 4IR. Employees express the wish to occupy themselves with future work-related issues of the 4IR and to create new work visions and opportunities, but at the same time, they are stuck in their internal (post-)apartheid discourses. Further, as noted in Blackman (2004), employees idealise global work contexts where work conditions are thought to be better than in their own contexts. Employees focus strongly on their internal conflicts and challenges, thereby losing sight of external workplace developments and the 4IR vision and opportunities.

As described by Armstrong (2005) and Dashtipour and Vidaillet (2017), anxiety and fear play a crucial role in the described systems psychodynamics. Employees are anxious of being stigmatised because of racialisation, gendered categories and their fear to lose the connection to global advancements and the 4IR. This fear might even be the core of the above-mentioned splitting and idealisation, which are strong defence mechanisms. Anxiety is not dealt with on an organisational level, thereby creating uneasiness, idealisations and split employee connections based on racial and gendered categories, as previously described by Mayer et al. (2018a), Mayer et al. (2018b) and Geldenhuys (2012).

This study shows that, as in Steyn and Cilliers (2016), employees pair within their racial groups to manage the impulse to fight or flee with regard to an (imaginative) enemy: Several employees, out of fear, attack the EE system, while others imagine leaving the country (as described in Bion, 1961). Findings also show that some employees (EE employees and born-frees) link up with influential sub-groups and people in power. The employees who have gained their position through EE are primarily at ease with the system, while the employees who see themselves as 'born-free' take the sides of the previously advantaged employees: they do not need EE to be equal but prefer to compete based on achievement and performance. They line up with the powerful previously advantaged employees to overcome fear, disadvantages and racial splits (Cilliers & Koortzen, 2005; Mayer et al., 2018a). This might be the first step taken by the born-frees to free themselves from previous racial categories and post-apartheid concepts to compete on a global level and in future to open up to transformations towards the 4IR. However, at present, this does not seem to be the time yet.

In terms of identity, several of the categories are defined by previously defined categories of race, gender and EE classifications. The 'born-frees' create a split between the employees born during apartheid (in captivity) and themselves. Thereby, they idealise the new freedom and define themselves as 'free' and advantaged. This seems to be a good base for turning towards future work-related issues, such as the 4IR. Both generations seem to use the concept of 'work identity' to define themselves in relation to their organisation, their organisational culture and achievement. By creating a work identity based on organisational culture and performance, employees turn away from the past and the conflictual identities of EE. This might indicate a split from the past and a step into the fear-free future anchored in achievement and performance. The organisation becomes a parental figure to manage the fear (as in Steyn & Cilliers, 2016) and to cope with the challenges of the 4IR (Cilliers & Koortzen, 2005; Mayer et al., 2018b). This newly defined identity could become a foundation for creating self-assured and self-reliable employees. However, findings show clearly that employees are still in search of their identity (as in Mayer, 2005, 2008) and struggle to re-imagine their future in the 4IR.

Boundaries are primarily defined by physical features and limited by racial and gendered categories and the stereotypes associated with racial ascriptions. Employees from all backgrounds experience exclusion because of EE: either they feel excluded as previously advantaged employees who fear for their jobs or they feel excluded by holding an 'EE quota position'. They have internalised the splitting based on ascribed physical features and split themselves from their future of the 4IR by mainly referring to past categories. The challenging, global and unknown future beyond the boundary might evoke too much anxiety because of high levels of insecurities (Cilliers & Koortzen, 2005; Mayer et al., 2018a, 2018b). Employees do not want to mismatch global advantages because of the inability to compete and internalised boundaries, which keep employees from seeing themselves in a new, free and unlimited world of work of the 4IR.

With regard to authority, employees highlight that authority might be undermined by compliance to the system or be strengthened by legislation, depending on how compliant the authority within the system is. It is noticeable through the absence of black people in senior management positions, emphasising that authority is (still) with white employees mainly. Findings show a discourse about what employees' preference is (system or individual authority) relating to EE processes. It appears as if the EE system is the dominant issue and has become the authority within the organisation. The fight for authority is still raging and employees find themselves in a struggle around issues of authority (Cilliers & Koortzen, 2005), connected to anxiety, uncertainty and fear of loss of power. They are not willing to give the authority to new issues, such as the 4IR, but rather keep the authority by interlinking it only with past categories.

Employees feel that their roles are defined by race, gender, performance and mentorship. Further, they are of the opinion that to develop abilities to fill their roles they need mentorship to overcome role conflicts (Mayer et al., 2018a). These are connected to EE-defined roles on the one hand, and role conflicts on the other hand, which arise from wanting to advance organisations into 4IR topics but being held back by EE structures. Employees do not like the idea of holding roles to manage the 4IR or to dive into future-related work development. The roles and role conflicts employees struggle with are anchored in South Africa's past rather than in the organisation's future.

Finally, task-related promotions are questioned and employees feel that other employees are unable to do their tasks; there is a discourse about individual and EE-related task management and how employees manage their tasks is again related to racial belongingness. Finally, there are a number of employees referring to managing tasks with regard to the organisational future orientation and 4IR issues.

 

Employment equity and the Fourth Industrial Revolution in South Africa

The 4IR and future workplace issues do not play a major and explicit role in the data. Findings show that employees are mainly concerned with EE issues that keep them from striving to conquer new, global 4IR challenges. They do not occupy themselves yet with the 4IR and what it requires from them in terms of mindset, skills and expertise. Employees are mainly reflecting on apartheid and post-apartheid categories and issues with regard to CIBART categories. They comment vaguely on the future of workplaces and rather struggle with defining themselves in connection with the country's past. Underlying the conflictual discourses, employees are aware that - to stay within the contemporary global 4IR trend - they need to change the inner South African discourses towards a more open, advanced and visionary discourse. Emotionally, employees experience strong negative emotions, such as anxiety and fear, which relate to stereotypisation, stigmatisation and discrimination anchored in apartheid categories, and which prevent them from having a future-orientated vision of a 4IR-related South Africa.

Findings do not show that employees strive for the 4IR consciously, as stated in Jansen van Rensburg et al. (2019). Within the research context, the 4IR digitalisation, artificial intelligence and computerisation do not seem to be urgent and emotionally touching workplace topics (Calitz et al., 2017). Discourses of EE are prevalent (Moraka & Jansen van Rensburg, 2015) and acclimatisation to 4IR issues seems to be taken into account gradually (Herman, 2017). Employees in South Africa do not consciously realise their affectedness and involvement within the 4IR but rather seem to view it as an external process. This might be because of the fact that anxiety levels within South African organisations are high already, and employees rather opt to cut out any further external challenges demanding attention or bringing insecurities. Employment equity policies, however, need to take the advancements of the 4IR into account (Leonard & Grobler, 2006; Oosthuizen et al., 2019) and integrate EE and 4IR processes. The idea to create open and social discourses on the integration of the 4IR (Stubbings, 2018) has not yet been integrated into EE reflections and the discourses still seem to refer rather to post-apartheid issues and categories than to future-related 4IR advancements.

 

Conclusions and recommendations

This study provides insights for industrial psychologists and management practitioners to address urgent issues pertaining to transforming South African workplaces with regard to EE and 4IR contexts. Discourses in South African organisations are driven by post-apartheid categories relating to race, gender and EE practices, which re-emphasise the historical split within the South African society.

Findings show that only when employees overcome previously and historically defined categories and fears they are able to focus on new and challenging topics. They only produce visions in 4IR-related issues when they free themselves from systems psychodynamics anchored in apartheid structures, preliminary categories and limitations to consciously turn to future-orientated thinking towards the global 4IR discourse.

This study is limited to the subjective experiences and descriptions of employees researched in 11 organisations, which may not be representative because the number of participants is small and based on convenience sampling. The study further focused on issues of EE and the 4IR and most responses referred to EE issues, limiting the responses to 4IR issues. However, this is a finding in itself.

Future research needs to take different industries into account and study impact, perceptions and experiences of the 4IR in workplaces in greater detail. Visions of the 4IR in South Africa and other countries must be researched to establish employees' experiences. Future research must tackle the question of how EE and 4IR changes in organisations can join forces in order to advance employees, organisations and society. Research-based strategies need to be developed to address the transformation of negative emotions in the workplace.

On a practical level, the 4IR must be addressed openly. Organisations need to plan for multiple and emerging visions of the 4IR, using a scenario approach. They should understand clearly how the 4IR creates different workforce challenges and what EE implications are, and train employees to deal with both issues competently. Anxiety levels need to be reduced through open discussions and by valuing the pros and cons of EE and the 4IR. Training and information campaigns as well as positive and negative examples of EE and the 4IR must be explored and discussed. Experts need to be incorporated into organisational and governmental processes to smooth the integration of EE and the 4IR for the advancement of all future employees, organisations and society as a whole.

 

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the organisations and individual employees for participating in this study.

Competing interests

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Authors' contributions

R.M.O. conceptualised the study and wrote the first draft. C-H.M. did the data analysis. All authors reviewed and approved the final manuscript.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability statement

Data sharing is applicable to this article as new data were created and analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the authors.

 

References

Armstrong, D. (2005). Organization in the mind: Psychoanalysis, group relations and organizational consultancy. London, England: Karnac.         [ Links ]

Basson, Y. (2017). Selected developments in South African labour legislation related to persons with disabilities. PER/PELJ, 20, 2-21. https://doi.org/10.17159/1727-3781/2017/v20i0a1216        [ Links ]

Bion, W.R. (1961). Experiences in groups. London: Routledge.         [ Links ]

Blackman, J.S. (2004). 101 defenses: How the mind shields itself. New York: Brunner-Routledge.         [ Links ]

Breetzke, G.D., & Hedding, D.W. (2016). The changing racial profile of academic staff at South African Higher Education Institutions (HEIs), 2005-2013. Africa Education Review, 13(2), 147-164. https://doi.org/10.1080/18146627.2016.1224114        [ Links ]

Calitz, A.P., Poisat, P., & Cullen, M. (2017). The future African workplace: The use of collaborative robots in manufacturing. SA Journal of Human Resource Management/SA Tydskrif vir Menslikehulpbronbestuur, 15(0), a901. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajhrm.v15i0.901        [ Links ]

Cilliers, F., & Koortzen, P. (2005). Working with conflict in teams - The CIBART model. HR Future, 52-53.         [ Links ]

Collins, J., & Hussey, R. (2014). Business research: A practical guide for undergraduate and postgraduate students. New York: Palgrave Macmillan Higher Education. ISBN: 978-0-230-30183-2.         [ Links ]

Creswell, J.W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry & research: Choosing among five approaches (3rd edn.). London: Sage.         [ Links ]

Cytrynbaum, S., & Noumair, A. (2004). Group dynamics, organizational irrationality, and social complexity: Group relations reader 3. Jupiter, FL: A. K. Rice Institute.         [ Links ]

Czander, W.M. (1993). The psychodynamics of work and organizations. New York: Guilford.         [ Links ]

Dashtipour, P., & Vidaillet, B. (2017). Work as affective experience: The contribution of Christophe Dejours' "psychodynamics of work." Organization, 24(1), 18-35. https://doi.org/10.1177/1350508416668191        [ Links ]

Department of Labour. (2002). Employment equity register. Retrieved from http://www.labourtesting.labour.gov.za/DOL/documents/useful-documents/employment-equity/employment-equity-registry-2002.         [ Links ]

Dilthey, W. (2002). The formation of the historical world in the human sciences. In R.A. Makkreel & F. Rodi (Eds.), Wilhelm Dilthey selected works (vol. 3). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.         [ Links ]

Dorst, W.C., Hahn, T., Knafla, F., Loewen, U., & Rosen, R. (2015). Umsetzungsstrategie Industrie 4.0 - Ergebnisbericht der Plattform Industrie 4.0. Bitkom Research GmbH.         [ Links ]

Geissbauer, R., Vedsø, J., & Schrauf, S. (2016). A strategist's guide to Industry 4.0. Retrieved from https://www.strategy-business.com/article/A-Strategists-Guide-to-Industry-4.0?gko=a2260.         [ Links ]

Geldenhuys, D.J. (2012). Group-as-a-whole as a context for studying individual behaviour: A group diagnostic intervention. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 38(2), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v38i2.1011        [ Links ]

Government Gazette. (2014). Employment Equity Act (55/1998): As amended: Draft employment equity regulations, 2014. Regulation Gazette, 10127(584), Pretoria, 28 February 2014, No. 37338 Labour Department of Government Notice R. 124.         [ Links ]

Grix, J. (2010). The foundations of research (2nd edn.). Chippenham: Palgrave and Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-24897-7.         [ Links ]

Guba, E.G. (1981). Criteria for assessing the trustworthiness of naturalistic inquiry. Educational Communication and Technology Journal, 29(2), 75-91.         [ Links ]

Guba, E.G., & Lincoln, Y.S. (1982). Epistemological and methodological bases of naturalistic inquiry. Educational Communication and Technology Journal, 30(4), 233-252.         [ Links ]

Hassan, I., & Ghauri, P.N. (2014). Evaluating companies for mergers and acquisitions. Book series: International Business and Management (Vol. 40, pp. 75-89). Bingley, England: Emerald.         [ Links ]

Hecklaua, F., Galeitzke, M., Flachs, S., & Kohl, H. (2016). Holistic approach for human resource management in Industry 4.0. Procedia CIRP, 54, 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procir.2016.05.102        [ Links ]

Herman, H.D. (2017). Affirmative action in education and black economic empowerment in the workplace in South Africa since 1994: Policies, strengths and limitations. Bulgarian Comparative Education Society, Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED574231        [ Links ]

Hoggett, P., & Clarke, S. (2009). Researching below the surface. Psycho-social research methods in practice. London: Karnac.         [ Links ]

Ind4.0. (2016). Industry 4.0. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industry_4.0.         [ Links ]

Jansen van Rensburg, N., Telukdarie, A., & Dhamija, P. (2019). Society 4.0 applied in Africa: Advancing the social impact of technology. Technology in Society. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2019.04.001        [ Links ]

Kafle, N. (2013). Hermeneutic phenomenological research method simplified. Bodhi: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 5, 181-200.         [ Links ]

Kagermann, H., Wahlster, W., Helbig, J., Hellinger, A., Stumpf, V., & Kobsda, C. (2013). Umsetzungsempfehlungen für das Zukunftsprojekt Industrie 4.0 -Abschlussbericht des Arbeitskreises. Berlin: Industrie 4.0.         [ Links ]

Koortzen, P. & Cilliers, F. (2007). Symbolism associated with leadership: A systems-psychodynamic perspective. Myth & Symbolism, 4, 28-45. https://doi.org/10.1080/10223820701673981        [ Links ]

Leonard, A., & Grobler, A.F. (2006). Exploring challenges to transformational leadership communication about employment equity: Managing organizational change in South Africa. Journal of Communication Management, 10(4), 390-406. https://doi.org/10.1108/13632540610714827        [ Links ]

Lincoln, Y.S., & Guba, E.G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.         [ Links ]

Louw, A.M. (2015). I am not a number! I am a free man! The Employment Equity Act, 1998 (and other myths about the pursuit of "equality," "equity" and "dignity" in post-apartheid South Africa) Part 1. P.E.R, 18(3), 668-735. http://doi.org/10.4314/pelj.v18i3.05        [ Links ]

Masombuka, S. (2016, March 22). Varsities down on women. Times Lives.         [ Links ]

Mayer, C.-H. (2005). Artificial walls. South African Narratives on Conflict, Difference and Identity. An Exploratory Study in Post-Apartheid South Africa. Stuttgart: Ibidem Verlag.         [ Links ]

Mayer, C.-H. (2008). Managinng conflict across cultures, values and identities. A case study in the South African automotive industry. Marburg: Tectum Verlag.         [ Links ]

Mayer, C.-H., & Barnard, A. (2015). Balancing the scales of gender and culture in contemporary South Africa. In S. Safdar & N. Kosakowska-Berezecka (Eds.), The psychology of gender and culture (pp. 327-352). New York: Springer.         [ Links ]

Mayer, C.-H., Oosthuizen, R.M., Tonelli, L., & Surtee, S. (2018a). Women leaders as containers: Systems psychodynamic insights into their unconscious roles. Géneros. Multidisciplinary Journal of Gender Studies, 7(2), 1606-1633. https://doi.org/10.17583/generos.2018.3217        [ Links ]

Mayer, C.-H., Tonelli, L., Oosthuizen, R.M., & Surtee, S. (2018b). "You have to keep your head on your shoulders": A systems psychodynamic perspective on women leaders. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology/SA Tydskrif vir Bedryfsielkunde, 44(0), a1424. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v44i0.1424        [ Links ]

Moraka, N.V., & Jansen van Rensburg, M. (2015). Transformation in the South African mining industry - Looking beyond the employment equity scorecard. The Journal of the Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 115, 669-678.         [ Links ]

Morse, J.M., Barrett, M., Mayan, M., Olson, K., & Spiers, J. (2002). Verification strategies for establishing reliability and validity in qualitative research. International Journal of Qualitative methods, 1(2). Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1177/160940690200100202        [ Links ]

Obholzer, A., & Roberts, V.Z. (1994). The unconscious at work. London, England: Routledge.         [ Links ]

Oosthuizen, R.M., Tonelli, L., & Mayer, C.-H. (2019). Subjective experiences of employment equity in South African organisations. SA Journal of Human Resource Management/SA Tydskrif vir Menslikehulpbronbestuur, 17(0), a1074. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajhrm.v17i0.1074        [ Links ]

Pietersen, C. (2007). Interpersonal bullying behaviours in the workplace. South African Journal of Industrial Psychology, 33(1), 59-66. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v33i1.256        [ Links ]

Porter, M.E., & Heppelmann, J.E. (2015). How smart, connected products are transforming companies. Harvard Business Review, 93(10), 96-114.         [ Links ]

Ramgoolam, S. (2005). Experiences of employment equity in the coal mining industry. Unpublished master's dissertation. University of South Africa, Pretoria.         [ Links ]

Spath, D., Ganschar, O., Gerlach, S., Hämmerle, M., Krause, T., & Schlund, S. (2013). Produktionsarbeit der Zukunft - Industrie 4.0. Stuttgart: Fraunhofer Verlag.         [ Links ]

Steyn, M., & Cilliers, F. (2016). The systems psychodynamic experiences of organisational transformation amongst support staff. South African Journal of Industrial Psychology, 42(1), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v42i1.1367        [ Links ]

Stubbings, C. (2018). Workforce of the future: The competing forces shaping 2030. PriceWaterhouse Coopers report. Retrieved from http://www.pwc.com/people.         [ Links ]

Surtee, S., & Hall, M. (2009). Transformation: African people in the Western Cape. Commissioned by the Development Policy Research Unit. Cape Town: University of Cape Town.         [ Links ]

Thomas, A. (2003). Employment equity practices at selected companies in South Africa. South African Journal of Labour Relations, 27(3 & 4), 6-40.         [ Links ]

Welman, C., Kruger, F., & Mitchell, B. (2012). Research methodology. OUP Southern Africa. ISBN 0195789016, 9780195789010.         [ Links ]

Yin, R.K. (2009). Case study research design and methods (4th edn.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.         [ Links ]

Zach, L. (2006). Using a multiple-case studies design to investigate the information-seeking behavior of arts administrators. Library Trends, 55(1), 4-21. https://doi.org/10.1353/lib.2006.0055        [ Links ]

Zulu, P.S., & Parumasur, S.B. (2009). Employee perceptions of the management of cultural diversity and workplace transformation. South African Journal of Industrial Psychology, 35(1), Art. #426, 9 pages. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v35i1.426        [ Links ]

 

 

Correspondence:
Rudolf Oosthuizen
oosthrm@unisa.ac.za

Received: 14 May 2019
Accepted: 05 Aug. 2019
Published: 24 Oct. 2019

 

 

1. African, mixed race and Indian employees.

^rND^sBasson^nY.^rND^sBreetzke^nG.D.^rND^sHedding^nD.W.^rND^sCalitz^nA.P.^rND^sPoisat^nP.^rND^sCullen^nM.^rND^sCilliers^nF.^rND^sKoortzen^nP.^rND^sDashtipour^nP.^rND^sVidaillet^nB.^rND^sDilthey^nW.^rND^sGeldenhuys^nD.J.^rND^sGuba^nE.G.^rND^sGuba^nE.G.^rND^sLincoln^nY.S.^rND^sHecklaua^nF.^rND^sGaleitzke^nM.^rND^sFlachs^nS.^rND^sKohl^nH.^rND^sKafle^nN.^rND^sKoortzen^nP.^rND^sCilliers^nF.^rND^sLeonard^nA.^rND^sGrobler^nA.F.^rND^sLouw^nA.M.^rND^sMayer^nC.-H.^rND^sBarnard^nA.^rND^sMayer^nC.-H.^rND^sOosthuizen^nR.M.^rND^sTonelli^nL.^rND^sSurtee^nS.^rND^sMayer^nC.-H.^rND^sTonelli^nL.^rND^sOosthuizen^nR.M.^rND^sSurtee^nS.^rND^sMoraka^nN.V.^rND^sJansen van Rensburg^nM.^rND^sMorse^nJ.M.^rND^sBarrett^nM.^rND^sMayan^nM.^rND^sOlson^nK.^rND^sSpiers^nJ.^rND^sOosthuizen^nR.M.^rND^sTonelli^nL.^rND^sMayer^nC.-H.^rND^sPietersen^nC.^rND^sPorter^nM.E.^rND^sHeppelmann^nJ.E.^rND^sSteyn^nM.^rND^sCilliers^nF.^rND^sThomas^nA.^rND^sZach^nL.^rND^sZulu^nP.S.^rND^sParumasur^nS.B.^rND^1A01^nWillie T.^sChinyamurindi^rND^1A01^nWillie T.^sChinyamurindi^rND^1A01^nWillie T^sChinyamurindi

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Mental health research in African organisations: Advancing theory and practice

 

 

Willie T. Chinyamurindi

Department of Business Management, Faculty of Management and Commerce, University of Fort Hare, Alice, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

It gives me immense pleasure to introduce this special issue, entitled 'Mental health research in African organisations: Advancing theory and practice', and to have acted as a guest editor. This is a project I view as being borne out three necessities and experiences. Firstly, having personally experienced mental health challenges at key stages of my career, providing some resonance with the challenge before us. Secondly, as a researcher within the Industrial and Organisational Psychology stream, I am always inundated by requests from my participants for help concerning interventions geared towards addressing mental health issues, especially within the South African public service upon which my research has been focused over the last 3 years. Thirdly (and related to the first two points), in 2018 I received funding for a self-initiated grant by the South African Medical Research Council to explore the issues of mental and physical health issues within the South African public service. I thought, what better way could there be to inform my current research than working through this funding opportunity by guest-editing a special issue in an important journal such as the South African Journal of Industrial Psychology. These three experiences, for me, appear to not only heighten focus on the necessity of a conversation around mental health research within the context of the African organisations, but also to ignite further inquiry into this topic beyond the special issue.

Given this background, the special issue has seven articles linked to the proposed theme. Kotze and Massyn focus on the influence of cross-cultural psychological capital on workplace psychological well-being. Based on their findings, there is a need for the development of cross-cultural competencies through organisational interventions that play a role in the promotion of psychological well-being. In another article, Kheswa focuses on and illustrates the challenges around organisational resourcing and how this potentially contributes towards stress amongst health welfare professionals. Kheswa's article, despite providing subjective data, illustrates through participant quotes not only the nuances that surround the issue of resourcing but also how it relates to stress. Another article featured in this special issue, written by Vermeulen, Graupner and Jonker, is linked to the article by Kheswa and makes a clarion call for professionals like industrial psychologists to play an active role, especially within their corporate and social scope within organisations. A similar recommendation is made by Gumani within the South African Police Service.

Henn and Morgan focus on the issue of instrumentation in their article. This has been a noted challenge especially within an African context, where calls have been made for instruments that are not only sound in terms of psychometric properties but also have local relevance. The article by Henn and Morgan, based on their findings, lauds the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale-Revised (CESD-R) and Generalised Anxiety Disorder Scale (GAD-7) as showing great promise, especially given the challenge of anxiety and depression in African and white employees in organisations. In their article, Van der Walt and Steyn emphasise the role of workplace spirituality in promoting not only psychological well-being but also ethical conduct within the organisation. Finally, Maziriri, Chuchu and Madinga focus on the issue of mental health within the small business sector, a noted area that has received scant empirical attention. The findings of their article call for more research concerning mental health within the small business context. This is especially true given the noted encouragement for the establishment of more small businesses.

I wish to thank the authors who submitted their papers for this special issue. These papers, I believe, will ignite further research interest in an important topic that affects organisations. I note with concern the lack of papers from other African countries (outside South Africa). I am optimistic that this special issue will help us to make collaborations in addressing a universal challenge that affects all of us, whatever our locality.

 

 

Correspondence:
Willie Chinyamurindi
chinyaz@gmail.com

Received: 15 Aug. 2019
Accepted: 19 Aug. 2019
Published: 10 Oct. 2019

^rND^1A01^nMartina^sKotze^rND^1A01^nLiezel^sMassyn^rND^1A01^nMartina^sKotze^rND^1A01^nLiezel^sMassyn^rND^1A01^nMartina^sKotze^rND^1A01^nLiezel^sMassyn

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

The influence of employees' cross-cultural psychological capital on workplace psychological well-being

 

 

Martina Kotze; Liezel Massyn

University of the Fee State: Business School, Faculty of Economic and Management Sciences, Bloemfontein, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

---

ABSTRACT

ORIENTATION: In order to withstand the global and local cultural diversity and challenges that South African workplaces face, it is essential for employees to have cross-cultural psychological resources (i.e. cross-cultural psychological capital). A lack of cross-cultural psychological capital or the inability to adjust to cross-cultural environments may impact negatively employees' psychological well-being
RESEARCH PURPOSE: The purpose of this research was to explore the influence of employees' cross-cultural psychological capital on their psychological well-being (indicated by burnout and work engagement
MOTIVATION FOR THE STUDY: Cross-cultural psychological capital and its influence on employees' psychological well-being have not been explored in South Africa. This study aimed to fill this gap.
RESEARCH APPROACH/DESIGN AND METHOD: Data were collected using questionnaires completed by 213 employees from different organisations in South Africa. Partial least squares (PLS) and structural equations modelling (SEM) were used to explore the relationships between the independent variable (cross-cultural psychological capital) and burnout and work engagement.
MAIN FINDINGS: Cross-cultural psychological capital had a statistically significant negative influence on burnout and a statistically significant positive influence on work engagement. It had a stronger negative influence on emotional exhaustion than on cynicism and a stronger positive influence on vigour than on dedication
PRACTICAL/MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS: Enhancing employees' cross-cultural psychological capital by means of programmes and short interventions may improve their psychological well-being.
CONTRIBUTION/VALUE-ADD: This research contributed to filling the gap in the literature regarding the role of cross-cultural psychological capital in the psychological well-being of employees working in cross-cultural environments.

Keywords: Cross-cultural Competencies; Psychological Well-being; Cross-cultural; PsyCap; Burnout; Work engagement.

---

 

 

Introduction

Workplaces across the world and in South Africa have become culturally more diverse than ever before as employees from various cultural groups strive to achieve work objectives together. Cross-cultural diversity has many advantages, such as better problem-solving, higher motivation and less racial segregation. Therefore, organisations that are capable of effectively managing intercultural interactions will outperform those organisations that are less able to do so. In general, cross-cultural competence is defined as the ability to help 'create an effective work environment in cross-cultural situations' (Johnson, Lenartowicz, & Apud, 2006, p. 529). Cross-culturally diverse workplaces that lack cross-cultural competency often struggle with issues such as difficulties in communication, misunderstandings and a lack of trust. Such workplaces may not only influence the organisation's performance negatively but also affect the psychological well-being of its employees (Ang & Inkpen, 2008; Chatman & Flynn, 2001; De Dreu & West, 2001; Potgieter, 2017; Serfontein, 2014; Urciuoli, 2010).

The Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) model (Bakker & Demerouti, 2008) helps us to understand how demands in the work environment can be mitigated by job and personal resources in order for employees to obtain positive work outcomes. The model shows how job demands (e.g. institutional ethnocentrism or cross-cultural difficulties) can be mitigated by job resources (e.g. diversity training) or personal resources (e.g. individuals' cross-cultural competencies) to obtain work outcomes such as psychological well-being (Johnson et al., 2006; Ng & Earley, 2006). Regarding the role of personal resources in this model, past research showed the importance of intellectual, social and psychological capital as key in global leaders' ability to be effective in cross-cultural environments (Javidan & Teagarden, 2011). Building on the work of Javidan and Teagarden (2011), Dollwet and Reichard (2014) introduced the construct 'cross-cultural psychological capital' (cross-cultural PsyCap) by applying workplace PsyCap (Luthans, Youssef & Avolio, 2007) to cross-cultural contexts. They focused on how PsyCap as a personal resource may enable employees to interact across cultures in a more effective manner. In addition to the JD-R model, Hobfoll's (2002, 2011) conservation of resources (COR) theory further explains how individuals constantly try to secure resources to help them attain or maintain psychological well-being, and avoid psychological distress. Cross-cultural PsyCap represents such 'a type of cross-cultural dynamic competency in the family of personal resources' and 'can be regarded as a cross-cultural personal resource in Hobfoll's (2002, 2011) COR theory's resource family' (Liu, 2014, p. 83). As a resource, it may help employees to be less vulnerable in demanding cross-cultural situations.

While many South African organisations are pressurised to expand globally or to manage diverse workplaces locally, the 2018 Human Capital Trends Reports for South Africa listed employee well-being as the third most important priority that needs immediate attention (Deloitte, 2018). Therefore, it is important to explore ways in which the psychological well-being of South African employees can be enhanced within demanding cross-cultural work environments. Schaufeli and Bakker (2004) regard work engagement and burnout as indicators of employees' psychological well-being. To contribute to the empirical body of research relating to the role of cross-cultural personal resources in the enhancement of work engagement and the management of burnout, this study explored the role of cross-cultural PsyCap. Despite the importance of the PsyCap domain, the influence of cross-cultural PsyCap on employees' psychological well-being has not been explored in South Africa. Therefore, this study aims to fill this gap in the South African literature on cross-cultural PsyCap.

 

Literature review

Cross-cultural psychological capital

The construct cross-cultural PsyCap is based on Luthans et al.'s (2007) work on workplace PsyCap, but is anchored in cross-cultural interactions. Workplace PsyCap is a recognised core construct that has its roots in positive psychology and positive organisational behaviour (POB) (Luthans & Youssef-Morgan, 2017). It is a higher order construct that consists of four first-order constructs, namely, self-efficacy, hope, optimism and resilience. Workplace PsyCap is context-specific, as it relates to employees' belief that they have the ability to execute their work tasks effectively (self-efficacy); set challenging, but realistic work goals and create alternative pathways to achieve it (hope); expect positive work outcomes (optimism); and recover from setbacks (resilience) (Luthans et al., 2007). As PsyCap is a state-like concept that is measurable and was empirically proven to influence work and organisational outcomes such as performance and employee well-being, Dollwet and Reichard (2014) state that it can be applied in a cross-cultural work setting. They describe the four PsyCap components in a cross-cultural context as follows (Dollwet & Reichard, 2014; Reichard et al., 2014):

· Cross-cultural self-efficacy: People with high levels of cross-cultural self-efficacy have a strong self-belief that they can communicate successfully with others from other cultural groups or in diverse settings. It also contributes to people's willingness to make the effort to understand others and to adapt to new environments (Earley & Ang, 2003) and relates to various positive work outcomes.

· Cross-cultural hope: People with high cross-cultural hope have found ways about problems relating to cross-cultural interactions and can stay focused on the setting and achieving of goals within cross-cultural environments (Reichard et al., 2014).

· Cross-cultural optimism: Cross-cultural interaction is often difficult, but people with high cross-cultural optimism remain positive and motivated during cross-cultural interaction and 'expect the best when interacting with people from different cultures' (Dollwet & Reichard, 2014, p. 1672).

· Cross-cultural resilience: People with cross-cultural resilience are able to keep up their performance despite obstacles, such as language difficulties, cross-cultural conflict or other cross-cultural issues. Cross-cultural environments often bring uncertainty, and the challenges underlying interactions in cross-cultural work environments are often rooted in their novelty. Therefore, resilience is of great personal value in cross-cultural environments as it helps people to cope with uncertainty and adapt to novel situations (Reichard et al., 2014).

The four components of cross-cultural PsyCap interact to assist employees in successfully navigating through cross-cultural interactions. The 'unique aspects of cross-cultural PsyCap lie in its four-factor structure emphasizing complementary psychological resources rooted in the theoretical foundations of positive PsyCap' (Dollwet & Reichard, 2014, p. 169). Dollwet and Reichard's (2014) study found that there was a negative relationship between cross-cultural PsyCap and ethnocentrism, while cross-cultural PsyCap had positive associations with cultural intelligence, adjustment and openness to experience.

Psychological well-being (work engagement and burnout)

Work engagement and burnout are indicators of psychological well-being (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004). Work engagement is defined as a 'positive, fulfilling, work-related state of mind' that is characterised by 'vigour, dedication and absorption' (Schaufeli, Salanova, González-Romá, & Bakker, 2002, p. 74). While work engagement was originally characterised by these three components, later research indicated vigour and dedication as its core components (Schaufeli, 2014; Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004; Taris, Ybema, & Van Beek, 2017).

Vigour refers to the willingness to apply high levels of energy to one's work and to invest in one's work activities, and to persevere in challenging circumstances. Vigour refers to an employee's attitude (also known as trait engagement or the physical component of engagement) towards the work environment that includes colleagues, customers and the organisation (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2003; Schaufeli, Martínez, Pinto, Salanova, & Bakker, 2002). Dedication refers to the cognitive component or state engagement and is defined as the involvement of an employee in his or her work that creates significance, pride, inspiration and challenge (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2003; Schaufeli et al., 2002b).

While Maslach, Jackson and Leiter (1996) initially regarded burnout as the antithesis of work engagement, Schaeufeli et al. (2002b) argued that the absence of burnout is not engagement. Maslach (1993) defines burnout as consisting of three components, namely, emotional exhaustion, cynicism and personal accomplishment. However, Schaufeli and Bakker (2004) regard emotional exhaustion and cynicism as the core components of burnout. Emotional exhaustion is defined as being physically and emotionally tired, and the overextension of one's emotional resources. In order to cope with the situation, employees start withdrawing from their work, leading to cynicism. Cynicism is defined as being indifferent and having a negative attitude towards others (Taris et al., 2017).

The relationship between cross-cultural psychological capital and psychological well-being

The positive outcomes of employees' ability to adjust to and operate effectively in cross-cultural work environments have been studied for some time. For example, a meta-analytical study by Bhaskar-Shrinivas, Harrison, Shaffer and Luk (2005) explained how cross-cultural adjustment had a positive effect on the performance and job satisfaction of expatriates. In a South African study, Serfontein (2014) found diversity problems to be positively related to symptoms of burnout, while those who experienced diversity problems also had lower levels of work engagement. The relationship between employees' ability to adjust to intercultural environments and their levels of work engagement was also explored by Selmer and Lauring (2015). In a study involving expatriates in Greater China, they found that work engagement had a stronger relationship with employees' ability to adjust to their jobs than with interaction adjustment or general adjustment. The results of a study including international students in Taiwan showed a significant relationship between cultural intelligence and psychological well-being (Yang & Chang, 2017). Those with higher levels of cultural intelligence are able to use their cultural understanding of others to help them determine the most appropriate action to take in different cultural contexts. They also have a greater interest in adjusting themselves to different cultural environments.

Although several studies relating workplace PsyCap to different work outcomes are available, studies measuring cross-cultural PsyCap specifically are very limited. A study by Liu (2014) showed that cross-cultural PsyCap significantly predicted job performance, as well as psychological and socio-cultural adjustment, of Chinese expatriates, while Dollwet and Reichard's (2014) study indicated that employees with higher levels of cross-cultural PsyCap measured higher on sociocultural adjustment. With regard to workplace PsyCap, previous international and South African studies indicated PsyCap to be a significant predictor of psychological well-being. In a study with Chinese nurses, Wang, Lui, Zou, Hao and Wu (2017) found that PsyCap could be a positive resource to improve the work engagement of the nurses, especially with respect to hope and optimism. In an Italian study in the public sector, an intervention programme based on improving PsyCap found a positive relationship between PsyCap and work engagement (Costantini et al., 2017). In South African studies, Du Plessis (2014) found that PsyCap made the biggest unique contribution to work engagement, while Bekker (2016) found PsyCap to be a predictor of work engagement. Other studies indicate that PsyCap helps prevent burnout. In a South African study with mineworkers, Nel and Kotzé (2017) found that the mineworkers had low levels of burnout and high levels of PsyCap (including all four components), indicating that PsyCap is likely to improve the psychological well-being. Kotzé (2018a) measured the influence of job resources and PsyCap on both work engagement and burnout and found that satisfaction with job resources was negatively related to burnout and positively related to work engagement, and that PsyCap had a positive influence on satisfaction with job resources. Therefore, satisfaction with job resources mediated the influence of PsyCap on burnout and work engagement.

Theoretical hypotheses

In light of the previous research, it is proposed that employees who gain higher levels of cross-cultural PsyCap may be less prone to burnout and may have higher levels of work engagement. Figure 1 shows the conceptual model and hypotheses formulated.

 

 

Hypothesis 1: Cross-cultural PsyCap has a statistically significant positive influence on the vigour component of work engagement.

Hypothesis 2: Cross-cultural PsyCap has a statistically significant positive influence on the dedication component of work engagement.

Hypothesis 3: Cross-cultural PsyCap has a statistically significant negative influence on the cynicism component of burnout.

Hypothesis 4: Cross-cultural PsyCap has a statistically significant negative influence on the emotional exhaustion component of burnout.

Research design

Research approach

A cross-sectional design with a survey data collection technique was applied in this study.

Research method

Participants

A total of 213 employees from different private and public organisations took part in the study. The mean age of the respondents was 36.35 years (median [MD] = 36; standard deviation [SD] = 7.473). The majority were between 26 and 45 years of age (85.91%). Furthermore, 55.87% (n = 119) were men.

The following language groups were represented: indigenous African languages (approximately 67%; n = 142), Afrikaans (approximately 25%; n = 53) and English (approximately 8%; n = 18). In terms of ethnicity, about 68% (n = 145) indicated that they were blacks, 18% were whites (n = 39), 11% were mixed race (n = 23) and 3% were Asians (n = 6). Nearly 13% (n = 27) respondents had five or less years of work experience, 31% (n = 66) had 6-10 years of experience, 25% (n = 54) had 11-15 years of experience, while about 31% (n = 66) had more than 16 years of experience.

Measuring instruments

Cross-cultural PsyCap: Dollwet and Reichard's (2014) cross-cultural PsyCap questionnaire was used to measure cross-cultural competence. These authors adapted the workplace PCQ-24 of Luthans et al. (2007) to the domain of cross-cultural interactions (Reichard et al., 2014). It consists of 20 items that include cross-cultural self-efficacy ('I believe I can succeed at almost anything I set my mind to when working across cultures'), cross-cultural hope ('There are lots of ways around any problem that I face when interacting with individuals from different cultures'), cross-cultural optimism ('I am optimistic about my future cross-cultural interactions') and cross-cultural resilience ('Even when things are tough, I can interact quite well with people from different cultures') (Dollwet & Reichard, 2014, p. 1689). Items were rated on a five-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The overall cross-cultural Psycap questionnaire applied to the South African sample demonstrated strong reliability (pre-test a = 0.95, post-test a = 0.92, post-post-test a = 0.93), while confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) confirmed the higher-order factor construct proposed for cross-cultural PsyCap in both South African and US samples (Reichard et al., 2014).

Psychological well-being: Relevant items from Maslach Burnout Inventory-General Survey (MBI-GS) (Schutte, Toppinen, Kalimo & Schaufeli, 2000) and the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES-9) (Schaufeli, Bakker, & Salanova, 2006) were used to measure burnout and work engagement. Items were rated on a seven-point Likert scale, with options ranging from 'never true of me' to 'almost always true of me'. Burnout was measured by means of emotional exhaustion (Ex) (i.e. 'I feel used up at the end of the workday') and cynicism (Cy) (i.e. 'I have become less interested in my work since I started this job'). In South African studies, the Cronbach's alpha α coefficients of 0.86-0.88 were estimated for emotional exhaustion and 0.74-0.80 for cynicism (Joubert & Rothmann, 2007; Rothmann, 2008). A South African study by Rothmann and Joubert (2007) found the fit of the two-factor MBI model to be acceptable, with all the fit indices higher than 0.90. Work engagement was measured by means of vigour (i.e. 'At my work, I feel strong and vigorous') and dedication (i.e. 'My job inspires me'). A cross-national study by Schaufeli et al. (2006) indicated Cronbach's a values between 0.60 and 0.88 (median = 0.77) for vigour and between 0.75 and 0.90 (median = 0.85) for dedication. Rothmann and Joubert (2007) found the two-factor UWES model to be acceptable as the fit indices were all higher than 0.90.

Statistical analysis

Partial least squares (PLS) and structural equations modelling (SEM) (SmartPLS version 3.2.8) were used to test the hypotheses (Hair, Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2011). A two-step approach was followed (Hair, Hult, Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2017). Firstly, the measurement model was assessed for internal consistency and construct validity. Considering that cross-cultural PsyCap is a reflective-reflective second-order construct consisting of four underlying first-order reflective constructs, the first-order constructs and the four dependent variables were first assessed for internal consistency and construct validity. Then, the second-order construct was assessed for internal consistency and validity. The assessment of internal consistency entailed calculating the composite reliability (CR) value for each construct. The CR value should be 0.7 or higher. To assess convergent validity, the outer loadings must be 0.7 or higher and statistically significant, and the average variance extracted (AVE) for each construct must be 0.5 or higher. To assess discriminant validity, the heterotrait-monotrait (HTMT) ratio of correlations was used (Henseler, Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2015). Based on the HTMT ratio of correlations, the ratio between a pair of constructs must not exceed 0.85 for evidence of discriminant validity.

Secondly, the structural model was assessed. As in the case of PLS-SEM, p-values were calculated by using bias-corrected bootstrapping (5000 subsamples).

 

Results

Measurement model results

Two steps were followed in assessing the measurement model. Firstly, the original measurement model as in the questionnaires was assessed for internal consistency and construct validity. Based on the results of the assessment, modifications were made to the measurement model in order to address problematic discriminant validity issues.

In the assessment of the original measurement model (see Table 1), adequate internal consistency and convergent validity were confirmed for all first-order constructs. However, as seen in Table 2, discriminant validity based on the HTMT ratio of correlations could not be confirmed between dedication and vigour, or between cross-cultural resilience and cross-cultural self-efficacy (two first-order constructs of cross-cultural PsyCap). Taking into account that the HTMT ratio is based on correlations, an inspection of the correlations between the items measuring dedication and vigour and the items measuring cross-cultural resilience and cross-cultural self-efficacy was conducted. High correlations between the items measuring each pair of constructs were identified and items forming part of these correlations were systematically removed from the measurement model up to the point that an acceptable HTMT ratio (< 0.85) was reached. This was achieved by removing VIG3, CEFF5 and CEFF7.

 

 

 

 

The results of the modified measurement model are presented in Table 1, while Table 3 presents the results of the HTMT ratio between the first-order constructs. All ratios are below the threshold of 0.85 (Table 3).

 

 

Table 4 provides the descriptive information of the constructs.

 

 

The results for the second-order construct cross-cultural PsyCap is presented in Table 5. The second-order construct exhibited adequate internal consistency and convergent validity to continue with the hypotheses testing.

 

 

Table 5 shows the HTMT ratio of correlations between the second-order construct and the four dependent variables. All HTMT ratios of correlations in Table 6 are below 0.85. Further evidence of discriminant validity in the measurement model is provided by these results.

 

 

Testing of hypotheses

Figure 2 shows the results of the testing of the hypotheses. All four hypotheses were accepted. The positive influence of cross-cultural PsyCap was stronger on vigour than on dedication, and the negative influence of cross-cultural PsyCap was stronger on emotional exhaustion than on cynicism. Confidence interval results are provided in Table 7.

 

 

 

 

Ethical considerations

All the respondents participated in the study voluntarily. They were asked to sign a consent form that guaranteed anonymity, confidentiality and publication of only aggregate data.

 

Discussion

Outline of results

The purpose of the study was to investigate the influence of employees' cross-cultural PsyCap on their psychological well-being (i.e. burnout and work engagement). Based on the findings of previous research on PsyCap, it was hypothesised that cross-cultural PsyCap will have a significant positive influence on vigour (H1) and dedication (H2) and a significant negative influence on cynicism (H3) and emotional exhaustion (H4). All these hypotheses were accepted. However, the positive influence of cross-cultural PsyCap was stronger on vigour than on dedication, and the negative influence of cross-cultural PsyCap was stronger on emotional exhaustion than on cynicism.

The findings support various previous studies and the JD-R model relating to workplace PsyCap that indicated that PsyCap had a positive influence on work engagement and a negative influence on burnout (Bekker, 2016; Du Plessis, 2014; Kotzé, 2018a, 2018b; Wang et al., 2017) and support the hypothesis that cross-cultural PsyCap will yield the same result as PsyCap. Also, in line with previous research on PsyCap, cross-cultural PsyCap had a stronger influence on both vigour (a component of engagement) and emotional exhaustion (a component of burnout). It is interesting to note that, according to Taris et al. (2017), both these components relate to the energetic component of psychological well-being. They state that vigour and emotional exhaustion focus on the energetic component of psychological well-being, while cynicism and dedication refer to employees' commitment. Therefore, it can be deduced that cross-cultural PsyCap has a stronger influence on the energetic components of psychological well-being than on the commitment components thereof. Avey, Luthans, Smith, and Palmer (2010) indicated that the acquiring and maintaining of personal resources, such as cross-cultural PsyCap, function both as a means and an end. In this instance, as a means it assists in achieving success in cross-cultural situations. For example, high levels of ethnocentrism hinder the success of individuals working across cultures. Cross-cultural PsyCap has a negative relationship with ethnocentrism and therefore increases employees' chances of being successful in such environments (Dollwet & Reichard, 2014). As an end, it results in better psychological well-being. According to Hobfoll's (2011) COR theory, employees seek to gain resources so that their resource gain can lead to the creation or accumulation of other resources that can enhance their psychological well-being.

Practical implications

Cross-cultural interactions are often emotionally charged and may lead to negative emotions and negative psychological well-being that can deplete personal resources. Cross-cultural PsyCap focuses on positive emotions and can provide a defence against these negative emotions. It can also assist in broadening resources that can lead to a more open view when it comes to other cultures (Reichard et al., 2014). Cross-cultural PsyCap should be considered as part of the personal resources that are identified in the JD-R model and COR theory. However, the development of cross-cultural competence demands more than a once-off intervention where knowledge and skills related to other cultures are provided. It requires the introduction and building of cross-cultural PsyCap, continuous learning and reinforcement, as well as organisational support. It is therefore an ongoing process (Du Plessis, 2014; Kealy & Protheroe, 1996; Reichard et al., 2014).

Limitations and recommendations

The study was limited to a relatively small convenience sample. The implication thereof was that it was too small to conduct a multi-group analysis (distinguishing between employees from private and public sector organisations). In the future, the two groups can be tested separately when larger numbers of participants are available. Also, the sample size allowed theory building by using SmartPLS. However, a larger sample would have allowed the use of covariance-based structural equation modelling for more rigorous testing of the theory. Future research can replicate the model on larger, purposefully selected samples. Because research on the influence of cross-cultural PsyCap is very limited, the influence thereof on other work outcomes, such as organisational commitment and performance, can also be explored.

 

Conclusion

South Africa is known for its diversity and this is reflected in the workplace. However, most South African research relating to the influence of personal resources on employee well-being focuses on the role of psychological resources, such as PsyCap. Very little research is available on the effect of cross-cultural PsyCap on psychological well-being. This research contributes to filling the gap in the literature regarding the role of cross-cultural psychological resources in the psychological well-being of employees working in cross-cultural environments. Increasing employees' cross-cultural PsyCap by means of programmes and continuous learning and reinforcement may prevent burnout and keep them more engaged in their work. Cross-cultural training assists with better cultural adjustment of employees because of more effective cross-cultural interactions. These interventions usually include the sharing of information about the relevant cultures and the development of intercultural skills, such as cross-cultural communication (Reichard et al., 2014). The focus of cross-cultural PsyCap on developing personal resources is an important factor that organisations must harness, as it provides a preventative perspective that can enhance employee well-being.

 

Acknowledgements

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationship(s) which may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

Authors' contributions

M.K. was responsible for conceptualisation, literature review, data gathering, discussion of results, practical implications, limitations and conclusion of the article. L.M. was responsible for literature review, discussion of results, practical implications, limitations and conclusion of the article.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit -sectors.

Data availability statement

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the authors.

 

References

Ang, S., & Inkpen, A. C. (2008). Cultural intelligence and offshore outsourcing success: A framework of firm-level intercultural capability. Decision Sciences, 39, 337-358. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5915.2008.00195.x        [ Links ]

Avey, J. B., Luthans, F., Smith, R. M., & Palmer, N. F. (2010). Impact of positive psychological capital on employee well-being over time. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 15, 17-28. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016998        [ Links ]

Bakker, A. B., & Demerouti, E. (2008). Towards a model of work engagement. Career Development International, 13, 209-223. https://doi.org/10.1108/13620430810870476        [ Links ]

Bekker, S. (2016). Exploring the relationship between psychological capital and work engagement. Master's mini-dissertation. Potchefstroom, South Africa: North-West University.         [ Links ]

Bhaskar-Shrinivas, P., Harrison, D. A., Shaffer, M. A., & Luk, D. M. (2005). Input-based and time-based models of international adjustment: Meta-analytic evidence and theoretical extensions. Academy of Management Journal, 48, 257-281. https://doi.org/10.5465/AMJ.2005.16928400        [ Links ]

Chatman, J. A., & Flynn, F. J. (2001). The influence of demographic heterogeneity on the emergence and consequences of cooperative norms in work teams. Academy of Management Journal, 44, 956-974. https://doi.org/10.5465/3069440        [ Links ]

Costantini, A., De Paola, F., Ceschi, A., Sartori, R., Meneghini, A. M., & Di Fabio, A. (2017). Work engagement and psychological capital in the Italian public administration: A new resource-based intervention programme. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 43(0), a1413. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v43i0.1413        [ Links ]

De Dreu, C. K. W., & West, M. A. (2001). Minority dissent and team innovation: The importance of participation in decision making. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 1191-1201. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.86.6.1191        [ Links ]

Deloitte. (2018). Human capital trends report for South Africa: The rise of the social enterprise. Retrieved from http://www.talenttalks.net/2018-deloitte-human-capital-trends-report-south-africa.         [ Links ]

Dollwet, M., & Reichard, R. (2014). Assessing cross-cultural skills: Validation of a new measure of cross-cultural psychological capital. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 25, 1669-1696. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2013.845239        [ Links ]

Du Plessis, M. (2014). The relationship between authentic leadership, psychological capital, followership and work engagement. Doctoral dissertation. Bellville, South Africa: University of the Western Cape.         [ Links ]

Earley, P. C., & Ang, S. (2003). Cultural intelligence: Individual interactions across cultures. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.         [ Links ]

Hair, J. F., Jr., Hult, G. T. M., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2017). A primer on partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) (2nd edn.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.         [ Links ]

Hair, J. F., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2011). PLS-SEM: Indeed a silver bullet. Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, 19, 139-152. https://doi.org/10.2753/MTP1069-6679190202        [ Links ]

Henseler, J., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2015). A new criterion for assessing discriminant validity in variance-based structural equation modeling. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 43, 115-135. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-014-0403-8        [ Links ]

Hobfoll, S. E. (2002). Social and psychological resources and adaptation. Review of General Psychology, 6, 307-324. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.6.4.307        [ Links ]

Hobfoll, S. E. (2011). Conservation of resource caravans and engaged settings. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 84, 116-122. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8325.2010.02016.x        [ Links ]

Javidan, M., & Teagarden, M. B. (2011). Conceptualizing and measuring global mindset. In W. H. Mobley, M. Li, & Y. Wang (Eds.), Advances in Global Leadership (Vol. 6, pp. 13-39). Bingley, UK: Emerald.         [ Links ]

Johnson, J. P., Lenartowicz, T., & Apud, S. (2006). Cross-cultural competence in international business: Toward a definition and a model. Journal of International Business Studies, 37, 525-543. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400205        [ Links ]

Joubert, J. H. M., & Rothmann, S. (2007). Job demands, job resources, burnout and work engagement of managers at a platinum mine in the North West Province. South African Journal of Business Management, 38(3), 49-61.         [ Links ]

Kealy, D. J., & Protheroe, D. R. (1996). The effectiveness of cross-cultural training for expatriates: An assessment of the literature on the issue. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 20, 141-165. https://doi.org/10.1016/0147-1767(96)00001-6        [ Links ]

Kotzé, M. (2018a). How job resources and personal resources influence work engagement and burnout. African Journal of Economic and Management Studies, 9, 148-164. https://doi.org/10.1108/AJEMS-05-2017-0096        [ Links ]

Kotzé, M. (2018b). The influence of psychological capital, self-leadership, and mindfulness on work engagement. South African Journal of Psychology, 48, 279-292. https://doi.org/10.1177/0081246317705812        [ Links ]

Liu, G. (2014). The impact of cross-cultural psychological capital and social support on expatriate effectiveness: A study of Chinese expatriates. Doctoral dissertation. Auckland, New Zealand: The University of Auckland.         [ Links ]

Luthans, F., Youssef, C. M., & Avolio, B. J. (2007). Psychological capital: Developing the human competitive edge. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.         [ Links ]

Luthans, F., & Youssef-Morgan, C. M. (2017). Psychological capital: An evidence-based positive approach. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 4, 339-366. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032516-113324        [ Links ]

Maslach, C. (1993). Burnout: A multidimensional perspective. In W. B. Schaufeli, C. Maslach, & T. Marek (Eds.), Professional burnout: Recent developments in theory and research (pp. 19-32). Washington, DC: Taylor & Francis.         [ Links ]

Maslach, C. Jackson, S. E., & Leiter, M. P. (1996). Maslach burnout inventory: Test manual. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.         [ Links ]

Nel, P., & Kotzé, M. (2017). The influence of psychological resources on mineworkers' levels of burnout in a remote and isolated mining town in South Africa. The Extractive Industries and Society, 4, 885-892. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exis.2017.10.002        [ Links ]

Ng, K.-Y., & Earley, P. C. (2006). Culture + intelligence: Old constructs, new frontiers. Group & Organization Management, 31, 4-19. https://doi.org/10.1177/1059601105275251        [ Links ]

Potgieter, E. (2017). SA reconciliation barometer survey: 2017 report. Institute for Justice and Reconciliation. Retrieved from http://www.ijr.org.za/home/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/IJR-Barometer-Report-2017-WEB-final.pdf        [ Links ]

Reichard, R. J., Dollwet, M., & Louw-Potgieter, J. (2014). Development of cross-cultural psychological capital and its relationship with cultural intelligence and ethnocentrism. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 21, 150-164. https://doi.org/10.1177/1548051813515517        [ Links ]

Rothmann, S. (2008). Job satisfaction, occupational stress, burnout and work engagement as components of work-related wellbeing. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 34(3), 11-16. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v34i3.424        [ Links ]

Rothmann, S., & Joubert, J. H. M. (2007). Job demands, job resources, burnout and work engagement of manager at a platinum mine in the North West Province. South African Journal of Business Management, 38(3), 49-61.         [ Links ]

Schaufeli, W., & Bakker, A. (2003). UWES Utrecht Work Engagement Scale: Preliminary manual (Version 1). Retrieved from https://www.academia.edu/31439118/UWES_UTRECHT_WORK_ENGAGEMENT_SCALE_Preliminary_Manual.         [ Links ]

Schaufeli, W. B. (2014). What is engagement? In C. Truss, R. Delbridge, R. Alfes, A. Shantz, & E. Soane (Eds.), Employee engagement in theory and practice (pp. 15-35). London, UK: Routledge.         [ Links ]

Schaufeli, W. B., & Bakker, A. B. (2004). Job demands, job resources and their relationship with burnout and engagement: A multi-sample study. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 25, 293-315. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.248        [ Links ]

Schaufeli, W. B., Bakker, A. B., & Salanova, M. (2006). The measurement of work engagement with a short questionnaire: A cross-national study. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 66, 701-716. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164405282471        [ Links ]

Schaufeli, W. B., Martínez, I. M., Pinto, A. M., Salanova, M., & Bakker, A. B. (2002a). Burnout and engagement in university students: A cross-national study. Journal of Cross-cultural Psychology, 33, 464-481. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022102033005003        [ Links ]

Schaufeli, W. B., Salanova, M., González-Romá, V., & Bakker, A. B. (2002b). The measurement of engagement and burnout: A two sample confirmatory factor analytic approach. Journal of Happiness Studies, 3, 71-92. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015630930326        [ Links ]

Schutte, N., Toppinen, S., Kalimo, R. & Schaufeli, W. (2000). The factorial validity of the Maslach Burnout Inventory-General Survey (MBI-GS) across occupational groups and nations. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 73, 53-66        [ Links ]

Selmer, J., & Lauring, J. (2015). Work engagement and intercultural adjustment. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 16, 33-51. https://doi.org/10.1177/1470595815622491        [ Links ]

Serfontein, T. (2014). The role of perceived organisational support, diversity, engagement and burnout in the retention of employees. Master's thesis. Potchefstroom, South Africa: North-West University.         [ Links ]

Taris, T. W., Ybema, J. F., & Van Beek, I. (2017). Burnout and engagement: Identical twins or just close relatives? Burnout Research, 5, 3-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.burn.2017.05.002        [ Links ]

Urciuoli, B. (2010). Entextualizing diversity: Semiotic incoherence in institutional discourse. Language & Communication, 30, 48-57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.langcom.2009.10.005        [ Links ]

Wang, X., Liu, L., Zou, F., Hao, J., & Wu, H. (2017). Associations of occupational stressors, perceived organizational support, and psychological capital with work engagement among Chinese female nurses. BioMed Research International, 2017, 11. https://doi.org/10/1155/2017/5284628.         [ Links ]

Yang, T.-P., & Chang, W.-W. (2017). The relationship between cultural intelligence and psychological well-being with the moderating effects of mindfulness: A study of international students in Taiwan. European Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies, 2, 384-391. https://doi.org/10.26417/ejms.v5i1.p384-391        [ Links ]

 

 

Correspondence:
Martina Kotze
kotzem@ufs.ac.za

Received: 19 Mar. 2019
Accepted: 01 July 2019
Published: 10 Oct. 2019

^rND^sAng^nS.^rND^sInkpen^nA. C.^rND^sAvey^nJ. B.^rND^sLuthans^nF.^rND^sSmith^nR. M.^rND^sPalmer^nN. F.^rND^sBakker^nA. B.^rND^sDemerouti^nE.^rND^sBhaskar-Shrinivas^nP.^rND^sHarrison^nD. A.^rND^sShaffer^nM. A.^rND^sLuk^nD. M.^rND^sChatman^nJ. A.^rND^sFlynn^nF. J.^rND^sCostantini^nA.^rND^sDe Paola^nF.^rND^sCeschi^nA.^rND^sSartori^nR.^rND^sMeneghini^nA. M.^rND^sDi Fabio^nA.^rND^sDe Dreu^nC. K. W.^rND^sWest^nM. A.^rND^sDollwet^nM.^rND^sReichard^nR.^rND^sHair^nJ. F.^rND^sRingle^nC. M.^rND^sSarstedt^nM.^rND^sHenseler^nJ.^rND^sRingle^nC. M.^rND^sSarstedt^nM.^rND^sHobfoll^nS. E.^rND^sHobfoll^nS. E.^rND^sJavidan^nM.^rND^sTeagarden^nM. B.^rND^sJohnson^nJ. P.^rND^sLenartowicz^nT.^rND^sApud^nS.^rND^sJoubert^nJ. H. M.^rND^sRothmann^nS.^rND^sKealy^nD. J.^rND^sProtheroe^nD. R.^rND^sKotzé^nM.^rND^sKotzé^nM.^rND^sLuthans^nF.^rND^sYoussef-Morgan^nC. M.^rND^sMaslach^nC.^rND^sNel^nP.^rND^sKotzé^nM.^rND^sNg^nK.-Y.^rND^sEarley^nP. C.^rND^sReichard^nR. J.^rND^sDollwet^nM.^rND^sLouw-Potgieter^nJ.^rND^sRothmann^nS.^rND^sRothmann^nS.^rND^sJoubert^nJ. H. M.^rND^sSchaufeli^nW. B.^rND^sSchaufeli^nW. B.^rND^sBakker^nA. B.^rND^sSchaufeli^nW. B.^rND^sBakker^nA. B.^rND^sSalanova^nM.^rND^sSchaufeli^nW. B.^rND^sMartínez^nI. M.^rND^sPinto^nA. M.^rND^sSalanova^nM.^rND^sBakker^nA. B.^rND^sSchaufeli^nW. B.^rND^sSalanova^nM.^rND^sGonzález-Romá^nV.^rND^sBakker^nA. B.^rND^sSchutte^nN.^rND^sToppinen^nS.^rND^sKalimo^nR.^rND^sSchaufeli^nW.^rND^sSelmer^nJ.^rND^sLauring^nJ.^rND^sTaris^nT. W.^rND^sYbema^nJ. F.^rND^sVan Beek^nI.^rND^sUrciuoli^nB.^rND^sYang^nT.-P.^rND^sChang^nW.-W.^rND^1A01^nJabulani G.^sKheswa^rND^1A01^nJabulani G.^sKheswa^rND^1A01^nJabulani G^sKheswa

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Factors and effects of work-related stress and burnout on the well-being of social workers in the Eastern Cape province, South Africa

 

 

Jabulani G. Kheswa

Department of Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, University of Fort Hare, Alice, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

---

ABSTRACT

ORIENTATION: Work-related stress and burnout among social workers are on the rise because of extensive workload, job dissatisfaction and exposure to traumatic situations. Therefore, one should determine how they impact the well-being
RESEARCH PURPOSE: This study determined the factors and effects of work-related stress and burnout on the well-being of social workers
MOTIVATION FOR THE STUDY: An alarming number of social workers show no compassion towards the clients owing to burnout. Therefore, more research is needed for social workers to enhance their purpose and work engagement.
RESEARCH APPROACH/DESIGN AND METHOD: This qualitative study was designed from an interpretivist perspective. Fourteen social workers, aged 35-59 years, from two Department of Social Development and Welfare offices (Alice and King Williams Town) selected through purposive sampling participated in the study. Data were gathered by means of focus group interviews and grounded theory was applied for data analysis.
MAIN FINDINGS: The study results confirmed that social workers attributed their work-related stress to lack of resources such as transport, computers and inadequate emotional support from their supervisors. Thus, they demonstrated impaired personal strength and poor human relations
PRACTICAL/MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS: To achieve commitment and optimism, there should be recruitment of new staff and salary increase for social workers.
CONTRIBUTION/VALUE-ADD: The study results should provide coping strategies for social workers when faced with secondary traumatic stress.

Keywords: Burnout; Well-Being; Social Workers; Work-related Stress; Coping; Emotional Support; Job Satisfaction; Resources; Trauma.

---

 

 

Introduction

Social work is the leading profession in terms of experiencing poor physical health, poor job satisfaction and impaired well-being (Graham, Shier, & Nicholas, 2016) because the work conditions for social workers are unbearable and characterised by stress (Hipp, Beenhardt, & Allmendingen, 2015). In Zimbabwe, social workers working under stringent circumstances despite being underpaid left the profession for industrialised countries such as Australia, the United Kingdom and New Zealand because the ratio of social workers to children who were dependent on their services (1:49 000) was uneven and detrimental to their well-being (Mugumbate & Nyanguru, 2013). In Nordic countries, social workers in public sectors expressed job dissatisfaction because of extensive workload and organisational policy (Blomberg, Kallio, Kroll, & Saarinen, 2015), while in Hong Kong an alarming number of social workers reported working long hours (Vyas & Luk, 2010). Because social workers should ensure that maltreated children are protected from abusive caregivers and should manage children' court proceedings (Truter, Fouche, & Theron, 2016; UBS Optimus Foundation, 2016), it is not surprising that a disproportionate number of South African social workers experience secondary traumatic stress. Secondary traumatic stress encompasses reactions originating from coming into contact with conflicted clients in hostile environments, thereby leading to an experience of flashbacks, avoidance and/or intrusive memories (Graham et al., 2016). To prove the intensity of secondary traumatic stress among social workers, adolescent women from child-headed households in the Eastern Cape province, South Africa, during the focus group interviews mentioned that the social workers stopped doing the home visits because they would not endure listening to the painful stories of how at times they (adolescent women) would risk their lives by engaging in transactional sex with older men (Kheswa, 2017).

From the eco-social approach, social workers are concerned about the structures of the society and how people relate to their social problems as social work practice is founded on the holistic model (Murty, Sanders, & Stensland, 2015). Social work refers to an educational discipline that is responsible for bringing social change and development, promoting social cohesion, involving community participation as well as empowering and giving freedom to the people (Van Wyk, 2011). Because social workers generally provide care in health and home settings (Simons & An, 2015), a majority of them experience work-related stress, thereby leading to poor mental health as a result of burnout. Work-related stress can be described as overwhelming internal (individual) and external (environment) challenges that contribute towards high turnover, lack of positive work engagement and decreasing job satisfaction (Van Wyk, 2011). According to Sonnentag, Pundt and Albrecht (2014), there are five categories of stressors that need attention to avoid a situation where the social workers may experience job dissatisfaction. These categories are:

1. physical stressors (e.g. concerns for safety and security of individuals)

2. task-related stressors (e.g. job density)

3. role stressors (e.g. unclear job description and expectations)

4. social stressors (e.g. poor human relations)

5. career-related stressors (e.g. limited opportunities for development).

It is no wonder that the new qualified South African social workers who went for exchange programmes to countries such as Malaysia and England for placement (i.e. 6 months practical) depicted task-related stressors and career related stressors as attributable to their disengagement because they were immersed in many paperwork and the guidance and support from the supervisors were minimal (Hollis, 2012; Matthew & Lough, 2017). Some of the contributory factors mentioned by social workers as leading to stress were lack of communication tools, such as telephone or Internet access for reaching out to clients or completion of reports. Such factors may over time result in burnout, which is an extreme emotional exhaustion that takes place when one is unable to fulfil the responsibilities in the workplace (Maslach, 2003; Wagaman, Geiger, Shockley, & Segal, 2015). Ultimately, such social workers may lose interest in showing compassion to the clients.

Previous South African quantitative studies on burnout at the workplace seemed to have focused on nurses (Khamisa, Peltzer, Ilic, & Oldenburg, 2017), medical doctors (Rajan & Engelbrecht, 2018) and educators at the boarding schools (Blew, 2018), all in Gauteng province. In a survey conducted among the final year social work students from one university in South Africa, Le Roux, Steyn and Hall (2018) found that a majority of black students displayed low professional efficacy, vulnerability and emotional burnout as compared to their white counterparts. It is against this background that this qualitative study intends to investigate how work-related stress contributes towards impaired well-being among the social workers in the Eastern Cape province, South Africa.

Research objectives

The introductory discussion highlights how work-related stress among social workers from different countries contributes to burnout. Maslach, Jackson and Leiter (2014) described burnout as a psychological syndrome that results from chronic interpersonal stressors at workplace and social workers who experience it may feel detached from work and clients, lack a sense of purpose and self-actualisation (Piatkowska, 2014) and develop pessimism (Papathanasiou, 2015). Brinkborg, Michanek, Hesser and Berglund (2011) confirmed that social workers are most likely to experience stress and burnout when they lack resource to execute their duties. In South Africa, various scholars have documented that social workers should be overwhelmed because in ensuring the safety of orphans, child-headed households and families struck by domestic violence, they need to intervene (Kheswa, 2017; McLaren, Steenkamp Feeley, Nyarko, & Venter, 2018; Meinck, Cluver, Boyes, & Ndhlovu, 2015). It is reported that of the 18 213 social workers registered with the South African Council of Social Work (Jamieson, Sambu & Mathews, 2017), only 9289 were in the government sector 5 years back, of whom the majority of social workers in South Africa are likely to resign, experience fatigue or be unproductive. This research has therefore been motivated by an alarming number of social workers who are exposed to secondary traumatic stress. Furthermore, the need to conduct a qualitative study among black social workers experiencing burnout would be necessary as the sample in this study have demonstrated impaired purpose in life, lack of motivation, post-traumatic stress disorder, poor immune system and displacement because of the lack of accountability from the managers and insufficient resources.

Potential value-add of the study

Practically, this study's findings may be of importance to the body of knowledge regarding social workers' well-being, who work under excruciating conditions. Furthermore, from a methodological point of view, this study is of importance because the work-related stress is investigated qualitatively. Participants' reactions to psychological, cognitive and behavioural stressors may assist the minister of Department of Social Development and Welfare to improve the work conditions including incentives for social workers. At the local level, the centre managers should liaise with the government in recommending the fringe benefits for social workers who are multi-skilled. The sequence in this article will be unfolded through highlighting theoretical perspectives on work-related stress and burnout in the 'Literature' section. Then the research methodology will be presented, followed by a discussion on the results of the study.

Literature

Christina Maslach introduced the theory of burnout and described job burnout as prolonged response to chronic interpersonal stressors at workplace (Maslach, 1982; Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter, 2001). Closely linked to the theory of burnout is Lazarus and Folkman's coping theory (1985), which states that psychological stress responses may be emotional, behavioural and cognitive when individuals do not cope. Physical stress can manifest in deterioration of body tissues; cause high blood pressure, depression, heart failure, backaches, headaches and fatigue; and contribute towards low sexual libido because of a weak immune system (Bernstein, 2018).

In South Africa, a total of 19% of social workers who migrated to countries such as New Zealand have led to burnout for those still working in the government sectors and non-profit organisations (NGOs) (Bartley et al., 2016). This is because they are immersed in documentation and paperwork, management of multiple services (e.g. family reunification, psychosocial support and placement) and validation of methods for clients. Furthermore, they should adapt to an increased accountability and practice guidelines (Acker, 2010). Similarly, in Romania, in 2012, there was a deficit of 11 000 social workers (Teșliuc, Grigoraș, & Stănculescu, 2015), while in Namibia, by 2013, there were only 656 employed registered social workers to address the social needs of a population of over 2.1 million (Republic of Namibia, 2013). This shortage of staff has been documented being attributable to chronic stress among social workers.

Considering that the budget made by the South African Department of Social Development for compensation of social workers was at 0.5% in 2015 and it will remain the same until 2021 (UNICEF, 2018), it is not surprising that the majority of social workers display low level of commitment to the profession, resign and do not flourish. Rautenbach (2015) defines workplace flourishing as an employee's optimal functioning at the workplace coupled with a complete state of mental health. Ajzen and Fishbein (1975) posit that when such a perception precedes attitude, intentions and behaviour, social workers are most likely not to leave their careers. This could be true because Gagne and Deci (2005) noted that when the social workers experience fulfilment, career satisfaction and attach social identity to their profession, they lead a heathy lifestyle and for longer duration.

The lack of funding in the Department of Social Welfare and Development has been documented as contributing to stress among social workers because it hinders them to implement interventions targeted at vulnerable people (Chiwara & Lombard, 2017). For example, in South Africa, which is known for the disproportionate number of people living with HIV pandemic (Van Heerden et al. 2017), owing to insufficient number of state vehicles to transport social workers to reach the people in the rural areas, the majority end up relapsing or not adhering to the antiretroviral treatment. This results in the social workers compromising the ethical commitment to social justice and human rights (International Federation of Social Workers [IFSW], 2014).

Figley (2002) pioneered the concept of compassion fatigue, which is described as the secondary traumatic stress and refers to the emotions and behaviour by social workers when helping the clients, and may be manifested in the demonstration of aloofness, coldness, depersonalisation and lack of interest in the organisational goals and values (Compassion Fatigue Awareness Project, 2015). Social workers who experience secondary traumatic stress following contact sessions with the clients tend to report flashbacks, avoidance and intrusive memories (Piatkowska, 2014). Depersonalisation refers to an experience of psychological distancing from interpersonal relationships, in which social workers show no regard for the clients' human dignity (Le Roux et al. 2018). One way to depersonalise themselves from clients could be absenteeism from work without reporting to their supervisors or applying for leave frequently. Owing to an inability to cope with future stressors at work, Van Breda (2018) depicted that poor mental health hinders the effectiveness among social workers; thus, they demonstrate hopelessness and aloofness towards the clients.

 

Research design

Research approach

According to Lincoln and Guba (2005), a research paradigm is guided by three key concepts: ontology (definition of legitimate knowledge), epistemology (investigation of the truth) and methodology (knowledge enquiry). The researcher followed a qualitative approach, which is epistemological and methodological in nature, to allow for interpretation. As suggested by Creswell (2003), the purpose of qualitative approach is to explain a particular phenomenon and not to make generalisations.

Research strategy

In this study, two focus group interviews consisting of 14 social workers from the Department of Social Welfare and Development were conducted.

Research setting and sampling

This study was conducted at the boardrooms of the two Department of Social Development and Welfare (i.e. Zwelitsha location and Alice) offices of the Eastern Cape province, South Africa. The purposive sampling is defined as a method that is deliberately an effort of gaining representation of sample by including the groups in the probable area (Creswell, 2003; Creswell & Creswell, 2017). It is important to note that the managers did not get involved in selecting the participants. Instead, the researcher sent an invitation to the participants via email for participation. In Alice location, seven participants (four women and three men), aged 28 - 59 years, were sampled. In Zwelitsha location, seven participants (three women and four men), aged 25 - 53 years, were sampled. All the contacted participants in both locations agreed to participate voluntarily in the study and none of them withdrew. The focus group interviews which lasted 1 h 30 min each were conducted over two consecutive days in separate settings to avoid fatigue and bias. The questions asked in both settings were the same. The researcher identified the themes after prolonging the seven participants from two different locations to achieve data saturation. Conducting a qualitative research with small samples builds rapport between the researcher and participants, and allowed the researcher to deeply explore the phenomenon as interpreted by participants in their own specific context (Creswell, 2003; Engel & Schutt, 2014). According to Lincoln and Guba (2005), such an inductive approach stimulates the likelihood of reassigning findings to similar contexts.

The criteria for selecting the sample included registration with the South African Council of Social Workers. Some of the participants were married, divorced and single. Participants also occupied different ranks and levels (grades). In this study, five of the participants were married, while seven were single as opposed to only two who indicated to have divorced. Of the 14 participants, eight had bachelor's degrees in Social Work (SW), two had master's degrees (SW), one had a master's degree and postgraduate qualifications and the other three had bachelor's degrees in SW and certificates related to their profession. Table 1 provides a summary profile of the research participants at the time of data collection.

Data gathering

Qualitative methods of data collection, such as observations and interviewing, are preferred by researchers working with interpretive paradigms (Creswell, 2003). For this study, the semistructured interviews were employed as the main method of data collection. An interview guide was prepared prior to data collection and assisted in time-saving because it explored and defined areas that had to be addressed. Owing to the flexibility of this approach, participants elaborated during probing (Gill, Stewart, Treasure, & Chadwick, 2008). Examples of the questions asked include the following:

· What job-related challenges hinder your professional efficiency?

· How have you been coping with clients who experience domestic violence?

· How do you handle situations where you should remove maltreated children from their caregivers?

· What form of emotional support do you get from your immediate supervisors and/or managers?

· How do you cope with trauma?

The focus group interviews were conducted over 2 days and lasted for 1 h 30 min each.

Recording of data

Prior to the focus group interviews, permission was requested to audio-tape the participants' responses. Digital recordings were transcribed immediately after the two interviews were concluded, as Creswell (2003) recommends that transcription should happen as soon as possible to facilitate data analysis. A professional transcriber was employed to enhance the trustworthiness of the study.

Data analysis

The grounded theory approach was used to analyse the data. Three steps of coding - open coding, axial coding and selective coding - were followed (De Vos, Strydom, Fouche, & Delport, 2011). During open coding, the researcher named and categorised the data into smaller concepts. During axial coding, connections between categories were identified to develop main themes from the data and sub-categories (Engel & Schult, 2014). Selective coding refers to the main process or the core category, systematically relating to each other categories, confirming those relationships and filling in categories that need further refinement (De Vos et al., 2011). The researcher analysed the data until the data had been theoretically saturated, well established and validated.

Trustworthiness

Trustworthiness involves establishing credibility, dependability, confirmability and transferability. To establish credibility, the participants were engaged in a prolonged discussion about work-related stress and its consequences as suggested by Connelly (2016). Regarding dependability, Willig and Rogers (2017) suggest that the researchers should ask themselves a question: how dependable are the results? Conformability guarantees that the results, conclusion and the recommendations are supported by data and that there is an agreement between the interpretation and the actual evidence (Brink, Van der Walt & Rensburg, 2006). The researcher supported his findings by comparing them to the existing literature. Transferability refers to the probability that the study findings have meaning to others in similar situations. The expectation for determining whether the findings fit or are transferable rests with potential users of the findings and not with the researchers (De Vos et al., 2011).

Reporting

In reporting of findings, the researcher's interpretations should be substantiated with the exact words 'verbatim' from the empirical study and assimilated with relevant theories as suggested by Creswell (2013).

 

Findings

To avoid bias when reporting findings, Ritchie, Lewis, Nicholls and Ormston (2013) opine that the explanations and conclusions to be arrived at should be generated from, and grounded in, the data. In this study, eight themes emerged. Thematic analysis is defined as a meticulous process of identifying, analysing and reporting themes that emerge from a qualitative study (Maziriri, Madinga, & Lose, 2017). Thematic analysis is regarded as the 'foundational method for qualitative analysis' and was chosen to formally exchange the analytical process given its suitability to the exploratory nature of the research (Maziriri et al., 2017). The major advantage of thematic analysis is that it is a logical process that allows the researcher to scrutinise interview transcripts comprehensively and glean all possible themes (Maziriri et al., 2017). The following framework indicates the main themes identified in the data sources. Each theme will be discussed individually, followed by substantiating quotes. Interpreted data will be compared with the existing literature.

Theme 1: Lack of resources in the Department of Social Development and Welfare

More than a quarter of participants from both centres indicated that their professional efficiency is compromised because of a lack facilities. They indicated that they delay in attending families and children who should be rescued from hostile environments as a result of shortage of cars. For example, they cited:

There is a shortage of resources in our office. For example, here we are 21 staff and there is only one car which is now not working. (Participant 1, 35 years old, female)

When we have to go for visit, we would have to wait for the other person because there is only one car. (Participant 4, 41 years old, male)

We are unable to visit clients in need of counselling because there is only one car for almost 12 villages. (Participant 13, 25 years old, female)

The need for repairing equipment was also raised by participants as they struggle to compile monthly reports because of computers which do not function, as evident in the following extracts:

We have computers here but they are not working, and at the end of the month you are expected to submit your reports. (Participant 5, 59 years old, female)

The system that the department is using has failed us. We have a few of the resources here but they are not working. For instance, we have computers here but they are not working; if it is working there is no internet and some of our work requires us to capture our records for report filing but we cannot do that and that makes us to look as if we are inefficient. (Participant 6, 47 years old, female)

Theme 2: Lack of accountability

From the responses of the participants, it is evident that the social workers do not get support from their managers, especially in Alice:

Everyone do as they please here because of lack of observation by management. There was a time here when one that our colleagues was not paid for almost a year and when enquiring this they told him that he was not in the system and was not recognised as an employee in the department. Furthermore, other departments get incentives but here we are just working and we have been waiting for our benefits until now. (Participant 3, 38 years old, female)

This lack of accountability from the managers could be demotivating because the participants were aware that their colleagues from other departments had been given incentives:

We have been waiting for a long time here for money that we were promised but it has not reached us. We see people from other departments being rewarded for their work but to us…nothing. (Participant 1, 35 years old, female)

Theme 3: Impaired purpose in life

By gender, both female and male participants expressed feelings of regret for having pursued social work as there is no personal growth and recognition for their dedication. Their responses indicated impaired sense of purpose in life because they kept on referring to their friends who lead successful careers in other department:

I won't lie to you, there are times when I regret doing this degree because even when you have experience in many areas such as clinical social work and restorative justice, when posts are being advertised, they are being filled by people from outside. Hence I say majority of us have lost courage and drink alcohol to forget their problems. (Participant 10, 40 years old, male)

A female participant who holds a masters' degree in SW concurred by saying:

I do not even consider myself as someone who possesses a Master's degree in social work because of how we are treated and the conditions we work under. We love doing our job and we are passionate about it, but there is no improvement in our salaries. My friends who work as teachers get promotion and some are principals as we speak. (Participant 1, 35 years old, female)

According to Jessen (2015), rewarding is important for the employee as it helps them to be firm, productive and achieve their goals. Thus, the absence of this leads to poor performance and more turnovers.

Theme 4: Job satisfaction

Regarding job satisfaction, there was a strong affirmation among the participants that they were not happy and they highlighted the lack of extrinsic motivation. Gagne and Deci's (2005) Self-determination Theory (SDT) states that any factor at the workplace that satisfies human needs, such as competence, relatedness and autonomy, is likely to enhance intrinsic motivation. On the other hand, performance contingent rewards have the propensity to improve extrinsic motivation (Zhu, Gardner, & Chen, 2018). The responses reflect the lack of extrinsic motivation:

I just don't know any more. When I was still at school I thought that I would be busy everyday helping people, but when coming to the real world it's a different story. I am even tired of coming to work because I know that I will just sit and do nothing. (Participant 2, 39 years old, male)

Every month we have to do reports and score ourselves, and that month I did campaigns and even went an extra mile but I was given a low score and my supervisor could not stand for me and fight for a higher score. (Participant 7, 28 years old, male)

Everyone likes to be praised when they have done well in what they were doing. Lack of recognition discourages a person and that is where we would feel tired of what we do. Just little incentives make a difference. (Participant 14, 53 years old, female)

Theme 5: Post-traumatic stress disorder

The study results indicate that there are participants who experienced post-traumatic stress disorder when they provide counselling. Despite the 20 years of service, Participant 12 cited:

The work that we do affect us psychologically because at times, we are supposed to be emotionally strong for rape victims and parents whose children got killed while in prison. It is impossible for you to run away from the emotional pain although I suffer from insomnia and lately, my hypertension has gone high. (Participant 12, 52 years old, male)

Similarly, a female participant, who has been a social worker since she was 24 years old, mentioned that there is no safety at work and witnessing a scene where someone was shot has built anxiety. She has been quoted as follows:

There was an incident recently, where one of our colleagues was attacked here at work by someone unknown, even until this day I fear for my life. Whenever I watch television and there are killings, I just tremble because we could have been severely injured since that man was having a gun. Next year I will be retiring and I have no plans of extending it. (Participant 5, 59 years old, female)

Another male participant witnessed the domestic violence of elderly couple and he did not know how to intervene. He narrated as follows:

I could not believe my eyes when a 65 year old man severely beat his wife who was accusing him of adultery. He tackled her until she fell on the floor. (Participant 13, 25 years old, male)

Post-traumatic stress disorder falls under anxiety disorders and refers to a pattern of negative reactions following a traumatic event, commonly involving re-experiencing the event in the form of nightmares (Bernstein, 2016). These findings correspond with the study conducted in Finland, in which social workers who participated in a longitudinal study reported a burnout that manifested in a decline in overall physical health and respiratory infections (Kim, Ji, & Kao, 2011).

Theme 6: Displacement

Owing to overwhelming workload experienced by social workers, it emerged that some participants have harboured anger and they would vent it out to innocent individuals. Such behaviour is called displacement. According to Sigmund Freud, father of psychoanalytic theory (Freud & Bonaparte, 1954), displacement is a defence mechanism in which an individual may deflect an impulse from its original target to a less threatening one. For example, a female participant expressed the following when asked about their coping strategies regarding documentation when parents apply for Child Support Grant:

There are times I would throw my frustrations at my boyfriend and we would fight because I feel at times that he does not understand where I'm coming from but eventually we would be fine. Talking about things that bothers us helps in a relationship and also understanding one another boosts it. (Participant 9, 44 years old, female)

Theme 7: Debriefing for social workers

There were mixed feelings expressed by participants regarding debriefing. Debriefing is defined as reviewing accounts of what occurred and how an individual has reacted psychologically, emotionally and behaviourally to a traumatic situation (Miller, 2004). Some participants mentioned that the workshops were for debriefing. Participant 5 continued to emphasise that the Department of Social Development and Welfare does not care about their well-being:

When one of our colleagues was attacked, nothing was done. How do they expect us to work effectively when we know that people can go in and out of here as they please because there are no security guards at the entrance? I always fear for my life here. (Participant 5, 59 years old, female)

Another female participant expressed a wish that the workshops they attend(ed) should be more about debriefing as they do not cope:

I sometimes wish that these workshops that we go to would focus more on us on how we cope with different cases because I have a concern that we as social workers have nowhere to go when things get tough in the field. (Participant 8, 42 years old, female)

Another participant highlighted that despite having informed his manager about his bereavement, no support of any kind came forth:

I recently lost my younger brother in a tragic way and that affected my work performance. The department did nothing, only my colleagues supported me through that time and even booked me a psychiatrist in East London because I was not coping. (Participant 11, 30 years old, male)

Theme 8: Religion and human relations

It was clear from the participants that family support, human relations and religion play critical roles in their mental health. For example, the following extracts attest to this fact:

Every day we have services at church, so that is one thing that helps me to deal with everyday issues. I have also established prayer meetings with some colleagues. We do pray for strength and our souls have begun finding peace. (Participant 12, 52 years old, male)

As you can see that I'm married, my husband is very supportive and understanding I do not want to lie. When I get home feeling overwhelmed because of work issues, he understands and we talk about it, he encourages me and it's all gone. (Participant 3, 38 years old, female)

Protective factors such as the family support and church have been documented as buffers against stress (Fuentes-Peláez, Balsells, Fernández, Vaquero, & Amorós, 2016; Killian, Hernandez-Wolfe, Engstrom, & Gangsei, 2017). Drawing from Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory (Fuentes-Peláez et al., 2016) and classical work by Frankl (1959), individuals may perform to their optimal level and show their capabilities when their significant others help them find meaning and purpose in what they do. These findings are congruent to an online survey that took place in 2015 among more than 6000 social workers from 13 states in the United States of America, where Seinreich, Straussner and Steen (2018) found 82% of the respondents having indicated job satisfaction as opposed to stress. In other words, when there are meaningful relationships among social workers and the work environment is conducive (Hom, Lee, Shaw, & Hausknecht, 2017), even those who were contemplating to resign tend to remain and fit the organisational values to be part of their social identity (Tajfel & Turner, 1986).

 

Ethical considerations

Entrée and establishing research roles

Permission to conduct the study was obtained from Govan Mbeki Research and Development Centre (GMRDC), a unit at the University of Fort Hare, which ensures that any research study involving people as subjects should adhere to ethical principles, respecting the confidentiality, informed consent and privacy of the participants. Then, the letters detailing the purpose of the study were sent to the managers at the Department of Social Development and Welfare (Zwelitsha location and Alice) and focus group interviews with seven social workers from each location were requested. The researcher assigned numbers P1-P7 for participants in Alice and P8-P14 for participants in Zwelitsha to ensure anonymity. The roles of the researchers were explained during the focus group interviews.

 

Discussion

From the findings of this study, it is clear that when a person has given himself or herself to his or her work, they may find purpose and resilience. For example, a male participant who used his car to attend the meetings and workshops demonstrates passion and dedication. Furthermore, there are participants who highlighted the importance of religion and family support as a form of coping in the face of adversity. In other words, such support and church services enable their resiliency effect. Participants showed that the only support that they get is from their families, mostly from their husbands - those who are married. The support that they get from home makes them to be able to face the challenges of the next day. This reveals that family support is vital when you are someone who deals with people who will also look to you for support, because at work you have to be professional and be confidential. Research by Grant and Kinman (2011) revealed that support from family as an environmental factor is a major predictor of resilience to stress in the future. From social welfare perspective, the term 'resilience' is used to describe a process in which a social worker demonstrates a psychological rebound and a healthy functioning in the face of adversity (Theron, 2016; Ungar, 2012; Van Breda, 2018). This is what Antonovsky (1979) refers to as 'salutogenic' as some of the social workers would remain healthy while others become ill despite being exposed to the same stress.

However, it is evident that some of the participants' health has deteriorated because of workload and low salaries. Some of the participants got accepted at the hospitals because of depression and there were some reports of hypertension. Brinkborg et al. (2011) confirmed that social workers working under difficult circumstances with high job demands and limited resources are to a point faced with psychological effects of experiencing stress and burnout. This includes symptoms of emotional exhaustion and low levels of job satisfaction. These negative consequences therefore are related to feeling undervalued at work with high demands of work and little control. Job dissatisfaction is what is left for the participants. They no longer enjoy their work and some of them are thinking of finding another job in a different field whereas others are thinking of moving to a different department. As there are participants who mentioned hopelessness, it could be concluded that they have developed a pessimistic attitude towards work. According to Wagaman et al. (2015), hopelessness is caused by bad past experiences and also seeing that there is no hope even for the present. That causes a person to feel anxious about the future. The situation that is always there for the participants makes them to conclude that nothing will ever change. Thus, they cannot see any future in their career. Their circumstances make them lose hope for the department and for themselves. Another possibility could be a decision to leave social work profession because they are not recognised. Smith (2009) and Mavimbela (2015) are of the opinion that managers should hire new staff and try to value social workers by paying them performance bonuses.

It is evident that the social workers are floundering (i.e. experience state of mental illness); thus, they reverted to alcohol abuse. The implications of drinking alcohol by social workers could bear negative consequences on their occupational functioning because they may be absent and end up being addicted. Furthermore, alcohol abuse may give rise to risk sexual behaviour owing to impaired judgement. Therefore, an Employee Assistance Programme (EAP) should be considered for social workers to protect their overall well-being because work environments with high psychological distress could induce family conflicts as suggested by Zheng, Molineux, Mirshekary and Scarparo (2015). The benefits of EAP include assertiveness training, building of self-esteem, coping strategies, teamwork and greater job satisfaction (Richmond, Pampel, Wood, & Nunes, 2017).

Because the social workers have been relating to the traumatic experiences, the use of empathy is necessary. Even in tragedies where the individuals experience helplessness and have suicidal ideations, they are expected to empathise and return to work immediately and attend to the next client(s) as if they have not been exposed to trauma (Cacciatore, Carlson, Michaelis, Klinek, & Steffan, 2011). Given the implications of secondary traumatic stress, it is important for the social workers to get debriefing. Kruse, Argueta, Lopez and Nair (2015) claim that the absence of support to patients leads to negative attitude towards their caregivers and also to their full recovery. In contrast, Wairire and Zani (2015) stated that Kenya is one of the countries that have showed support to the social workers, working to eradicate poverty in the country with resources that would help the communities. Interventions included educational support for the children. Also, social support is said to be the variable that buffers against work-related stress.

 

Conclusion

Implications

Based on the findings, it is most likely that the majority of social workers will resign unless the government improves the working conditions (human resources) and increases the salaries according to their qualifications and experience. There should be two cars in each centre to visit the clients, especially in remote areas. Most importantly, when the Department of Social Development and Welfare fails to revise the job descriptions of the social workers and assign them based on their expertise, their offices would always be congested and those in need of their services, such as indigent families, would continue to suffer. Finally, more cases of burnout would be inevitable.

 

Limitations

Although this study yielded valuable information on how to improve the work conditions of social workers, there are limitations that impacted the study. The study was restricted to two locations. Although the group was homogeneous in terms of race and career, the difference was in the number of years in the profession as well as their marital status. Another potential factor that might have triggered the results is that the interviewer is the former lecturer of some of the participants. Another limitation has to do with the small sample size. With the utilisation of a small sample size, one cannot decisively sum up the findings, even though various questions were utilised as a part of a drive to decide how extensive the sample was. In future research, a larger population including a large sample of social workers is ought to be examined.

 

Recommendation for future research

Although the findings cannot be transferred to other work environments, they prove meaningful for the purpose of the study. Research replicating the present study in other similar contexts will help to broaden the knowledge of social workers and their work-related stress. Finally, quantitative study would cover many participants whose experiences may influence the South African government to improve the lives of social workers.

Work engagement is a state of employees' cognitive-affective well-being (Warr, 2013) and it is characterised by high activation, pleasure, fulfilment and drive to work (Mäkikangas et al., 2015). Similar to thriving, work engagement could potentially enhance competitiveness, psychological well-being among the social workers while acting as a buffer against burnout (Hoole & Bonnema, 2015; Porath, Spreitzer, Gibson & Garnett, 2012). To achieve the above, there is also a need for team-building sessions for social workers to learn to support one another. As this research was qualitative in nature, future research can centre around triangulation techniques to stay away from this bias. Other scholars can use the themes or factors (e.g. impaired purpose in life, lack of motivation, post-traumatic stress disorder, poor immune system and displacement because of lack of accountability from the managers and lack of resources) identified in this study to create a conceptual model and to test it quantitatively. Moreover, comparative studies between the results of this study and those obtained from other emerging economies could also be considered in the future. This could lead to other thought-provoking insights that were not captured in the present study.

 

Acknowledgements

The author thanks the Department of Social Development for the support provided and the study participants for their participation.

Competing interests

The author declares that they have no financial or personal relationships which may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

Author's contributions

The author conducted all the interviews and performed the write-up of the article, and is the sole contributor.

Funding information

This -research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability statement

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the authors.

 

References

Acker, G.M. (2010). How social workers cope with managed care. Administration in Social Work, 34(5), 405-422. https://doi.org/10.1080/03643107.2010.518125        [ Links ]

Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M., (1975). A Bayesian analysis of attribution processes. Psychological Bulletin, 82(2), 261-277. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0076477        [ Links ]

Antonovsky, A. (1979). Health, stress, and coping. San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass.         [ Links ]

Bartley, A., Beddoe, L., Duke, J., Fouché, C., Harington, P., & Shah, R. (2016). Crossing borders: Key features of migrant social workers in New Zealand. Aotearoa New Zealand Social Work, 23(3), 16-30. https://doi.org/10.11157/anzswj-vol23iss3id157        [ Links ]

Bernstein, D. (2018). Essentials of psychology (pp. 490-537). (7th edn.). Australia: Cengage Learning.         [ Links ]

Blew, M.B.B. (2018). The association between burnout and demographic characteristics of educators living in boarding schools. Masters dissertation. Pretoria: University of Pretoria.         [ Links ]

Blomberg, H., Kallio, J., Kroll, C., & Saarinen, A. (2015). Job stress among social workers: Determinants and attitude effects in the Nordic Countries. The British Journal of Social Work, 45(7), 2089-2105. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bcu038        [ Links ]

Brink, H., Van der Walt, C., & Van Rensburg, G. (2006). Fundamentals of research methodology for health care professionals. Cape Town: Juta and Company Ltd.         [ Links ]

Brinkborg, H., Michanek, J., Hesser, H., & Berglund, G. (2011). Acceptance and commitment therapy for the treatment of stress among social workers: A randomized controlled trial. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 49(6-7), 389-398.         [ Links ]

Cacciatore, J., Carlson, B., Michaelis, E., Klimek, B., & Steffan, S. (2011). Crisis intervention by social workers in fire departments: An innovative role for social workers. Social Work, 56(1), 81-88. https://doi.org/10.1093/sw/56.1.81        [ Links ]

Chiwara, P., & Lombard, A. (2017). The challenge to promote social and economic equality in Namibia through social work. Social Work, 53(4), 563-578. https://doi.org/10.15270/53-4-598        [ Links ]

Compassion Fatigue Awareness Project (CFAP). (2015). Recognizing compassion fatigue. Retrieved from www.compassionfatigue.org.         [ Links ]

Connelly, L.M. (2016). Trustworthiness in qualitative research. Medsurg Nursing, 25(6), 435-437.         [ Links ]

Creswell, J.W. (2003). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative and mixed method approaches (2nd edn., pp. 9-11). CA: Sage, A framework for design.         [ Links ]

Creswell, J.W. (2013). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating. Brantford: W. Ross MacDonald School Resource Services Library.         [ Links ]

Creswell, J.W., & Creswell, J.D. (2017). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. CA: Sage.         [ Links ]

De Vos, A.S., Delport, C.S.L., Fouché, C.B., & Strydom, H. (2011). Research at grass roots: A primer for the social science and human professions. Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers.         [ Links ]

Engel, R.J., & Schutt, R.K. (2014). Fundamentals of social work research. London: Sage.         [ Links ]

Fuentes-Peláez, N., Balsells, M.À., Fernández, J., Vaquero, E., & Amorós, P. (2016). The social support in kinship foster care: A way to enhance resilience. Child & Family Social Work, 21(4), 581-590. https://doi.org/10.1111/cfs.12182        [ Links ]

Figley, C.R. (2002). Compassion fatigue: Psychotherapist's chronic lack of self-care. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 58(11), 1433-1441. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.10090Figley        [ Links ]

Frankl, V. (1959). Man's search for meaning. Boston, MA: Beacon Press.         [ Links ]

Freud, S., & Bonaparte, P.M., (1954). The origins of psychoanalysis (vol. 216). London: Imago.         [ Links ]

Gagné, M., & Deci, E.L. (2005). Self-determination theory and work motivation. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 26, 331-362. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.322        [ Links ]

Gill, P., Stewart, K., Treasure, E., & Chadwick, B. (2008). Methods of data collection in qualitative research: Interviews and focus groups. British Dental Journal, 204(6), 291. https://doi.org/10.1038/bdj.2008.192        [ Links ]

Graham, J.R., Shier, M.L., & Nicholas, D. (2016). Workplace congruence and occupational outcomes among social service workers. British Journal of Social Work, 46(4), 1096-1114. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bcu153        [ Links ]

Grant, K., & Kinman, G. (2011). Enhancing well-being in social work students: Building resilience in the next generation. Social Work Education, 31(5), 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1080/02615479.2011.590931        [ Links ]

Hipp, L., Bernhardt, J., & Allmendingen, J. (2015). Institutions and the prevalence of nonstandard employment. Socio-Economic Review, 12(2), 351-377. https://doi.org/10.1093/ser/mwv002        [ Links ]

Hollis, C.J. (2012). Exploring international internships in social work education, Unpublished Master's thesis, California State University, Chico, CA.         [ Links ]

Hom, P.W., Lee, T.W., Shaw, J.D., & Hausknecht, J.P. (2017). One hundred years of employee turnover theory and research. Journal of Applied Psychology, 102(3), 530-545. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl000103        [ Links ]

Hoole, C., & Bonnema, J. (2015). Work engagement and meaningful work across generational cohorts. SA Journal of Human Resource Management, 13(1), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajhrm.v13i1.681        [ Links ]

International Federation of Social Workers (IFSW) (2014). 'Africa'. Retrieved from https://ifsw.org/tag/africa/        [ Links ]

Jamieson, L., Sambu, W., & Mathews, S. (2017). Out of Harm's Way? Tracking child abuse cases through the child protection system at five selected sites in South Africa-Research Report. Cape Town: Children's Institute.         [ Links ]

Jessen, J.T. (2015). Job satisfaction and social rewards in the social services. Journal of Comparative Social Work, 5(1), 15-31. https://doi.org/10.31265/jcsw.v5i1.51        [ Links ]

Khamisa, N., Peltzer, K., Ilic, D., & Oldenburg, B. (2017). Effect of personal and work stress on burnout, job satisfaction and general health of hospital nurses in South Africa. Health SA Gesondheid, 22(1), 252-258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hsag.2016.10.001        [ Links ]

Kheswa, J.G. (2017). The impact of dysfunctional families and sexual abuse on the psychological well-being of adolescent females, Eastern Cape, South Africa. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, XLIV(2), 161-176.         [ Links ]

Killian, K., Hernandez-Wolfe, P., Engstrom, D., & Gangsei, D. (2017). Development of the Vicarious Resilience Scale (VRS): A measure of positive effects of working with trauma survivors. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 9(1), 23. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000199        [ Links ]

Kim, H., Ji, J., & Kao, D. (2011). Burnout and physical health among social workers: A three- year longitudinal study. Social Work, 56, 258-268. https://doi.org/10.1093/sw/56.3.258        [ Links ]

Kruse, C.S., Argueta, D.A., Lopez, L., & Nair, A. (2015). Patient and provider attitudes toward the use of patient portals for the management of chronic disease: A systematic review. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 17(2), e40. https://doi.org/10.2196/jmir.3703        [ Links ]

Lazarus, R.S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal and coping. New York: Springer Publishing Company.         [ Links ]

Le Roux, L., Steyn, F., & Hall, B. (2018). Burnout and engagement in fourth-year social work students: Why we should be concerned. Social Work, 54(2), 179-193. https://doi.org/10.15270/54-2-632        [ Links ]

Lincoln, Y.S., & Guba, E.G. (2005). Paradigms and perspectives in contention. In N. Denzin & Y. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (2nd edn., pp. 163-188). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.         [ Links ]

Mäkikangas, A., Rantanen, J., Bakker, A.B., Kinnunen, M.L., Pulkkinen, L., & Kokko, K. (2015). The circumplex model of occupational well-being: Its relation with personality. Journal for Person-Oriented Research, 1, 115-129. https://doi.org/10.17505/jpor.2015.13        [ Links ]

Maslach, C. (1982). Burnout: The cost of caring. New York: Prentice Hall.         [ Links ]

Maslach, C. (2003). Job burnout: New directions in research and intervention. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 12, 189-192. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.01258        [ Links ]

Maslach, C., Jackson, S., & Leiter, M. (2014). Burnout inventory manual (4th edn.). Menlo Park, CA: Mind Garden, Inc.         [ Links ]

Maslach, C., Schaufeli, W.B., & Leiter, M.P. (2001). Job burnout. Annual Review of Psychology, 52(1), 397-422. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.397        [ Links ]

Matthew, L.E., & Lough, B.J. (2017). Challenges social work students encounter in international field placements and recommendations for responsible management. Journal of Social Work Education, 53(1), 18-36. https://doi.org/10.1080/10437797.2016.1246268        [ Links ]

Mavimbela, J. (2015). Social work as a scarce skill: Exploring the views of social workers regarding the retention strategies used by the human resource managers to retain social workers within the Department of Social Development. Doctoral dissertation. Johannesburg: University of Witwatersrand.         [ Links ]

Maziriri, E.T., Madinga, W., & Lose, T. (2017). Entrepreneurial barriers that are confronted by Entrepreneurs living with physical disabilities: A thematic analysis. Journal of Economics and Behavioral Studies, 9(1), 27-45. https://doi.org/10.22610/jebs.v9i1.1555        [ Links ]

McLaren, S., Steenkamp, L., Feeley, A., Nyarko, J., & Venter, D. (2018). Food insecurity, social welfare and low birth weight: Implications for childhood malnutrition in an urban Eastern Cape Province township. South African Journal of Child Health, 12(3), 95-99.         [ Links ]

Meinck, F., Cluver, L.D., Boyes, M.E., & Ndhlovu, L.D. (2015). Risk and protective factors for physical and emotional abuse victimisation amongst vulnerable children in South Africa. Child Abuse Review, 24(3), 182-197. https://doi.org/10.1002/car.2283        [ Links ]

Miller, J. (2004). Critical incident debriefing and social work: Expanding the frame. Journal of Social Service Research, 30(2), 7-25. https://doi.org/10.1300/J079v30n02_02        [ Links ]

Mugumbate, J., & Nyanguru, A. (2013). Exploring African philosophy: The value of ubuntu in social work. African Journal of Social Work, 3(1), 82-100.         [ Links ]

Murty, S.A., Sanders, S., & Stensland, M. (2015). End-of-life care as a field of practice in the social work curriculum. Journal of Social Work End Life Palliative Care, 11(1), 11-26. https://doi.org/10.1080/15524256.2015.1021071        [ Links ]

Papathanasiou, I.V. (2015). Work-related mental health consequences: Implications of burnout on mental health status among health care providers. Acta Informatica Medica, 23(1), 22-28. https://doi.org/10.5455/aim.2015.23.22-28        [ Links ]

Piatkowska, J.M. (2014). The relationship between mindfulness and burnout among master of Social Work students. PhD thesis. Portland: Portland State University.         [ Links ]

Porath, C., Spreitzer, G., Gibson, C., & Garnett, F.G. (2012). Thriving at work: Toward its measurement, construct validation, and theoretical refinement. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 33(2), 250-275. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.756        [ Links ]

Rajan, S., & Engelbrecht, A. (2018). A cross-sectional survey of burnout amongst doctors in a cohort of public sector emergency centres in Gauteng, South Africa. African Journal of Emergency Medicine, 8(3), 95-99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.afjem.2018.04.001        [ Links ]

Rautenbach, C. (2015). Flourishing of employees in a fast moving consumable goods environment. Doctoral thesis. Vanderbijlpark: University of North West. Retrieved from https://hdl.handle.net/10394/17030        [ Links ]

Republic of Namibia. (2013). Social development policy: Situational analysis on social development in Namibia version 5, 3rd draft, March 2013. Windhoek: Ministry of Social Development and Welfare.         [ Links ]

Richmond, M.K., Pampel, F.C., Wood, R.C., & Nunes, A.P. (2017). The impact of employee assistance services on workplace outcomes: Results of a prospective, quasi-experimental study. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 22(2), 170-179. https://doi.org/10.1037/ocp0000018        [ Links ]

Ritchie, J., Lewis, J., Nicholls, C.M., & Ormston, R. (Eds.). (2013). Qualitative research practice: A guide for social science students and researchers. London: Sage.         [ Links ]

Seinreich, E., Straussner, S.L.A., & Steen, J. (2018). The work experience of social workers: Factors impacting compassion satisfaction and workplace stress. Journal of Social Service Research, 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1080/01488376.2018.1528491        [ Links ]

Simons, K., & An, S. (2015). Job satisfaction among gerontological social workers in Ontario, Canada. Journal of Gerontological Social Work, 58(6), 547-571. https://doi.org/10.1080/01634372.2015.1042129        [ Links ]

Smith, J.L. (2009). Twelve reasons why employees leave organisation. USA: S-Square Enterprises.         [ Links ]

Sonnentag, S., Pundt, A., & Albrecht, A.G. (2014). Temporal perspectives on job stress. In A.J. Shipp & Y. Fried (Vol. Eds.), Time and work (vol. 1). Montana State: Taylor and Francis.         [ Links ]

Tajfel, H., & Turner, J.C. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behaviour. In S. Worchel & L.W. Austin (Eds.), Psychology of intergroup relations (pp.7-24). Chicago, IL: Nelson-Hall.         [ Links ]

Teșliuc, E., Grigoraș, V., & Stănculescu, M. (Eds.). (2015). Studiu de fundamentare pentru Strategia naţională privind incluziunea socială şi reducerea sărăciei 2015-2020. Retrieved from http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/465051467995789896/pdf/103191-WP-P147269-Box394856B-PUBLIC-Background-Study-ROMANIAN.pdf.         [ Links ]

Theron, L.C. (2016). Toward a culturally and contextually sensitive understanding of resilience: Privileging the voices of black, South African young people. Journal of Adolescent Research, 31, 635-670. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558415600072        [ Links ]

Truter, E., Fouche, A., & Theron, L.C. (2016). The resilience of child protection social workers: Are they at risk and if so, how do they adjust? A systematic meta-synthesis. British Journal of Social Work, 47(3), 846-863. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bcw048        [ Links ]

UBS Optimus Foundation. (2016). Technical report (2016): Sexual victimisation of children in South Africa Final report of the Optimus Foundation Study: South Africa, June. Zurich, Switzerland. Retrieved from www.optimusstudy.org.         [ Links ]

Ungar, M. (2012). Social ecologies and their contribution to resilience. In M. Ungar (Ed.). The social ecology of resilience: A handbook of theory and practice (pp. 13-31). New York: Springer.         [ Links ]

UNICEF. (2018). 2018/19 Social Development Budget Brief South Africa. Retrieved from pp. 13-31. https://www.unicef.org/southafrica/SAF_resources_budgetbrief_socialdevelopment2018.pdf.         [ Links ]

Van Breda, A.D. (2018). A critical review of resilience theory and its relevance for social work. Social Work, 54(1), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.15270/54-1-611        [ Links ]

van Heerden, A., Harris, D.M., van Rooyen, H., Barnabas, R.V., Ramanathan, N., Ngcobo, N., … Comulada, W.S. (2017). Perceived mHealth barriers and benefits for home-based HIV testing and counseling and other care: Qualitative findings from health officials, community health workers, and persons living with HIV in South Africa. Social Science & Medicine, 183, 97-105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.04.046        [ Links ]

Van Wyk, C. (2011). Beroepstres en streshantering by maatskaplike werkers wat betrokke is by intervensie met seksueel misbruikte kinders. PhD thesis. Stellenbosch: Universiteit van Stellenbosch.         [ Links ]

Vyas, L., & Luk, S. (2010). Frazzled care for social workers in Hong Kong: Job stress circumstances and consequences. International Social Work, 54(6), 832-851. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020872810382684        [ Links ]

Wagaman, M.A., Geiger, J.M., Shockley, C., & Segal, E.A. (2015). The role of empathy in burnout, compassion satisfaction, and secondary traumatic stress among social workers. Social Work, 60(3), 201-209. https://doi.org/10.1093/sw/swv014        [ Links ]

Wairire, G.G., & Zani, A.P. (2015). The role of social work in poverty reduction and realization of MDGs in Kenya. Nairobi: University of Nairobi Press.         [ Links ]

Warr, P. (2013). How to think about and measure psychological well-being. In R.R. Sinclair, M. Wang, & L.E. Tetrick (Eds.), Research methods in occupational health psychology (pp. 76-90). London: Routledge.         [ Links ]

Willig, C., & Rogers, W.S. (Eds.). (2017). The SAGE handbook of qualitative research in psychology. London: Sage.         [ Links ]

Zheng, C., Molineux, J., Mirshekary, S., & Scarparo, S. (2015). Developing individual and organisational work-life balance strategies to improve employee health and wellbeing. Employee Relations, 37(3), 354-379. https://doi.org/10.1108/ER-10-2013-0142        [ Links ]

Zhu, Y.Q., Gardner, D.G., & Chen, H.G. (2018). Relationships between work team climate, individual motivation, and creativity. Journal of Management, 44(5), 2094-2115. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206316638161        [ Links ]

 

 

Correspondence:
Jabulani Kheswa
jkheswa@ufh.ac.za

Received: 21 Mar. 2019
Accepted: 03 July 2019
Published: 10 Oct. 2019

^rND^sAcker^nG.M.^rND^sAjzen^nI.^rND^sFishbein^nM.^rND^sBartley^nA.^rND^sBeddoe^nL.^rND^sDuke^nJ.^rND^sFouché^nC.^rND^sHarington^nP.^rND^sShah^nR.^rND^sBlomberg^nH.^rND^sKallio^nJ.^rND^sKroll^nC.^rND^sSaarinen^nA.^rND^sBrinkborg^nH.^rND^sMichanek^nJ.^rND^sHesser^nH.^rND^sBerglund^nG.^rND^sCacciatore^nJ.^rND^sCarlson^nB.^rND^sMichaelis^nE.^rND^sKlimek^nB.^rND^sSteffan^nS.^rND^sChiwara^nP.^rND^sLombard^nA.^rND^sConnelly^nL.M.^rND^sFuentes-Peláez^nN.^rND^sBalsells^nM.À.^rND^sFernández^nJ.^rND^sVaquero^nE.^rND^sAmorós^nP.^rND^sFigley^nC.R.^rND^sGagné^nM.^rND^sDeci^nE.L.^rND^sGill^nP.^rND^sStewart^nK.^rND^sTreasure^nE.^rND^sChadwick^nB.^rND^sGraham^nJ.R.^rND^sShier^nM.L.^rND^sNicholas^nD.^rND^sGrant^nK.^rND^sKinman^nG.^rND^sHipp^nL.^rND^sBernhardt^nJ.^rND^sAllmendingen^nJ.^rND^sHom^nP.W.^rND^sLee^nT.W.^rND^sShaw^nJ.D.^rND^sHausknecht^nJ.P.^rND^sHoole^nC.^rND^sBonnema^nJ.^rND^sJessen^nJ.T.^rND^sKhamisa^nN.^rND^sPeltzer^nK.^rND^sIlic^nD.^rND^sOldenburg^nB.^rND^sKheswa^nJ.G.^rND^sKillian^nK.^rND^sHernandez-Wolfe^nP.^rND^sEngstrom^nD.^rND^sGangsei^nD.^rND^sKim^nH.^rND^sJi^nJ.^rND^sKao^nD.^rND^sKruse^nC.S.^rND^sArgueta^nD.A.^rND^sLopez^nL.^rND^sNair^nA.^rND^sLe Roux^nL.^rND^sSteyn^nF.^rND^sHall^nB.^rND^sLincoln^nY.S.^rND^sGuba^nE.G.^rND^sMäkikangas^nA.^rND^sRantanen^nJ.^rND^sBakker^nA.B.^rND^sKinnunen^nM.L.^rND^sPulkkinen^nL.^rND^sKokko^nK.^rND^sMaslach^nC.^rND^sMaslach^nC.^rND^sSchaufeli^nW.B.^rND^sLeiter^nM.P.^rND^sMatthew^nL.E.^rND^sLough^nB.J.^rND^sMaziriri^nE.T.^rND^sMadinga^nW.^rND^sLose^nT.^rND^sMcLaren^nS.^rND^sSteenkamp^nL.^rND^sFeeley^nA.^rND^sNyarko^nJ.^rND^sVenter^nD.^rND^sMeinck^nF.^rND^sCluver^nL.D.^rND^sBoyes^nM.E.^rND^sNdhlovu^nL.D.^rND^sMiller^nJ.^rND^sMugumbate^nJ.^rND^sNyanguru^nA.^rND^sMurty^nS.A.^rND^sSanders^nS.^rND^sStensland^nM.^rND^sPapathanasiou^nI.V.^rND^sPorath^nC.^rND^sSpreitzer^nG.^rND^sGibson^nC.^rND^sGarnett^nF.G.^rND^sRajan^nS.^rND^sEngelbrecht^nA.^rND^sRichmond^nM.K.^rND^sPampel^nF.C.^rND^sWood^nR.C.^rND^sNunes^nA.P.^rND^sSeinreich^nE.^rND^sStraussner^nS.L.A.^rND^sSteen^nJ.^rND^sSimons^nK.^rND^sAn^nS.^rND^sSonnentag^nS.^rND^sPundt^nA.^rND^sAlbrecht^nA.G.^rND^sTajfel^nH.^rND^sTurner^nJ.C.^rND^sTheron^nL.C.^rND^sTruter^nE.^rND^sFouche^nA.^rND^sTheron^nL.C.^rND^sUngar^nM.^rND^sVan Breda^nA.D.^rND^svan Heerden^nA.^rND^sHarris^nD.M.^rND^svan Rooyen^nH.^rND^sBarnabas^nR.V.^rND^sRamanathan^nN.^rND^sNgcobo^nN.^rND^s… Comulada^nW.S.^rND^sVyas^nL.^rND^sLuk^nS.^rND^sWagaman^nM.A.^rND^sGeiger^nJ.M.^rND^sShockley^nC.^rND^sSegal^nE.A.^rND^sWarr^nP.^rND^sZheng^nC.^rND^sMolineux^nJ.^rND^sMirshekary^nS.^rND^sScarparo^nS.^rND^sZhu^nY.Q.^rND^sGardner^nD.G.^rND^sChen^nH.G.^rND^1A01^nCarolina^sHenn^rND^1A01^nBrandon^sMorgan^rND^1A01^nCarolina^sHenn^rND^1A01^nBrandon^sMorgan^rND^1A01^nCarolina^sHenn^rND^1A01^nBrandon^sMorgan

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Differential item functioning of the CESDR-R and GAD-7 in African and white working adults

 

 

Carolina Henn; Brandon Morgan

Department of Industrial Psychology and People Management, College of Business and Economics, Faculty of Management, University of Johannesburg, Auckland Park, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

---

ABSTRACT

ORIENTATION: Depression and anxiety can have undesirable consequences for employees and their employers. It is therefore important that employers pay attention to the existence and extent of depression and anxiety. However, measuring these constructs requires unbiased, reliable and valid instruments
RESEARCH PURPOSE: To facilitate unbiased measurement of depression and anxiety, we investigated differential item functioning of the Centre for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale-Revised (CESD-R) and Generalised Anxiety Disorder Scale 7 (GAD-7) in a sample of non-clinical African and white working adults
MOTIVATION FOR THE STUDY: Biased measurement instruments can lead to serious problems when comparing scores between groups, using raw score cut-offs, or creating norm scores. Practitioners are legally and ethically required to ensure that any instrument used is unbiased.
RESEARCH APPROACH/DESIGN AND METHOD: A cross-sectional survey design was used. The CESD-R and GAD-7 were administered to working adults. A final sample of 551 CESD-R responses and 529 GAD-7 responses were included in the analyses. Ordinal logistic regression was performed to investigate differential item functioning.
MAIN FINDINGS: Both CESD-R and GAD-7 showed some evidence of differential item functioning although it was mostly small in magnitude. Item bias had some minor non-negligible impact on aggregated observed scores within specific ranges of the underlying traits
PRACTICAL/MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS: Both CESD-R and GAD-7 show promise as instruments that can be utilised to explore the experience of anxiety and depression in African and white employees.
CONTRIBUTION/VALUE-ADD: This study is a promising first step towards the measurement fairness of the CESD-R and GAD-7 in the South African context.

Keywords: Depression; Anxiety; GAD-7; CESD-R; Differential Item Functioning.

---

 

 

Introduction

Orientation

The World Health Organization (2014) defines mental health as:

[A] state of well-being in which every individual realizes his or her own potential, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to her or his community. (para. 1)

It is important that mental illness is identified and effectively treated to promote and maintain mental health. Statistics with regard to mental illness are sobering. The World Health Assembly (2012) reports that 76% - 85% of persons with mental illnesses in low- to middle-income countries do not receive treatment. Poor mental health has social and economic impacts, directly affecting an individual's ability to work and earn an income, and indirectly affecting the economy at a national level (World Health Assembly, 2012).

Depression and anxiety disorders are considered to be among the top 10 causes of workplace disability globally (Harnois & Gabriel, 2002). Both mental health conditions pose a real threat to employee well-being and organisational effectiveness (Bender & Farvolden, 2008; Evans-Lacko et al., 2016). A workplace is 'an ideal setting for depression and anxiety interventions' (Mykletun & Harvey, 2012, p. 868) because adults spend much of their time in the workplace (Tan et al., 2014). Indeed, research supports the effectiveness of workplace interventions for depression and anxiety (Joyce, Modini, Christensen, & Mykletun, 2016; Tan et al., 2014). Despite these findings, anxiety and depression in the workplace appear to have received little research attention, particularly in South Africa, with limited research available on their workplace impact. Therefore, it is important that more research is conducted on these topics. However, to be able to do this, it is necessary to measure depression and anxiety in the workplace with appropriate, psychometrically sound and unbiased measuring instruments. The Centre for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CESD) (Radloff, 1977) and its revised version (CESD-R) (Eaton, Smith, Ybarra, Muntaner, & Tien, 2004) and the Generalised Anxiety Disorder Scale 7 (GAD-7) (Spitzer, Kroenke, Williams, & Löwe, 2006) are often used to measure depression and anxiety in clinical and non-clinical samples. These two instruments are particularly useful as they measure the symptoms most commonly associated with depression and anxiety.

Research purpose and objectives

Unfortunately there is limited evidence available on the reliability and validity of these two instruments when used in South African workplaces. It is particularly important that measurement bias, also referred to as Differential Item Functioning (DIF), in these two instruments as one form of validity is investigated. Differential item functioning means that respondents from different groups¹ who have the same relative standing on some latent trait have different response probabilities on one or more items of an instrument that measures the latent traits (Chalmers, Counsell, & Flora, 2016; Zumbo, 1999). These differences (after respondents are matched on the latent traits) usually reflect construct irrelevant factors that can confound observed scores (De Sa-Junior et al., 2019). This is problematic because decisions are made on observed scores with the assumption that these scores are uncontaminated by unwanted sources of variance (e.g. Gamerman, Gonçalves, & Soares, 2018; Steyn & De Bruin, 2018).

Differential item functioning often leads to item bias (Sireci, 2011) and failure to account for this bias can lead to biased or even incorrect decisions when item scores are translated into aggregated scale scores. Investigating DIF is therefore both a legal and an ethical imperative (Jodoin & Gierl, 2001). In South Africa, the Health Professions Act of 1974 (Republic of South Africa, 1974) and the Employment Equity Act (EEA) of 1998 (Republic of South Africa, 1998) are clear on the legal and ethical imperatives of using unbiased instruments, with the EEA indicating that no instruments (or scores obtained from these instruments) should be used in the workplace if they are unreliable, have limited validity evidence, and/or are biased against any person. It is the responsibility of practitioners to 'contribute to specific empirical studies related to the psychometric properties of the tests they use' (Health Professions Council of South Africa Form 208, 2006, p. 1) and to ensure that there is '[e]vidence relating to … DIF … [w]hen tests are to be used with individuals from different groups' (italics in original, International Test Commission, 2013, p. 17).

Applied to the CESD-R and GAD-7 item bias (i.e. DIF) means that observed scores between groups cannot be directly compared because these scores consist of construct relevant and construct irrelevant sources of variance (De Sá Junior et al., 2019; Van De Vijver & Leung, 2011; Zumbo, 1999). It also holds implications for cut-off scores used to indicate depression and anxiety (Carleton et al., 2013; Spitzer et al., 2006) and norm scores created for these instruments (Carleton et al., 2013). These two instruments must therefore be free of DIF if they are used to measure depression and anxiety in South African workplaces. Against this background and as a starting point for future research, this study sets out to investigate DIF in the CSED-R and GAD-7 items with a sample of non-clinical African and white working adults. Unfortunately, we could not include mixed-race, Indian and/or Asian participants in our study because there was insufficient data available to allow for meaningful DIF analysis. The results of this study hold important implications for the psychometric properties of the CESD-R and GAD-7 and their use in South African workplaces. In the following sections, we provide a brief overview of depression and anxiety at work. We then discuss the CESD-R and GAD-7 and distinguish between item bias and DIF.

 

Literature review

Depression and anxiety at work

Depression is a mood disorder that includes symptoms such as feelings of worthlessness, depressed mood, decreased or increased appetite, insomnia or hypersomnia, poor concentration, anhedonia, loss of energy and loss of interest (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2013). Generalised anxiety is characterised by symptoms such as feelings of worry and apprehension, feeling constantly on edge, feelings of impending doom and physical sensations such as heart palpitations, sweating hands and nausea (refer to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders [DSM-V], APA, 2013). In South Africa, the lifetime prevalence of depression and anxiety is approximately 9.8% and 5.8%, respectively (Herman et al., 2009).

Given the typical symptoms of anxiety and depression, and the relatively high prevalence thereof in South Africa, it is to be expected that both these mental disorders would have a detrimental effect in the workplace. These effects include an increased risk of workplace accidents, a deterioration in work performance and increased absenteeism (Haslam, Atkinson, Brown, & Haslam, 2005). Mall et al. (2015), for example, reported that depression and anxiety, respectively, caused 27.2 and 28.2 days out-of-role annually. Organisations are impacted negatively by factors such as decreased productivity and high staff turnover (Haslam et al., 2005). Workplaces can also worsen symptoms of depression because of factors such as high workload and stigmatised attitudes towards mental illness (Haslam et al., 2005). Given the ubiquitousness of depression and anxiety and their effects at work, it is crucial that organisations give high priority to these mental disorders. According to Mall et al. (2015), however, this is not yet the case. Organisations need to investigate depression and anxiety in their organisations, and to be able to do so it is important that psychometrically sound measuring instruments are used. Moreover, in South Africa with its multicultural context, such measuring instruments should be unbiased (i.e. fair) so that scores do not disadvantage any particular group.

The Centre for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale-Revised

Radloff (1977) developed the Centre for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D), a self-report instrument, to measure depression in the general population. The CES-D has been used extensively in research. In fact, in their search of the Psych Articles Database (PAD), Van Dam and Earleywine (2010) found that the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) and the CES-D are the two most commonly used depression scales. It has since been revised (Eaton et al., 2004) to reflect the diagnostic criteria for depression described in the DSM-IV-TR (APA, 2000). In the most recent update of the DSM, the DSM-V (APA, 2013), the diagnostic criteria for depression remain the same as in the DSM-IV-TR. Eaton et al. (2004) reported a correlation of 0.93 between the CESD and the CESD-R scores, meaning that these instruments are mostly interchangeable. Although the revision to the CES-D has been done in 2004, to our knowledge little research has been published on the CESD-R.

The CESD-R (Eaton et al., 2004) consists of 20 items. For each item, participants must indicate how often during the past 2 weeks they have felt or behaved in a particular way. With regard to factor structure of the CESD-R, Eaton et al. (2004) and Van Dam and Earleywine (2010) found support for a unidimensional model. Walsh (2014), on the other hand, found good model fit for a two-factor model with 16 items instead of the original 20 items. Unfortunately, Walsh (2014) did not report on the full-factor pattern matrix or factor correlation matrix, making it difficult to determine how much shared variance exists in these two factors. Van Dam and Earleywine (2010) and Walsh (2014) established discriminant and convergent validity for the CESD-R. Internal consistency coefficients typically are all above 0.90 (Eaton et al., 2004; Van Dam & Earleywine, 2010; Walsh, 2014). In South Africa, the CESD-R was validated for use among a South African non-clinical sample of working adults (Michas & Henn, 2019). Michas and Henn (2019) found good model fit for a one-factor model and convergent and discriminant validity was also established. Reliability of the scale score was also supported with an internal consistency coefficient of 0.95.

The Generalised Anxiety Disorder Scale

The GAD-7 (Spitzer et al., 2006, p. 1092) was developed to 'identify probable cases of GAD and to assess symptom severity'. Items were developed based on diagnostic criteria in the DSM-IV (APA, 2005) as well as the investigation of existing anxiety scales. Although originally intended for clinical and primary care settings, the instrument gained popularity as a psychometrically sound instrument to measure and detect generalised anxiety in the general population. The GAD-7 is a self-report questionnaire with seven items. Participants on this scale indicate how often the item stems occurred over the last 2 weeks (Spitzer et al., 2006).

Many validation studies of the GAD-7 have been undertaken in a range of populations, such as pregnant women (Zhong et al., 2015), the general population (Löwe et al., 2008), infertile men and women (Omani-Samani, Maroufizadeh, Ghaberi, & Navid, 2018), outpatients with diagnosed anxiety and mood disorders (Rutter & Brown, 2017), the psychiatric population (Beard & Björgvinsson, 2014), employees (Henn & Bezuidenhout, 2019), adolescents (Tiirikainen, Haravuori, Ranta, Kaltiala-Heino, & Marttunen, 2019) and primary care patients (Jordan, Shedden-Mora, & Löwe, 2017). The scale has also been translated into several other languages, including Spanish (García-Campayo et al., 2010), German (Löwe et al., 2008), French (Barthel, Barkmann, Ehrhardt, Bindt, & International CDS Study Group, 2014), Twi (Barthel et al., 2014) and Dutch (Donker, Van Straten, Marks, & Cuijpers, 2011).

With regard to factor structure, most studies found a unidimensional model to have the best fit (e.g. García-Campayo et al., 2010; Hinz et al., 2017; Jordan et al., 2017; Löwe et al., 2008; Omani-Samani, et al., 2018; Sousa et al., 2015; Tiirikainen et al. 2019). Barthel et al. (2014) found that although a unidimensional model performed the best, the explained variance was rather low. A non-negligible structure was found in the standardised residuals after fitting the Rasch model, suggesting that the scale might not necessarily be unidimensional in their sample. In a cross-cultural study, Parkerson, Thibodeau, Brandt, Zvolensky and Asmundson (2015) found a unidimensional model for white participants only. They also found some evidence for DIF in items GAD-7 1, GAD-7 5 and GAD-7 6, with black or African American participants generally showing lower expected scores after matching on the latent traits compared to Hispanic and white participants. The DIF tended to be most pronounced at the upper end of the latent trait.

Henn and Bezuidenhout (2019) validated the GAD-7 for use in a non-clinical sample of employees in South Africa and found a good model fit for a one-factor model and also reported evidence of discriminant validity and some convergent validity. Reported alpha coefficients are generally higher, for example, 0.92 (Spitzer et al., 2006), 0.93 (Garcia-Campayo et al., 2010), 0.88 (Sousa et al., 2015), 0.89 (Zhong et al., 2015), 0.91 (Tirrikainen et al., 2018) and, in South Africa it is 0.92 (Henn & Bezuidenhout, 2019). Barthel et al. (2014), however, reported lower alpha coefficients of 0.69 for French-speaking persons in Côte d'Ivoire, and 0.67 for Twi-speaking persons in Ghana.

Differential item functioning

We previously defined DIF as different response probabilities to an item across groups when participants in these groups are matched on the latent traits (Zumbo, 1999). Van De Vijver and Leung (2011) state that:

[A]n item is biased [i.e., has DIF] if respondents with the same standing on the underlying construct [i.e., the latent trait] … do not have the same mean [or expected] score on the item because of different cultural origins. (p. 25)

These two definitions are equivalent. Differential item functioning and item bias are often used interchangeably. However, as Sireci (2011) points out, an item should be considered biased when it shows non-negligible DIF and when this DIF can be ascribed to construct irrelevant factors. In other words, this DIF is because of 'some characteristic of the test item or testing situation that is not relevant to the test purpose' (Zumbo, 1999, p. 12). In the DIF literature, a distinction is often made between uniform and non-uniform DIF. Uniform DIF implies that differences in the probability of item endorsement across groups conditional on latent trait estimates are constant across the whole distribution. Non-uniform DIF occurs when these differences change (i.e. interact) at different locations in this distribution (Berger & Tutz, 2015; De Beer, 2004; Gamerman et al., 2018; Jodoin & Gierl, 2001). In the next section, we detail the method used in this study.

 

Method

Research approach

Data were collected from four studies under the supervision of the first author (Claassens, 2018; Michas, 2018; Sekatane, 2018; Tsebe, 2018). These studies used a quantitative research approach and a cross-sectional survey research design. A cross-sectional design allowed the researchers to investigate and interpret results from participants at the same point in time (Gravetter & Forzano, 2015).

Research participants

Non-probability convenience and snowball sampling methods were used in the aforementioned studies to obtain participants. Convenience sampling is employed when any person meeting the inclusion criteria can be invited to participate in the study. It was extended in this study to snowball sampling as participants referred other potential participants to the researchers (Gravetter & Forzano, 2015). These sampling methods were utilised because the working population in South Africa is large and it was therefore not possible to obtain a random sample. It also aided in obtaining a heterogeneous sample from a wide variety of industries. Working adults who were 18 years old or above, able to read and write in English and employed for at least 1 year were invited to participate in the study. In total, 687 responses to the GAD-7 and CESD-R were obtained. Because of data cleaning and merging of different data sets there were some differences in the final sample groups used in our analyses. We therefore provide a description of the sample used for the CESD-R analysis and the sample used for the GAD-7 analysis.

After cleaning the data we had 551 CESD-R scores of African (n = 307) and white (n = 244) participants. As mentioned earlier, other race groups were not included because there was insufficient data available to meaningfully investigate DIF. The mean age of the participants was 36.15 years (median = 33, Standard Deviation [SD] = 11.26). For the African participants, the mean age was 34.15 years (median = 32, SD = 8.97) and for the white participants the mean age was 38.54 years (median = 36, SD = 13.12). There were approximately twice as many women (n = 346, 64.19%) as men (n = 193, 35.81%) in the sample for both the African (women: n = 186, 63.05%; men: n = 109, 36.95%) and white (women: n = 160, 65.67%; men: n = 84, 34.43%) sample groups. Most of the participants indicated that their home language was Afrikaans (n = 149, 27.04%) or Sepedi (n = 116, 21.05%). The mean years of employment was 8.11 (median = 5, SD = 8.23) for the African participants and 8.83 (median = 6, SD = 9.01) for the white participants.

We had 529 GAD-7 scores of African (n = 304) and white (n = 225) participants. The mean age of the participants was 38.83 years (median = 35, SD = 13.26). For the African participants, the mean age was 34.18 years (median = 34.18, SD = 9.38) and for the white participants the mean age was 38.83 years (median = 36, SD = 13.26). There were approximately twice as many women (n = 339, 65.44%) as men (n = 179, 34.56%) in the sample for both the African (women: n = 185, 63.13%; men: n = 108, 36.86%) and white (women: n = 154, 68.44%; men: n = 71, 31.56%) sample groups. Most of the participants stated that their home language was Afrikaans (n = 140, 26.47%) or Sepedi (n = 111, 20.98%). The mean years of employment was 8.40 (median = 5, SD = 8.37) for the African participants and 8.77 (median = 5, SD = 9.03) for the white participants.

Measuring instruments

The CESD-R (Eaton et al., 2004) and GAD-7 (Spitzer et al., 2006) scales were used in this study. The CESD-R consists of 20 items and participants have to indicate how often they have behaved in a particular way or experienced a particular feeling in the past 1 week or so. Responses are based on a five-point scale ranging from not at all or less than 1 day to nearly every day for 2 weeks. The GAD-7 has seven items that are scored on a four-point scale ranging from not at all to nearly every day. Participants have to indicate how often over the last 2 weeks they have been bothered by particular problems. On both scales, higher scores indicate higher levels of depression and anxiety, respectively. As these instruments were presented in detail in the literature review section, no further information will be provided here.

Research procedure and ethical considerations

The data used in this study were collected during 2016 and 2017 as part of a larger project on mental health in the workplace. Data were collected online and in person using hard copy questionnaires. Participants were informed of the purpose of the study, that the participation was voluntary and that they were free to withdraw from the study at any point in time without any adverse consequences. No identifying information was obtained, ensuring anonymity and confidentiality. The participants gave consent for their responses to be used in future studies. The contact details of the first author, who is a registered counselling psychologist, was provided to the participants in the event that they required any psychological assistance.

Statistical analysis

Differential item functioning was investigated using ordinal logistic regression as implemented in the lordif package (Choi, Gibbons, & Crane, 2011, version 0.3-3) in R (R Core Team, 2018, version 3.4.1, Vienna, Austria). This approach uses a series of nested logistic regression models for each item to investigate DIF, where the items and their associated ordered response categories (probability of endorsement of a response category) are the outcome variables. Model 1 uses trait level as a predictor. Trait level in this context represents the latent variable score estimates (thetas) for the CESD-R and GAD-7. Model 2 uses trait level and group membership as predictors and Model 3 uses trait level, group membership and their interaction as predictors (Choi et al., 2011; Crane, Gibbons, Jolley, & Van Belle, 2006). The graded response model (Samejima, 1969) was fit to item responses and trait-level estimates obtained using an iterative purification procedure (see Crane et al., 2006 for an overview of this technique). The iterative purification procedure approach can help reduce the detection of artificial DIF (Hagquist & Andrich, 2017).

We used the likelihood ratio test for models 1 and 2 to investigate uniform DIF, models 2 and 3 to investigate non-uniform DIF and models 1 and 3 to investigate total DIF. Statistical significance for each likelihood ratio test was set to p < 0.01 instead of the usual p < 0.05. We did this to account for multiple comparisons while still preserving power to detect potential DIF (Hope, Adamson, McManus, Chis, & Elder, 2018). To assist in detecting uniform DIF, we also investigated the proportional change in the beta coefficient of trait level between models 1 and 2 for each item (Choi et al., 2011). Following Crane et al. (2007), we used a proportional change of 0.05 (5%) as our cut-off value and compared these results to the aforementioned likelihood ratio tests. Lastly, we compared the difference in Nagelkerke's pseudo R² across the three models as an approximate measure of the magnitude of the DIF for each item. Jodoin and Gierl's (2001) criteria were used, where ΔR² < 0.035 indicates a negligible DIF, ΔR² between 0.035 and 0.070 indicates a moderate DIF and ΔR² > 0.070 indicates a large DIF. For each analysis the African participants were the reference group because the African group had a larger sample size and the white participants were the focus group.

 

Results

Descriptive statistics and reliability coefficients

Descriptive statistics and reliability coefficients for the GAD-7 and CESD-R scale scores for each group are presented in Table 1. Satisfactory reliability coefficients were found for both scale scores. We applied Revelle's coefficient β (Revelle, 1979) to investigate unidimensionality of each scale. Previous studies (Henn & Bezuidenhout, 2019; Michas & Henn, 2019) using parts of these data have already established unidimensionality of the CESD-R and GAD-7 scales. Coefficient β was therefore used as an additional descriptive measure of unidimensionality of the item scores in our analysis. In brief, coefficient β indicates the proportion of variance in item scores that can be attributed to a common factor (Revelle & Zinbarg, 2008). It should at a minimum be 0.50 (Revelle, 1979). Unidimensionality was supported for both the CESD-R and GAD-7 scales, with β coefficients all > 0.50. Coefficient β was somewhat smaller for the African CESD-R responses, suggesting that there might be some deviation from unidimensionality. However, it was not considered to be of practical concern in this study because it still suggested unidimensionality.

Differential item functioning Centre for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale-Revised

Table 2 presents the DIF results for the CESD-R. Data in the table show that six (30%) of the 20 CESD-R items had statistically significant total DIF (i.e. χ² Model 1 and Model 3). Statistical significance at p < 0.05 was retained for three items after applying Holm-Bonferroni corrections to the p values. Five items showed uniform DIF and one item showed non-uniform DIF. However, the proportional changes in beta coefficients were < 0.050 for all five of these items showing uniform DIF and only one item had a ΔR² > 0.035. The mean difference in initial (not accounting for DIF) and purified (accounting for DIF) theta estimates across both groups was 0.000 (median = −0.000, SD = 0.026, range = −0.098 to 0.101, interquartile range = −0.016 to 0.020). Items CESD-R 7 and CESD-R 11 appeared to be especially problematic, with the item characteristic curves showing that white participants were more likely to endorse item CSED-R 7 and less likely to endorse item CSED-R 11 across the whole latent distribution.

Figure 1 presents the test characteristic curve using group-specific item parameters. The figure shows that there were minor overall differences in expected scores, suggesting that expected score differences in opposite directions at the item level (i.e., over- and under-estimation) cancelled each other out. White participants had slightly lower expected scores at the lower end and slightly higher expected scores at the higher end of the theta distribution. As a whole, however, these results suggest that DIF had a negligible overall impact on expected scores.²

 

 

Differential item functioning Generalised Anxiety Disorder Scale-7

Table 3 presents the DIF results for the GAD-7. Data in the table show that two (29%) of the seven GAD-7 items had statistically significant total DIF (i.e. χ² Model 1 and Model 3). Statistical significance for these two items at p < 0.05 was retained after applying Holm-Bonferroni corrections to the p values. Both of the identified items showed uniform DIF. However, the proportional changes in beta coefficients were < 0.050 and the ΔR² were < 0.035. Item GAD-7 6 did not reach statistical significance at p = 0.01. It, however, showed potential uniform DIF with a p value of 0.012 (and 0.065 after applying the Holm-Bonferroni corrections).

The mean difference in initial (not accounting for DIF) and purified (accounting for DIF) theta estimates was 0.000 (median = −0.000, SD = 0.037, range = −0.152 to 0.157, interquartile range = −0.021, 0.013). Item characteristic curves showed that white participants were more likely to endorse item GAD-7 1 and less likely to endorse item GAD-7 3 for most of the underlying traits. Item GAD-7 1 appeared to be especially problematic at the upper end of the theta distribution. Figure 2 provides the test characteristic curve using group specific item parameters. An inspection of the figure shows that there were minor differences in expected scores at the lower end of the theta distribution. The differences in expected scores were more pronounced at the upper end of the theta distribution, with white participants having larger expected scores. As a whole, these results suggest that DIF had a minor overall impact on expected scores at the lower end and middle of the theta distribution. However, DIF appeared to have a larger effect at the upper end of the theta distribution.³

 

 

Ethical cuonsiderations

For all of the studies, ethical clearance was obtained from the then Faculty of Management Research Ethics Committee at the University of Johannesburg. The ethical clearance codes were FOM-2016IPPM029, FOM-2016IPPM032, IPPM-2017- 103 (M) and IPPM-2017-104 (M).

 

Discussion

This study set out to investigate DIF of the CESD-R and GAD-7 in a sample of non-clinical African and white working adults as a starting point for future research on the validity of these two instruments in the South African context. The objective of the study was achieved. The results showed that six of the 20 CESD-R items and two of the seven GAD-7 items showed statistically significant DIF. However, the DIF magnitudes were quite small with respect to the change in R², suggesting that DIF had little impact at the item level. Parkerson et al. (2015) also found DIF for item GAD-7 1 in the United States and in the same direction as our results. This item therefore certainly requires some attention. The test characteristic curve for the CESD-R showed that DIF at the item level did not translate to meaningful DIF in aggregated scale scores. The test characteristic curve for the GAD-7 showed similar results although there was some evidence for minor non-negligible DIF in the upper end of the theta distribution. Few participants scored high on the GAD-7 despite reducing precision of estimates in this range. Overall these differences are probably too small to make any real difference when using the CESD-R and GAD-7 in research settings for measuring participants across the whole latent distribution. The same might not be true when using these instruments in practice.

It is noteworthy that DIF appeared to have a non-negligible impact at the upper end of the GAD-7 trait scores because Parkerson et al. (2015) obtained similar results. Although the expected difference in scores was not large, these results suggest that there might be some bias for African and white participants who score high on anxiety when using this instrument. This minor non-negligible DIF should not therefore be ignored when using the GAD-7 for screening purposes, especially if decisions are based on the cut-off scores used in the literature (e.g. Carleton et al., 2013). As indicated by Parkerson et al. (2015), practitioners should be aware of this potential bias because it can lead to over- or underestimation of trait-level scores. The minor non-negligible bias in the CESD-R scores should not also be routinely ignored when using scores for screening purposes although the overall impact on aggregated scale scores is less pronounced than the GAD-7.

Practitioners should exercise proper care and consider appropriate decision criteria when using these two instruments in South African workplaces and should not limit decisions solely to scores on these two instruments. More specifically, a comprehensive mental health assessment process is required, of which these measuring instruments can form a part. As a cautionary note, psychologists in the workplace should not utilise these instruments to make individual conclusive diagnoses of depression and anxiety, as only practitioners who are within their scope of practice (e.g. psychiatrists) may do so. However, the instruments can potentially be used to measure prevalence within a group or population as a whole, and also to potentially identify individuals who are at risk for they should be referred to an appropriate mental health practitioner for formal diagnosis and treatment.

 

Limitations and recommendations

Overall the study results support the validity of the CESD-R and GAD-7 items from the perspective of DIF for African and white working adults in this sample group. However, our results should be interpreted with caution. The sample size was quite small and most of the participants scored relatively low on these two instruments. As previously alluded to in this article, this can affect the precision of the parameter estimates, especially at the upper end of the latent distributions, making it difficult to determine the overall magnitude of the DIF (Chalmers et al., 2016). It is also possible that our relatively small sample size lacked the necessary power to detect statistically significant DIF although we attempted to correct for this by using a less strict p-value for determining DIF (Scott et al., 2009). Researchers should not interpret the results obtained in this sample as a definitive conclusion on DIF in the CESD-R and GAD-7 for African and white working adults. There is some evidence that DIF results generalise across multiple samples from the same population (Hamzeh, 2004) although it is not clear if our results will hold for these instruments when using different sample groups. Our results, however, serve as a useful starting point for the detection of DIF in the CESD-R and GAD-7 and we are optimistic that future studies can build on the promising results of our study. We also suggest that qualitative studies are needed (Sireci, 2011) to help determine the source of the bias in the items we identified as potentially problematic and to suggest improvements of the CESD-R and GAD-7 items for the South African context.

 

Conclusion

This study investigated DIF of the CESD-R and GAD-7 instruments in a South African sample of working persons and achieved its objective. Overall the results showed minor evidence for DIF in these instruments, although there was some non-negligible DIF in some items and at certain ranges of the theta distribution. This was especially true for the upper end of the theta distribution for the GAD-7. We believe that this study contributes to further research on the reliability and validity of these two instruments in the South African context, thereby enabling researchers and organisations to investigate mental health in detail with the required scientific rigour.

 

Acknowledgements

The first author (C.H.) extends their appreciation to the master's students for collecting the data used in this study.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

Authors' contributions

Data were obtained from students supervised by C.H., who was also responsible for conceptualising and writing the manuscript. B.M. conducted conducted and interpreted the statistical analysis and assisted in writing the manuscript.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability statement

Data used in this article can be obtained from the first author (C.H.).

Disclaimer

The views expressed in this article are the authors' own and do not reflect the official position of their institution.

 

References

American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th edn., Text Revision). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.         [ Links ]

American Psychiatric Association. (2005). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th edn.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.         [ Links ]

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th edn.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.         [ Links ]

Barthel, D., Barkmann, C., Ehrhardt, S., Bindt, C., & International CDS Study Group. (2014). Psychometric properties of the 7-item Generalized Anxiety Disorder scale in antepartum women from Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire. Journal of Affective Disorders, 169, 203-211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2014.08.004        [ Links ]

Beard, C., & Björgvinsson, T. (2014). Beyond generalized anxiety disorder: psychometric properties of the GAD-7 in a heterogeneous psychiatric sample. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 28(6), 547-552. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2014.06.002        [ Links ]

Bender, A., & Farvolden, P. (2008). Depression and the workplace: A progress report. Current Psychiatry Reports, 10(1), 73-79. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-008-0013-6        [ Links ]

Berger, M., & Tutz, G. (2015). Detection of uniform and nonuniform differential item functioning by item-focused trees. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 41(6), 559-592. https://doi.org/10.3102/1076998616659371        [ Links ]

Bezuidenhout, D., & Henn, C. M (2019). Investigating the psychometric properties of the Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale-7 (GAD-7) in a non-psychiatric sample of working people. Manuscript in preparation.         [ Links ]

Chalmers, R. P. (2012). Mirt: A multidimensional item response theory package for the R environment. Journal of Statistical Software, 46(6), 1-29. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v048.i06        [ Links ]

Choi, S. W., Gibbons, L. E., & Crane, P. K. (2011). Lordif: An R package for detecting differential item functioning using iterative hybrid ordinal logistic regression/item response theory and Monte Carlo simulations. Journal of Statistical Software, 39(8), 1-30.         [ Links ]

Claassens, H. (2018). Job resources as moderators of the relationship between job demands and well-being. Unpublished master's dissertation. University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa.         [ Links ]

Crane, P. K., Gibbons, L. E., Jolley, L., & Van Belle, G. (2006). Differential item functioning analysis with ordinal logistic regression techniques: DIFdetect and difwithpar. Medical Care, 44(11), S115-S123. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.mlr.0000245183.28384.ed        [ Links ]

Carleton, R. N, Thibodeua, M. A., Teale, M. J. N., Welch, P. G., Abrams, M. P., Robinson, T., & Asmundson, G. J. G. (2013). The Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale: A review with a theoretical and empirical examination of item content and factor structure. PLoS One, 8(3), e58067. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0058067        [ Links ]

Chalmers, R. P., Counsell, A., & Flora, D. B. (2016). It might not make a big DIF: Improved differential test functioning statistics that account for sampling variability. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 76, 114-140. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164415584576        [ Links ]

De Beer, M. (2004). Use of differential item functioning (DIF) analysis for bias analysis in test construction. South African Journal of Industrial Psychology, 30(4), 52-58. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v30i4.175        [ Links ]

De Sá Junior, A., Liebel, G., De Andrade, A. G., Andrade, L. H., Gorenstein, C., & Wang, Y. -P. (2019). Can gender and age impact on response pattern of depressive symptoms among college students? A differential item functioning analysis. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 10(50). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00050        [ Links ]

Donker, T., Van Straten, A., Marks, I., & Cuijpers, P. (2011). Quick and easy self-rating of Generalized Anxiety Disorder: Validity of the Dutch web-based GAD-7, GAD-2 and GAD-SI. Psychiatry Research, 188, 58-64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2011.01.016        [ Links ]

Eaton, W. W., Smith, C., Ybarra, M., Muntaner, C., & Tien, A. (2004). Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale: Review and revision (CESD and CESD-R). In M. E. Maruish (Ed.), The use of psychological testing for treatment planning and outcomes assessment. Volume 3: Instruments for Adults (3rd edn., pp. 363-377). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.         [ Links ]

Evans-Lacko, S., Koeser, L., Knapp, M., Longhitano, C., Zohar, J., & Kuhn, K. (2016). Evaluating the economic impact of screening and treatment for depression in the workplace. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 26(6), 1004-1013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroneuro.2016.03.005        [ Links ]

Gamerman, D., Gonçalves, F. B., & Soares, T. M. (2018). Differential item functioning. In W. J. Van Der Linden (Ed.), Item response theory: Applications (Vol. 3, pp. 67-86). Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis.         [ Links ]

García-Campayo, J., Zamorano, E., Ruiz, M. A., Pardo, A., Pérez-Páramo, M., López-Gómez, V., et al. (2010). Cultural adaptation into Spanish of the Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7) scale as a screening tool. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, 8, 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1186/1477-7525-8-8        [ Links ]

Gravetter, F. J., & Forzano, L. A. B. (2015). Research methods for the behavioral sciences. Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning.         [ Links ]

Hagquist, C., & Andrich, D. (2017). Recent advances in analysis of differential item functioning in health research using the Rasch model. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, 15, 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12955-017-0755-0        [ Links ]

Hamzeh, D. (2004). Stability of differential item functioning over a single population in survey data. The Journal of Experimental Education, 72(3), 181-193. https://doi.org/10.3200/JEXE.72.3.181-193        [ Links ]

Harnois, G., & Gabriel, P. (2002). Mental health at work: Impact, issues and good practices. Geneva: World Health Organization and International Labor Organisation, Department of Mental Health and Substance Dependence (MSD).         [ Links ]

Haslam, C., Atkinson, S., Brown, S. S., & Haslam, R. A. (2005). Anxiety and depression in the workplace: Effects on the individual and organisation (a focus group investigation). Journal of Affective Disorders, 88(2), 209-215. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2005.07.009        [ Links ]

Herman, A. A., Stein, D. J., Seedat, S., Heeringa, S. G., Moomal, H., & Williams, D. R. (2009). The South African Stress and Health (SASH) study: 12-month and lifetime prevalence of common mental disorders. South African Medical Journal, 99(2), 339-344. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3191537/pdf/nihms327590.pdf.         [ Links ]

Hinz, A., Klein, A. M., Brähler, E., Glaesmer, H., Luck, T., Riedel-Heller, S. G., … & Hilbert, A. (2017). Psychometric evaluation of the Generalized Anxiety Disorder Screener GAD-7, based on a large German general population sample. Journal of Affective Disorders, 210, 338-344. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2016.12.012        [ Links ]

Hope, D., Adamson, K., McManus, C., Chis, L., & Elder, A. (2018). Using differential item functioning to evaluate potential bias in a high stakes postgraduate knowledge based assessment. BMC Medical Education, 18(64), 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-018-1143-0        [ Links ]

International Test Commission. (2013). ITC guidelines on test use. Retrieved from https://www.intestcom.org/files/guideline_test_use.pdf        [ Links ]

Jodoin, M. G., & Gierl, M. J. (2001). Evaluating type-I error and power rates using an effect size measure with the logistic regression procedure for DIF detection. Applied Measurement in Education, 14, 329-349. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15324818AME1404_2        [ Links ]

Jordan, P., Shedden-Mora, M. C., & Löwe, B. (2017). Psychometric analysis of the Generalized Anxiety Disorder scale (GAD-7) in primary care using modern item response theory. PloS One, 12(8), e0182162.         [ Links ]

Joyce, S., Modini, M., Christensen, H., & Mykletun, A. (2016). Workplace interventions for common mental disorders: A systematic meta-review. Psychological Medicine, 46(4), 683-697. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291715002408        [ Links ]

Löwe, B., Decker, O., Müller, S., Brähler, E., Schellberg, D., Herzog, W., & Herzberg, P. Y. (2008). Validation and standardization of the Generalized Anxiety Disorder Screener (GAD-7) in the general population. Medical Care, 46(3), 266-274. https://doi.org/10.1097/MLR.0b013e318160d093        [ Links ]

Mall, S., Lund, C., Vilagut, G., Alonso, J., Williams, D. R., & Stein, D. J. (2015). Days out of role due to mental and physical illness in the South African stress and health study. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 50(3), 461-468. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-014-0941-x        [ Links ]

Michas, M. (2018). Validation of the CESD-R in a non-clinical sample in the South African workplace. Unpublished master's dissertation. University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa.         [ Links ]

Michas, M., & Henn, C. (2019). Validation of the CESD-R in a non-clinical sample of working persons. Manuscript preparation.         [ Links ]

Mykletun, A., & Harvey, S. B. (2012). Prevention of mental disorders: A new era for workplace mental health. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 69(12), 868-869. https://doi.org/10.1136/oemed-2012-100846        [ Links ]

Omani-Samani, R., Maroufizadeh, S., Ghaheri, A., & Navid, B. (2018). Generalized anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7) in people with infertility: A reliability and validity study. Middle East Fertility Society Journal, 23(4), 446-449. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mefs.2018.01.013        [ Links ]

Parkerson, H. A., Thibodeau, M. A., Brandt, C. P., Zvolensky, M. J., & Asmundson, G. J. (2015). Cultural-based biases of the GAD-7. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 31, 38-42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2015.01.005        [ Links ]

Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1, 385-401. https://doi.org/10.1177/014662167700100306        [ Links ]

R Core Team (2018). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. Vienna: R Foundation for Statistical Computing. Retrieved from https://www.R-project.org/.         [ Links ]

Republic of South Africa. (1974). Health Professions Act Number 56 of 1974. Pretoria: Government Press.         [ Links ]

Republic of South Africa. (1998). Employment Equity Act Number 55 of 1998. Pretoria: Government Press.         [ Links ]

Revelle, W. (1979). Hierarchical cluster-analysis and the internal structure of tests. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 14, 57-74. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327906mbr1401_4        [ Links ]

Revelle, W., & Zinbarg, R. E. (2008). Coefficients alpha, beta, omega and the glb: Comments on Sijtsma. Psychometrika, 74, 145. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11336-008-9102-z        [ Links ]

Rutter, L. A., & Brown, T. A. (2017). Psychometric properties of the Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale-7 (GAD-7) in outpatients with anxiety and mood disorders. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 39(1), 140-146. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-016-9571-9        [ Links ]

Samejima, F. (1969). Estimation of latent ability using a response pattern of graded scores. Psychometrika Monographs, 34(4, Pt. 2).         [ Links ]

Scott, N. W., Fayers, P. M., Aaronson, N. K., Bottomley, A., De Graeff, A., Groenvold, M., … Sprangers, M. A. G. (2009). A simulation study provided sample size guidance for differential item functioning (DIF) studies using short scales. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 62, 288-295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclinepi.2008.06.003        [ Links ]

Sekatane, D. (2018). Personality as moderator in the relationship between anxiety and occupational health outcomes. Unpublished master's dissertation. University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa.         [ Links ]

Sireci, S. G. (2011). Evaluating test and survey bias across languages and cultures. In D. Matsumoto & F. J. R. van de Vijver (Eds.), Cross-cultural research methods in psychology (pp. 216-243). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.         [ Links ]

Sousa, T. V., Viveiros, V., Chai, M. V., Vicente, F. L., Jesus, G., Carnot, M. J., … Ferreira, P. L. (2015). Reliability and validity of the Portuguese version of the Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD-7) scale. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, 13(1), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12955-015-0244-2        [ Links ]

Spitzer, R. L., Kroenke, K., Williams, J. B. W., & Löwe, B. (2006). A brief measure for assessing generalized anxiety disorder. Archives of Internal Medicine, 166(10), 1092-1097. https://doi.org/10.1001/archinte.166.10.1092        [ Links ]

Steyn, R., & De Bruin, G.P. (2018). Investigating the validity of the Human Resource Practices Scale in South Africa: Measurement invariance across gender. SA Journal of Human Resource Management, 16(1), 1-10. https://10.4102/sajhrm.v16i0.1038        [ Links ]

Tan, L., Wang, M. -J., Modini, M., Joyce, S., Mykletun, A., Christensen, H., & Harvey, S. B. (2014). Preventing the development of depression at work: A systematic review and meta-analysis of universal interventions in the workplace. BMC Medicine, 12(74), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1186/1741-7015-12-74        [ Links ]

Tiirikainen, K., Haravuori, H., Ranta, K., Kaltiala-Heino, R., & Marttunen, M. (2019). Psychometric properties of the 7-item Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale (GAD-7) in a large representative sample of Finnish adolescents. Psychiatry Research, 272, 30-35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2018.12.004        [ Links ]

Tsebe, D. (2018). Depression in the workplace, burnout and work engagement: Personality as moderator. Unpublished master's dissertation. University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa.         [ Links ]

Van Dam, N. T., & Earleywine, M. (2011). Validation of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale-Revised (CESD-R): Pragmatic depression assessment in the general population. Psychiatry Research, 186(1), 128-132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2010.08.018        [ Links ]

Van De Vijver, F. J. R., & Leung, K. (2011). Equivalence and bias: A review of concepts, models, and data analytic procedures. In D. Matsumoto & F. J. R. Van De Vijver (Eds.), Cross-cultural research methods in psychology (pp. 17-45). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.         [ Links ]

Walsh, T. (2014). The conceptualization of depression and acculturative stress among Latino immigrants: A comparison of scores from Non-Hispanic Whites and persons of Mexican origin on the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale-Revised (CESD-R). Doctoral dissertation. The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC.         [ Links ]

World Health Assembly. (2012). Global burden of mental disorders and the need for a comprehensive, coordinated response from health and social sectors at the country level: Report by the Secretariat. Retrieved from https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/78898.         [ Links ]

World Health Organization. (2014). Mental health: A state of well-being. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/features/factfiles/mental_health/en/.         [ Links ]

Zhong, Q. Y., Gelaye, B., Zaslavsky, A. M., Fann, J. R., Rondon, M. B., Sánchez, S. E., & Williams, M. A. (2015). Diagnostic validity of the generalized anxiety disorder-7 (GAD-7) among pregnant women. PLoS One, 10(4), e0125096. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0125096        [ Links ]

Zumbo, B. D. (1999). A Handbook on the theory and methods of differential item functioning (DIF): Logistic regression modeling as a unitary framework for binary and Likert-type (ordinal) item scores. Ottawa, ON: Directorate of Human Resources Research and Evaluation, Department of National Defense.         [ Links ]

 

 

Correspondence:
Brandon Morgan
bmorgan@uj.ac.za

Received: 20 Mar. 2019
Accepted: 24 July 2019
Published: 10 Oct. 2019

 

 

1. Group is defined broadly and could include, for example, 'groups differing in terms of gender, cultural background, education, ethnic origin, or age' (International Test Commission, 2013, p. 17). Zumbo (1999, p. 13) indicates that 'standard comparisons are based on gender, race, sub-culture, or language'.
2. To support our findings we also investigated differential test functioning using the procedures described by Chalmers et al. (2016) as implemented in the mirt (Chalmers, 2012) package version 1.30. The results showed that there was approximately 0.50% (0.32%, 1.10%) average absolute difference in test response curves (integrated over a theta range of −4.00 to 4.00) and approximately 0.03 (−0.46, 0.53, p = 0.91) raw score bias on average. Both of these scores indicate negligible overall impact of DIF at the aggregated score level. Plotting the signed differential test functioning suggested that there was minor non-negligible DIF in the −3.00 to 0.40 theta range, with a maximum of 0.70 raw score bias in this range. These results can be obtained from the second author.
3. To support our findings we also investigated differential test functioning using the procedures described by Chalmers et al. (2016) as implemented in the mirt (Chalmers, 2012) package version 1.30. The results showed that there was approximately 0.68% (0.40%, 1.17%) average absolute difference in test response curves (integrated over a theta range of −4.00 to 4.00) and approximately −0.06 (0.04, −0.16, p = 0.21) raw score bias on average. Both of these scores indicate minor overall impact of DIF at the aggregated score level. Plotting the signed differential test functioning suggested that there was a minor non-negligible DIF in the −2.00 to −0.50 theta range and 1.80 to 3.60 theta range, with a maximum of 0.29 and −0.65 raw score bias in these two ranges, respectively. These results can be obtained from the second author.

^rND^sBarthel^nD.^rND^sBarkmann^nC.^rND^sEhrhardt^nS.^rND^sBindt^nC.^rND^sBeard^nC.^rND^sBjörgvinsson^nT.^rND^sBender^nA.^rND^sFarvolden^nP.^rND^sBerger^nM.^rND^sTutz^nG.^rND^sChalmers^nR. P.^rND^sChoi^nS. W.^rND^sGibbons^nL. E.^rND^sCrane^nP. K.^rND^sCrane^nP. K.^rND^sGibbons^nL. E.^rND^sJolley^nL.^rND^sVan Belle^nG.^rND^sCarleton^nR. N^rND^sThibodeua^nM. A.^rND^sTeale^nM. J. N.^rND^sWelch^nP. G.^rND^sAbrams^nM. P.^rND^sRobinson^nT.^rND^sAsmundson^nG. J. G.^rND^sChalmers^nR. P.^rND^sCounsell^nA.^rND^sFlora^nD. B.^rND^sDe Beer^nM.^rND^sDe Sá Junior^nA.^rND^sLiebel^nG.^rND^sDe Andrade^nA. G.^rND^sAndrade^nL. H.^rND^sGorenstein^nC.^rND^sWang^nY. -P.^rND^sDonker^nT.^rND^sVan Straten^nA.^rND^sMarks^nI.^rND^sCuijpers^nP.^rND^sEaton^nW. W.^rND^sSmith^nC.^rND^sYbarra^nM.^rND^sMuntaner^nC.^rND^sTien^nA.^rND^sEvans-Lacko^nS.^rND^sKoeser^nL.^rND^sKnapp^nM.^rND^sLonghitano^nC.^rND^sZohar^nJ.^rND^sKuhn^nK.^rND^sGamerman^nD.^rND^sGonçalves^nF. B.^rND^sSoares^nT. M.^rND^sGarcía-Campayo^nJ.^rND^sZamorano^nE.^rND^sRuiz^nM. A.^rND^sPardo^nA.^rND^sPérez-Páramo^nM.^rND^sLópez-Gómez^nV.^rND^sHagquist^nC.^rND^sAndrich^nD.^rND^sHamzeh^nD.^rND^sHaslam^nC.^rND^sAtkinson^nS.^rND^sBrown^nS. S.^rND^sHaslam^nR. A.^rND^sHerman^nA. A.^rND^sStein^nD. J.^rND^sSeedat^nS.^rND^sHeeringa^nS. G.^rND^sMoomal^nH.^rND^sWilliams^nD. R.^rND^sHinz^nA.^rND^sKlein^nA. M.^rND^sBrähler^nE.^rND^sGlaesmer^nH.^rND^sLuck^nT.^rND^sRiedel-Heller^nS. G.^rND^s… & Hilbert^nA.^rND^sHope^nD.^rND^sAdamson^nK.^rND^sMcManus^nC.^rND^sChis^nL.^rND^sElder^nA.^rND^sJodoin^nM. G.^rND^sGierl^nM. J.^rND^sJordan^nP.^rND^sShedden-Mora^nM. C.^rND^sLöwe^nB.^rND^sJoyce^nS.^rND^sModini^nM.^rND^sChristensen^nH.^rND^sMykletun^nA.^rND^sLöwe^nB.^rND^sDecker^nO.^rND^sMüller^nS.^rND^sBrähler^nE.^rND^sSchellberg^nD.^rND^sHerzog^nW.^rND^sHerzberg^nP. Y.^rND^sMall^nS.^rND^sLund^nC.^rND^sVilagut^nG.^rND^sAlonso^nJ.^rND^sWilliams^nD. R.^rND^sStein^nD. J.^rND^sMykletun^nA.^rND^sHarvey^nS. B.^rND^sOmani-Samani^nR.^rND^sMaroufizadeh^nS.^rND^sGhaheri^nA.^rND^sNavid^nB.^rND^sParkerson^nH. A.^rND^sThibodeau^nM. A.^rND^sBrandt^nC. P.^rND^sZvolensky^nM. J.^rND^sAsmundson^nG. J.^rND^sRadloff^nL. S.^rND^sRevelle^nW.^rND^sRevelle^nW.^rND^sZinbarg^nR. E.^rND^sRutter^nL. A.^rND^sBrown^nT. A.^rND^sSamejima^nF.^rND^sScott^nN. W.^rND^sFayers^nP. M.^rND^sAaronson^nN. K.^rND^sBottomley^nA.^rND^sDe Graeff^nA.^rND^sGroenvold^nM.^rND^s… Sprangers^nM. A. G.^rND^sSireci^nS. G.^rND^sSousa^nT. V.^rND^sViveiros^nV.^rND^sChai^nM. V.^rND^sVicente^nF. L.^rND^sJesus^nG.^rND^sCarnot^nM. J.^rND^s… Ferreira^nP. L.^rND^sSpitzer^nR. L.^rND^sKroenke^nK.^rND^sWilliams^nJ. B. W.^rND^sLöwe^nB.^rND^sSteyn^nR.^rND^sDe Bruin^nG.P.^rND^sTan^nL.^rND^sWang^nM. -J.^rND^sModini^nM.^rND^sJoyce^nS.^rND^sMykletun^nA.^rND^sChristensen^nH.^rND^sHarvey^nS. B.^rND^sTiirikainen^nK.^rND^sHaravuori^nH.^rND^sRanta^nK.^rND^sKaltiala-Heino^nR.^rND^sMarttunen^nM.^rND^sVan Dam^nN. T.^rND^sEarleywine^nM.^rND^sVan De Vijver^nF. J. R.^rND^sLeung^nK.^rND^sZhong^nQ. Y.^rND^sGelaye^nB.^rND^sZaslavsky^nA. M.^rND^sFann^nJ. R.^rND^sRondon^nM. B.^rND^sSánchez^nS. E.^rND^sWilliams^nM. A.^rND^1A01^nDean^sVermeulen^rND^1A01^nLené I.^sGraupner^rND^1A01^nBouwer E.^sJonker^rND^1A01^nDean^sVermeulen^rND^1A01^nLené I.^sGraupner^rND^1A01^nBouwer E.^sJonker^rND^1A01^nDean^sVermeulen^rND^1A01^nLené I^sGraupner^rND^1A01^nBouwer E^sJonker

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Mental health and corporate social responsibility for industrial psychology

 

 

Dean Vermeulen; Lené I. Graupner; Bouwer E. Jonker

WorkWell, Research Unit for Economic and Management Sciences, School for Human Resource Sciences, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

---

ABSTRACT

ORIENTATION: Organisations must do whatever it takes to ensure sustainability and longevity, and extend benefits into the communities where they operate
RESEARCH PURPOSE: The general aim of this study was to explore the contribution that the profession of industrial psychology can make towards improving mental health by means of a CSR programme
MOTIVATION FOR THE STUDY: This study was motivated by the notion that, in South Africa, organisations are encouraged to be socially responsible and Industrial-organisational Psychology (IOP) can be of service to this goal for the organisation.
RESEARCH APPROACH/DESIGN AND METHOD: A qualitative research design with a combination of purposive and convenience sampling was utilised. Participants consisted of the project team who participated in a training institution's CSR initiative in the North West province. Data gathering took place in the form of semi-structured in-depth interviews, which were transcribed verbatim and analysed using thematic analysis.
MAIN FINDINGS: The results showed that typical IOP topics that could be formulated into a CSR programme included life skills and topics related to personal growth and self-worth. The results also showed that universities are able to play a vital part in community engagement, and an inter-relationship of benefits can be established
PRACTICAL/MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS: The research indicates that industrial and organisational psychologists could also contribute to organisations when they operate in the CSR scope.
CONTRIBUTION/VALUE-ADD: On an individual level, this study contributed to clarify the understanding whether IOP has a place in social investment and contributions.

Keywords: Corporate social responsibility; Mental health; Industrial psychology; Career counselling; Workplace counselling; Young adults.

---

 

 

Introduction

In the global organisational arena, the concept of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) has been, and is, continually growing in terms of its importance and operationalisation. The concept of CSR is developing not only in terms of awareness but also in terms of interest in the concept (Serenko & Bontis, 2009). This growth has been argued by Okpara and Idowu (2013) as a result of the impact of unethical business practices and growing social concerns, as well as because of the growing role of corporations as global governance role-players that are especially discussed within political CSR research (Gilbert, Rasche, Schormair, & Singer, 2019). Okpara and Idowu (2013) furthermore indicate that in the contemporary business world, the exposure of unethical business leads to a decline in public confidence, which could be an enormous threat to the sustainability of the modern organisation. The ease of publicity that organisations enjoy in the modern age has the equal power to expose organisations that operate irresponsibly and unethically. This ease of publicity has highlighted the importance of impression management, creating the need for organisations to manage their operations concerning social responsibility more carefully (Okpara & Idowu, 2013).

Aguinis and Glavas (2012) argue that apart from its popularity, CSR as a concept is still somewhat fragmented and elusive to conceptualise in a single domain. Different industries and professions define CSR differently (Aguinis & Glavas, 2012). In light of this multi-dimensionality of CSR, this research article will investigate the concept of CSR through the perspective of the profession of Industrial-Organisational Psychology (IOP). A literature review follows to conceptualise CSR from its global origins, moving towards the South African perspectives and applications, and finally integrating the concept into the dimensions and workings of the IOP profession. To further this conceptualisation, a case study was conducted to understand how the IOP can function in CSR roles. This is followed by a presentation of the methodology used in the study, reporting on the findings and drawing conclusions.

Corporate social responsibility

Corporate social responsibility is a concept that can be described as being multi-disciplinary and multi-level, which has undergone significant changes in the way it is understood and conceptualised. Moura-Leite and Padgett (2011) write that in the early 1950s, CSR was focused on doing good deeds for the society in which the organisation operated. These good deeds were mainly in the form of charitable contributions or presence in the immediate community. Moving into the modern and contemporary organisation, the concept of CSR has been adopted as a part of strategic business and success (Moura-Leite & Padgett, 2011). Defining CSR further varies within the context of different organisations, disciplines and industries. Dahlsrud (2008) indicates that CSR is mainly a concept whereby organisations focus on social and environmental concerns in their business operations. Organisations that engage in CSR can argue either the business case or the moral case for CSR. The business case for CSR, as indicated by Carroll and Shabana (2010), is underpinned by the notion that the organisation will enjoy financial benefits from CSR. On the contrary, the ethical case appeals to the morality and humanistic responsibility the organisation should have to serve society and conduct its operations responsibly (Okpara & Idowu, 2013).

The business case for CSR highlights that the organisation will make money from CSR, referring to the triple bottom-line returns. The triple bottom-line refers to social, environmental and economic prosperity (Okpara & Idowu, 2013). In agreement with this notion, Rossouw and Van Vuuren (2010) state that organisations can garner many positive benefits from engaging in CSR if they understand what CSR means for the business when they do indeed engage and when they do not. Carroll and Shabana (2010) opine that the primary way in which organisations benefit financially from CSR is through competitive advantage by means of stakeholder relationships. Creating healthy stakeholder relationships and a stable reputation for the organisation is the theme that supports the business case for CSR.

The moral case for CSR supports the ideals of responsible business, business ethics and moral rights. Ackers (2015) indicates that organisations have a moral obligation and duty towards the various groups of society - the argument being that society has a strong involvement in how organisations operate by being customers, supporters and stakeholders in the organisation's sustainability. Furthermore, the literature indicates that the ways in which individual organisations deploy CSR can also differ. Aguinis and Glavas (2013) provide a conceptual framework by mentioning that CSR can be implemented as either embedded or peripheral in nature. This framework is groundbreaking in terms of idealisation because the framework relies on psychological foundations for understanding CSR, specifically those related to IOP (Aguinis & Glavas, 2013). Embedded CSR is explained by Aguinis and Glavas (2013) as being integrated with an organisation's policy, values, mission and core strategy. Peripheral CSR, on the contrary, is found where an organisation's CSR activities are not integrated with core operations, but rather expressed externally in forms of philanthropy or volunteering.

In South Africa, there is a unique approach to CSR where the principles are accepted positively and as responsible business undertakings. Seen from a South African perspective, responsible business is entrenched as a responsibility and an aspiration for organisations to show that they operate on triple bottom-line perspectives and have excellent corporate citizenship (Ackers, 2015). Furthermore, Ackers (2015) indicates that, in South Africa, a paradigm shift is occurring, businesses are moving towards a system where they want to cooperate and disclose on their social activities, as part of their business operations and not only for those for whom it is promulgated as law. Bringing together the global and the South African contexts is significant for understanding how CSR can be similar and be differentiated. Sivaraman (2013) provides an integrated view of CSR by stating that companies are paying more attention to their responsibilities with regard to society, environments, welfare of workers, resources and charitable contributions. All of these core elements, when they are properly accounted for, can be considered to be socially desirable. This social desirability is the coveted outcomes of CSR, regardless of the context of the CSR initiative (Carroll & Shabana, 2010; Sivaraman, 2013).

The concept of CSR expands the scope of, and calls the attention of, organisations to take responsibility (Sivaraman, 2013). It is also commented that the rapid economic growth and the impact of climate change contribute to the way CSR has been favourably adopted in South Africa (Sivaraman, 2013). For purposes of this study, CSR is defined and viewed as activities that organisations engage in, forming part of their business operations, which expand favourable outcomes into the communities in which they operate.

Industrial psychology and corporate social responsibility

Rupp, Skarlicki and Shao (2013) point out that little research has been undertaken to understand CSR from the perspective of IOP, including psychology in general, and how these professionals operate and function to support the social duties and responsibilities of modern organisations. Industrial-organisational psychology is a field of psychology that concerns itself with applying psychological theory, practice and principles to the working environment (Schreuder & Coetzee, 2011). The Health Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA) is the government's legal entity that governs the practice and scope of, along with regulatory control over, the profession in the country, as indicated in the Health Professions Act of 1974 (South Africa Department of Health, 2011). The HPCSA indicates the scope of the profession for IOP as 'planning, developing, and applying paradigms, theories, models, constructs, and principles of psychology in the workplace in order to understand, modify, and enhance individual, group, and organisational behaviour effectively' (South Africa Department of Health, 2011, p. 9). Definitions of industrial psychology also indicate that the functions of the IOP practitioner include actions outside the industrial setting, such as serving communities and people (Colman, 2015). A core responsibility that needs to be highlighted is designing, managing, conducting, reporting on and supervising industrial psychology research (Health Professions Act, 1974). This would indicate that if an organisation is seeking to engage in CSR, the IOP practitioner will have the eligibility and competencies to act in that capacity, as the IOP has a stake in the research and practice. To further this on the assentation by Ackers (2015), the IOP would be an assent to ensure compliance on a regulatory and voluntary basis. Interestingly, the South African scope of practice for the profession of IOP does not specifically demarcate any official responsibility for the IOP to engage in community engagement or social responsibility, an evident gap in industrial psychology literature.

The evolution, development and progression of IOP as a profession require continuous research and dedication in various areas of interest. Especially of value for this article is the link between CSR and IOP to mental health in communities. The South African National Mental Health Policy Framework and Strategic Plan (2013-2020) states that mental health is an important aspect of health and crucial to the overall well-being of individuals and society. According to Satcher (2000), mental health is more than merely addressing psychiatric disorders. Satcher (2000) states that it is:

[T]he successful performance of mental function, resulting in productive activities, fulfilling relationships with other people, and the ability to adapt to change and to cope with adversity; from early childhood until later life, mental health is the springboard of thinking and communication skills, learning, emotional growth, resilience, and self-esteem. (p. 6)

The definition utilised by Satcher is of importance for the profession of industrial psychology, which often focuses on interventions to develop and grow individuals (South Africa Department of Health, 2011, p. 9).

Goal and contribution of the study

The general aim of this study was to explore the contribution that the profession of industrial psychology can make towards improving mental health by means of a CSR programme.

The aim of the study leads to the following research questions:

· What does a needs assessment for development and growth indicate from specific role-players in a CSR programme for young adults in a community?

· What is the content and methodology of an IOP-related CSR programme for a specific population of young adults in a community?

By conducting this study, a contribution is made whereby the research indicates that the industrial and organisational psychologists could make a valuable contribution towards CSR initiatives. On individual level, the study contributed to clarify the understanding of where IOP has a place in social investment and contributions. Through the study, a CSR programme for young adults was developed, which suits the context of the profession of industrial psychology.

 

Research design

Research approach and strategy

This study followed the qualitative research and constructivism approach. In the social constructivism ontology, as described by Kim (2001), multiple realities exist because multiple people have constructed the realities and have lived the experience(s). Social constructivism operates on central assumptions concerning reality, knowledge and learning. In social constructivism, the epistemology in the paradigm notes that the knowledge extracted is subjective to, and constructed from, the social world of the participant. It is explained that this knowledge is bound by culture, context and the world of the person being questioned (Kim, 2001). For the purposes of the study, the authors maintained that social constructivism holds that experiences can only be understood when they are explored from the viewpoint of the person who has lived the experience (Chilisa & Kawulich, 2012).

This study utilised a case study as the research strategy. When using a case study, a specific population is demarcated and scientifically investigated to generate knowledge, from either a specific individual or a group (Leedy & Ormond, 2013). For the purposes of this study, a descriptive case study and an instrumental case study were utilised as research strategy. A descriptive case study was used to gather and analyse the data that relate to the phenomenon identified in the research questions (Yin, 2003 cited in Fouché & Schurink, 2011). Semi-structured interviews were used to execute the case study strategy. This case study required the researcher to be personally involved and entrenched in the particular targeted population of study, in this case IOP students acting as facilitators, and the members involved in the project (e.g. project leader). Some features of the instrumental case study were utilised in producing new knowledge regarding a specific social issue or phenomenon, along with policy development. This study aimed at not only furthering knowledge but also extending the knowledge and theory (e.g. developing a CSR programme) for which the instrumental case study was used (Thomas, 2004).

Research setting, entrée and researcher roles

Entrée to the selected participants was gained by the authors by joining an existing CSR project at the IOP department where one of the authors was a postgraduate student. A local community secondary school approached the tertiary institution during the previous year, requesting assistance with regard to a voluntary academic association, which was formed at the school. The institution obliged as part of its CSR initiatives and the institution closed an agreement with the school, resulting in the CSR project. The data were collected at the premises of the tertiary institution in two phases. In the first phase, the participants included the project leader, coordinator and facilitators (namely the IOP students) of the CSR initiative. During the second phase (not reported in this article), the learners from the school shared their experiences after attending the CSR programme. Therefore, for the first phase, the six participants were all invited for the interviews and the purpose of the research was explained to them.

Sample

Purposive and key informant sampling methods were used in this study. Purposive sampling, also referred to as selective sampling, is suitable when the researcher chooses participants who fit within the parameters of the research objectives, questions and aims (Tracy, 2013). Key informant sampling was applied to access the six participants who possessed specific knowledge for the study (Tongco, 2007). The selection criteria utilised included only members who participated in the specific CSR project as presenters, developers and facilitators, either members of the community, academic staff members or students. The population comprised a group consisting of the project leader (n = 1), coordinator (n = 1) and facilitators (IOP students) (n = 4) of the CSR programme; their biographical information is presented in Table 1.

 

 

Data collection

This study used semi-structured individual interviewing as the method of data collection. The interviews lasted for an average of 45 min each. Opdenakker (2006) highlights the advantage of interviewing where the possibility to probe and act on social cues creates dynamic and rich data. Care was taken because a disadvantage of interviewing can be that the participants can be influenced by the researcher's behaviour, language, actions or words (Opdenakker, 2006). During the interview process, the interviewer probed unclear responses to clarify what had been heard, and conversely clarify what had been asked.

Data analysis and interpretation

Thematic analysis was used to identify the themes or patterns in the data. This technique is used when the researcher attempts to understand the specific phenomenon from the participant's view by looking at how the data from the various participants fit together (Kawulich & Holland, 2012). The three steps in data analysis, suggested by Kawulich and Holland (2012), were applied. Firstly, the researchers explored the data and developed codes and created sub-categories that applied to the data. Then the codes were grouped together to form categories in an attempt to describe the context or interaction occurring between the codes. In this step, the researchers took apart the data and rearranged it in various ways to identify a way in which the data made sense around categories. In the last step, the codes, themes and categories were detailed to make sense as a whole and it enabled the researchers to create a storyline of the data segment. While interpreting the data, the researchers were aware, as stated by Chilisa and Kawulich (2012), that the social constructivism lens shows the experiences explored from the viewpoint of the participants; however, the researchers were cognisant of the fact that their own interpretations were also based on their own lived experience.

Strategies employed to ensure data quality and integrity

Qualitative data need to be scientifically accurate and of high quality, and therefore the scrutiny of qualitative data is very important. The indicators of qualitative trustworthiness, according to Kawulich and Holland (2012), were followed, namely, credibility was ensured by applying techniques such as co-coding and triangulation. Transferability was ensured by keeping all data in its original form and by describing the case richly. Dependability for this study was ensured where the design was scientifically planned, executed and continually monitored. The study was documented carefully and reviewed to increase the scientific accuracy of the research. Confirmability for the study aimed at focusing on scientific objectivity; the researchers and authors of the study took great care in remaining impartial and fair; they were unbiased and treated all participants in the same objective manner. Strategies to uphold the integrity of the research were reached by focusing on Kitchener's (1984) five moral principles. Firstly, autonomy, by allowing the participants the freedom of choice and action to share their experiences in the study; secondly, justice, by ensuring that all participants were treated as equal; thirdly, beneficence was ensured by focusing on the well-being of the participants at all times; fourthly, non-maleficence by avoiding causing harm to the participants; and, lastly, fidelity, by being trustworthy throughout the study.

 

Findings

The study's research findings were delineated into a collection of categories, themes, sub-themes and direct quotations acting as corroborative support for the results. Each of the categories with the accompanying themes and sub-themes extracted is presented and detailed below. All of the data collected from the participants in the interviews were in English and therefore no translation was necessary.

To obtain an overview of the findings that follow, the categories with the themes are summarised in Figure 1.

 

 

Category 1 - Needs assessment

The first category identified from the data revolved around the needs assessment of the participants. The themes extracted from the data were obtained from the interviews with the project leader and coordinator of the CSR programme. They were asked how the specific needs of the target population group (learners) were identified, how these needs were managed or categorised and, finally, how they made sense of the needs in terms of the development of the CSR programme. The extracted data could be segmented into five themes with various sub-themes identified. The data are organised in Table 2.

From the data collected, it became obvious that the CSR initiative was preceded by a needs assessment process. Although this process commenced spontaneously (from the school requesting assistance), a process followed where sense needed to be made of the requests and to be structured into some kind of programme. A discussion of the sub-themes provides the following regarding the needs identification process.

The school

From Table 2, it is clear that the community high school was the starting point of the entire programme; it seems that the school struggled with specific learners' behaviour and requested assistance from the project leader. The community high school identified a specific group of learners who were branded for misbehaviours, poor academic progress and general disruptive behaviour. The project leader then referred this group to the coordinator of the programme, where the next phases of needs identification commenced.

The coordinator

From Table 2, a sub-theme emerged where the needs assessment included a second group, the project leader of the CSR initiative, who approached the institution and coordinator, after the general population had been identified. The coordinator appointed facilitators to the initiative by requesting voluntary assistance from the postgraduate students in the IOP programme. The project leader accepted the broad themes (needs) as proposed by the community school and translated these into general life skills training, such as communication skills, HIV education, sensible relationships, safe sex practices, and dreams and plans for the future. Once the coordinator became involved in the project, the needs identification process delineated more specific needs and topics that needed to be addressed, which also assisted in tailoring the CSR initiative to have specific goals.

Facilitators

The coordinator held a meeting with colleagues at the tertiary institution and initiated the CSR project. At the meeting, it was realised that the institution can, indeed, impart knowledge and skills related to the identified needs of the participants.

The learners

The next sub-theme identified from the data included the learners, who communicated their needs anonymously to the project leader. These included needs such as self-image, conflict management, communication, HIV and health-related training. These lists of needs were used as a point of discussion by the coordinator and facilitators to develop a specific plan of action to be incorporated with the CSR initiative.

Category 2 - Development and approval of the corporate social responsibility initiative

The second category identified from the data has its focus on the development and approval process of the CSR initiative. The central themes of this category covered the development of the programmes, including elements such as the approval process, how the role-players gained access and involvement of different role-players. This data captured from the project leader, coordinator and facilitators provided insight into the technical details of the initiative and also the various aspects contributing to the final product (being the designated workshops). Table 3 provides the themes and sub-themes for the extracted data, segmented into three themes, supported by various sub-themes.

Exploration of the data revealed that the development of the initiative covers how the entire project was conceptualised and how the project leader, coordinator, facilitators and the tertiary institution gained access to, and involvement in, the CSR initiative. The sub-themes relating to the development and approval of the initiative follow; the project leader was the main point of contact for the commencement of the CSR programme. At the time when the project leader was contacted by the school, she was already involved in community outreach programmes. The project leader contacted the coordinator and asked to volunteer assistance because it is expected of the tertiary institution to give back to the community, the coordinator initiated their involvement. The coordinator also realised that the students of the tertiary institution can also be involved. The IOP honours, master's and intern students of the tertiary institution were provided with the opportunity to volunteer their time, knowledge, experience and participation in the initiative.

The second theme in the study revealed the approval process for the CSR programme. The initiative had started as an independent project that was created and established before the participation and involvement of the tertiary institution. The tertiary institution became a role-player when the coordinator realised the potential for the project to be an official CSR initiative. The motivation to bring such a project to the attention of a tertiary institution is that it can expand and grow the initiative by reaching more individuals who can offer assistance and also expand the operational scope of the project. The project was consequently recognised by the tertiary institution and after institutional approval became an official part of the institution's CSR initiatives. The same is true for the facilitators of the project - approval was granted by the tertiary institution before they were approached or designated any duties or roles.

Category 3 - The content and methodology of the presented corporate social responsibility initiative

In categories 1 and 2, the needs identified specifically from the project leader and coordinators were explained. The next category reports on the findings obtained from the interviews with the project leader, coordinator and facilitators of the CSR programme. The category shows how the needs identified in categories 1 and 2 were translated into a CSR initiative by relating the needs to specific topics. The specific topics that were addressed in the CSR initiative are presented in Table 4.

Ethical considerations

This study formed part of a research project for which the institution's research board provided ethical clearance and approval, and an ethical clearance number was registered (NWU 00084-10-S4).

 

Discussion

In South Africa, the legal scope of profession does not specifically delineate the responsibility of the industrial psychologist to engage in CSR activities. However, it is written that the functions of the IOP practitioner include actions outside the industrial setting, such as serving communities and people (Colman, 2015). The noteworthy ideology to consider is that the IOP practitioner will have the duty to further the interests of the organisations, and the IOP is equipped to advance the social and ethical endeavours of the organisation, which may typically include CSR activities (Barnard & Fourie, 2007; Van Vuuren, 2010). In the profession of IOP, a multitude of association bodies also exist that undertake to promote the values of social investment, to which the IOP practitioner can subscribe and, in doing so, advance their CSR interests.

The results from this study showed that the needs analysis process was initiated by the community high school. The school management identified the learners' first needs for specific development and consequently approached the project leader of the CSR initiative for assistance. These identified needs from the school were broad and not directed at specific topics, such as learners who needed guidance, development and general life skills training. The project leader approached the tertiary institution with the needs of the learners and this led to a CSR project being registered at the tertiary institution, and a coordinator was assigned to the initiative. This process of generating a programme for the learners, which addressed their needs, utilised the assistance of the programme's coordinator and the various facilitators (postgraduate IOP students) involved. The research questions of this article were, firstly, to report on the needs assessment for the CSR programme and, secondly, what the content and methodology of an IOP-related CSR programme were to address the needs of the specific population of young adults in the community.

The literature shows that the needs assessment process within CSR can be dynamic and creative. Moir (2001) states that the needs assessment process is primarily driven by what the organisation identifies as a need within the community's reach. Within this process, it is important to understand the needs of all stakeholders involved, and how this inter-relationship will be formed during the process, seeing that the CSR design must reflect the needs of the society (Moir, 2001). Similarly, in the current study, various stakeholders were involved, apart from the learners. Firstly, the local school reached out to the project leader, whereafter the project leader linked up with the tertiary institution's IOP department where a coordinator initiated the programme and involved the IOP postgraduate students. Wang and Burris (1997) also explain the advantages of linking needs assessment with community participation. When the community involved participates in the process of needs identification, the effectiveness and applicability of the initiative are increased. It also assists the project designers in gaining perspective from the views and lives of the participants (Wang & Burris, 1997) - as was the case in this study.

The needs assessment process flowed into a CSR initiative with a tertiary institution. The data revealed two categories: the development process of the CSR initiative and the approval process followed to realise the initiative. An interesting finding is that the learners themselves had a role to play in the development of the content of the initiative. These learners had taken the enterprise to establish a youth group, taking responsibility for their own internal structure complete with their own vision, mission and portfolios. The project leader also has a keen interest and experience in community-related work and utilised that skill set to be integrated with the initiative. The results revealed that the coordinator and facilitators gained access to the participant group because of their interest in IOP - the same fact being true for the tertiary institution and the related role-players in the current study. Humphrey (2013) indicates that communities are often unaware of the beneficial contributions that tertiary institutions can have in communities, especially excluded or disadvantaged communities. The benefits of the tertiary institutions include offerings such as service learning, continuous professional development offering, education, widening access and volunteering, which are all facets that are available to use in community engagement initiatives (Humphrey, 2013). Tertiary institutions are increasingly involved as active role-players in community engagement (Olowu, 2012). Vickers and McCarthy (2004) opine that universities are in a prime position to impart relevant knowledge into communities, especially considering they primarily are institutions of teaching and education. Furthermore, universities are able to engage with communities to provide service learning, which enables students to also play a part with community engagement, and an inter-relationship of benefits is established for the community, students and universities (Vickers & McCarthy, 2004).

As found by Shiel, Leal Filho, Do Paço and Brandli (2016), this study's contributors to the initiative had done so completely voluntarily. The students who acted as facilitators had the added benefit of service training and learning added to their voluntary participation. The process followed garnered support and approval from the participants and the tertiary institution. To develop the content for the CSR programme, the needs assessment was utilised, which revealed specific themes for this specific group. The themes included, firstly, self-image relating to the learners' sense of self-acceptance and a clearer self-image. According to Switzer, Simmons, Dew, Regalski and Wang (1995), the topic relating to self-image development is often found in CSR initiatives among learners when addressing life skills. Switzer et al. (1995) found that school-based programmes that focused on self-image led to participants experiencing positive growth in self-esteem, commitment to school and community, and improvement in problematic behaviour. The second topic dealt with purpose in life, namely, to enable the learner to obtain a sense of self, purpose and meaning in life. Pittman, Irby, Tolman, Yohalem and Ferber (2003) state that moral, spiritual and individual sense of self and purpose in life is an area of development recognised for all adolescents and young adults, as these skills are essential for goal attainment and needs fulfilment. The next topic identified by the participants in the CSR programme related to addressing health-related issues such as HIV and AIDS, basic wellness and health, and taking care of one's body, which is considered to be of integral importance in such development programmes. Addressing health-related issues among young adults is a major concern globally (Jackson et al., 2007). Roth, Brooks-Gunn, Murray and Foster (1998) also indicate that community youth development programmes incorporating health-related issues training show better positive outcomes for participants. Other topics included in the programme in the study related to effective interpersonal communication, enabling the participants to increase their communication skills. Eccles and Gootman (2002) suggest that conflict and relationship management training is an effective tool for decreasing aggressive behaviour and conflict incidences.

In addition, effective communication training also produces increased warmth, connectedness and supportive relationships (Eccles & Gootman, 2002). The topic list also addressed career guidance and study methods in the CSR initiative. The third topic of career guidance is similarly linked to the ideals of Pittman et al. (2003), where it is said that young adults seek career guidance reportedly because they need to know what to study to make a difference in their career paths. Concerning study methods, Ramdass and Zimmerman (2008) found that training students in various methods of studying or learning increases student self-efficacy, self-regulation, motivation and confidence. The participants further stated that they would like to include the topic of dealing with stress, relating to identification, and management of stress. Eccles and Gootman (2002) opined that these types of interventions result in reduced report of stress-related symptoms and increased ability to recognise stress symptoms. The topics focusing on time management are also indicated to be of value to the participants. Time management skills training has been shown to be positively related with self-regulation and control of time resources and negatively related with stress (Claessens, Van Eerde, Rutte, & Roe, 2007). Last but not least, the participants indicated that they would like to give back to the community in an unselfish manner. For this purpose, they decided to take part in the South African initiative Mandela Day (which they referred to as Madiba Day) (Mandeladay, 2016).

The results from this study echo the report by Satcher (2000), stating that mental health can be viewed as having fulfilling relationships with other people; also, mental health is the springboard of thinking and communication skills, learning, emotional growth, resilience and self-esteem. Moreover, it is evident from the study that the learners voiced their need to obtain the skills that can be viewed as attributes of mental health. Brainscape (2019) reported that attributes of mental health can be viewed as the ability to love, deal with conflicting emotions, control one's own behaviour, relate to others, manage interpersonal conflict, ability to work and be productive, have a healthy self-concept and self-value, to name but a few. These attributes were all identified as needs by the participants in the study and translated into a CSR initiative ideally suited within the IOP context.

Referring to the methodology employed to present the CSR initiative, different approaches were followed to present the content of the programme, such as group discussions, role-plays, mentors, guest lecturers and practical activities. The project leader of the initiative indicated that the philosophy of the initiative was to be driven from the bottom-up and not merely by a lecture to the participants, but rather a collaborative training effort. The application of different learning techniques was employed to cater for different learning styles. Therefore, experiential learning was mainly used because the learning process is perceived to be involved and inclusionary of individual needs (Peterson, DeCato, & Kolb, 2015). The initiative followed a specific schedule that contained the different topics for the workshops. This schedule was used to guide the role-players of the initiative to address all the identified needs, in accordance with the planned philosophy and approach towards learning.

 

Conclusion

This study primarily endeavoured to contribute to the field of research in IOP by exploring the knowledge regarding social contributions and community engagement, especially to address mental health in a specific community. The results indicate that CSR, IOP and mental health have a complementary relationship. Conclusively, the study shows that industrial and organisational psychologists have the skills to operationalise CSR triumphantly. The findings also showed that the attributes of mental health can easily be facilitated within a CSR programme that fits in the scope of practice of the industrial psychologist. Recommendations for future research would be to conduct similar investigations at other tertiary institutions that also offer IOP-related CSR initiatives to monitor the impact of CSR initiatives when executed from psychology or related departments.

 

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to acknowledge and express their appreciation to all the participants who took part in the project and study.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

Authors' contributions

D.V. collected the interview data and was the main author of the article. L.I.J.-G. was the research initiator and research project leader, collected the interview data and prepared the article for publication. B.E.J. was the coordinator of the corporate social responsibility initiative.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability statement

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the authors.

 

References

Ackers, B. (2015). Ethical considerations of corporate social responsibility - A South African perspective. South African Journal of Business Management. Retrieved from http://reference.sabinet.co.za/webx/access/electronic_journals/busman/busman_v46_n1_a2.pdf.         [ Links ]

Aguinis, H., & Glavas, A. (2012). What we know and don't know about corporate social responsibility: A review and research agenda. Journal of Management, 38(4), 932-968. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206311436079        [ Links ]

Aguinis, H., & Glavas, A. (2013). Embedded versus peripheral corporate social responsibility: Psychological foundations. Industrial and Organizational Psychology: Perspectives on Science and Practice, 6, 314-332        [ Links ]

Barnard, G., & Fourie, L. (2007). Exploring the roles and contributions of industrial psychologists in South Africa against a multi-dimensional conceptual framework (part 2). SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 33(2), 45-53. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v33i2.376        [ Links ]

Carroll, A.B., & Shabana, K.M. (2010). The business case for corporate social responsibility: A review of concepts, research and practice. International Journal of Management Reviews, 12(1), 85-105. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2370.2009.00275.x        [ Links ]

Chilisa, B., & Kawulich, B.B. (2012). Selecting a research approach: Paradigms, methodology and methods. In C. Wagner, B.B. Kawulich, & M. Garner (Eds.), Doing social research: A global context (pp. 52-61). New York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education.         [ Links ]

Claessens, B.C., van Eerde, W., Rutte, C.G., & Roe, R.A. (2007). A review of the time management. Personnel Review, 36 (2), 255-276.         [ Links ]

Colman, A.M. (2015). A dictionary of psychology (4th edn.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.         [ Links ]

Dahlsrud, A. (2008). How corporate social responsibility is defined: An analysis of 37 definitions. Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management, 15(1), 1.         [ Links ]

Eccles, J., & Gootman, J.A. (2002). Community programmes to promote youth development. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.         [ Links ]

Fouché, C.B., & Schurink, W. (2011). Qualitative research designs. In A.S. De Vos, H. Strydom, C.B. Fouché, & C.L.S. Delport (Eds.), Research at grass roots: For the social sciences and human services professions (4th edn., pp. 307-327). Pretoria: Van Schaik.         [ Links ]

Gilbert, D.U., Rasche, A., Schormair, M.J.L., & Singer, A. (2019). Special Issue on: The challenges and prospects of deliberative democracy for corporate sustainability and responsibility. Business Ethics Quarterly, 29(2), 285-289. https://doi.org/10.1017/beq.2019.2        [ Links ]

Humphrey, L. (2013). University-community engagement: Dislocation of theory and practice. In P. Benneworth (Ed.), University engagement with socially excluded communities (pp. 103-124). Dordrecht, Heidelberg, London, New York: Springer.         [ Links ]

Jackson, S.F., Perkins, F., Khandor, E., Cordwell, L., Hamann, S., & Buasai, S. (2007). Integrated health promotion strategies: A contribution to tackling current and future health challenges. Health Promotion International, 21(1), 75-83. http://doi.org/10.1093/heapro/dal054        [ Links ]

Kawulich, B.B., & Holland, L. (2012). Qualitative data analysis. In C. Wagner, B.B. Kawulich, & M. Garner (Eds.), Doing social research: A global context (pp. 228-245). New York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education.         [ Links ]

Kim, B. (2001). Social constructivism. Emerging Perspectives on Learning, Teaching, and Technology, 1(1), 16.         [ Links ]

Kitchener, K.S. (1984). Intuition, critical evaluation and ethical principles: The foundation for ethical decisions in counseling psychology. Counseling Psychologist, 12(3), 43-55. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000084123005        [ Links ]

Leedy, P.D., & Ormrod, J.E. (2013). Qualitative research. In P.D. Leedy & J.E. Ormrod (Eds.), Practical research: Planning and design (10th edn., pp. 139-169). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.         [ Links ]

Mandela day. (2016). What is Mandela day? - Mandela day. Retrieved from http://www.mandeladay.com/content/landing/What-is-Mandela-Day.         [ Links ]

Moir, L. (2001). What do we mean by corporate social responsibility? Corporate governance: The International Journal of Business in Society, 1(2), 16-22. http://doi.org/10.1108/EUM0000000005486        [ Links ]

Moura-Leite, R.C., & Padgett, R.C. (2011). Historical background of corporate social responsibility. Social Responsibility Journal, 7(4), 528-539. https://doi.org/10.1108/1747111111117511        [ Links ]

Okpara, J.O., & Idowu, S.O. (2013). Corporate social responsibility, J.O. Okpara & S.O. Idowu (Eds.). Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-40975-2        [ Links ]

Olowu, D. (2012). University-community engagement in South Africa: Dilemmas in benchmarking. South African Review of Sociology, 43(2), 89-103. https://doi.org/10.1080/21528586.2012.694252        [ Links ]

Opdenakker, R. (2006). Advantages and disadvantages of four interview techniques in qualitative research 2. Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 7(4), 1-9.         [ Links ]

Peterson, K., DeCato, L., & Kolb, D.A. (2015). Moving and learning: Expanding style and increasing flexibility. Journal of Experiential Education, 38(3), 228-244. http://doi.org/10.1177/1053825914540836        [ Links ]

Pittman, K., Irby, M., Tolman, J., Yohalem, N., & Ferber, T. (2003). Preventing problems, promoting development, encouraging engagement: Competing priorities or inseparable goals? Washington, DC.: The Cady-Lee House.         [ Links ]

Ramdass, D., & Zimmerman, B. (2008). Effects of self-correction strategy training on middle school students' self-efficacy, self-evaluation, and mathematics division learning. Journal of Advanced Academics, 20(1), 18-41. https://doi.org/10.4219/jaa-2008-869        [ Links ]

Rossouw, D., & Van Vuuren, L. (2010). Business ethics (4th edn.). Cape Town, South Africa: Oxford University Press.         [ Links ]

Roth, J., Brooks-Gunn, J., Murray, L., & Foster, W. (1998). Promoting healthy adolescents: Synthesis of youth development programmes evaluations. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 8(4), 423-459. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327795jra0804_2        [ Links ]

Rupp, D.E., Skarlicki, D., & Shao, R. (2013). The psychology of corporate social responsibility and humanitarian work: A person-centric perspective. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 6(4), 361-368. https://doi.org/10.1111/iops.12068        [ Links ]

Satcher, D. (2000). Mental health: A report of the surgeon general - Executive summary. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 31(1), 5-13. https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7028.31.1.5        [ Links ]

Schreuder, A.M.G., & Coetzee, M. (2011). Careers: An organisational perspective (4th edn.). Cape Town: Juta.         [ Links ]

Serenko, A., & Bontis, N. (2009). A citation-based ranking of the business ethics scholarly journals. International Journal of Business Governance and Ethics, 4(4), 390. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJBGE.2009.023790        [ Links ]

Shiel, C., Leal Filho, W., do Paço, A., & Brandli, L. (2016). Evaluating the engagement of universities in capacity building for sustainable development in local communities. Evaluation and Program Planning, 54, 123-134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evalprogplan.2015.07.006        [ Links ]

Sivaraman, M. (2013). Corporate social responsibility: Readings and cases in a global context. International Journal of Environmental Studies, 70(4), 675-678. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207233.2013.841036        [ Links ]

Smith, C. Mental health and mental illness. Retrieved n.d., from www.brainscape.com/flashcards/chapter-2-mental-health-and-mental-illnes-5990124/packs/9111202 Article.         [ Links ]

South Africa Department of Health. (2011). Health Professions Act, 1974: Regulations defining the scope of the profession of psychology. (Government Gazette, 34581, Notice 10505, 2 September 2011). Pretoria: Government Printer.         [ Links ]

Switzer, G.E., Simmons, R.G., Dew, M.A., Regalski, J.M., & Wang, C.-H. (1995). The effect of a school-based helper program on adolescent self-image, attitudes, and behavior. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 15(4), 429-455. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431695015004003        [ Links ]

Thomas, A.B. (2004). Research skills for management studies. London: Routledge.         [ Links ]

Tongco, D.C. (2007). Purposive sampling as a tool for informant selection. Ethnobotany Research and Applications, 5, 147-158. https://doi.org/10.17348/era.5.0.147-158        [ Links ]

Tracy, S.J. (2013). Interview planning and design - Sampling, recruiting, and questioning. In S.J. Tracy (Ed.), Qualitative research methods: Collecting evidence, crafting analysis, communicating impact (pp. 131-152). Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell.         [ Links ]

Van Vuuren, L. (2010). Industrial psychology: Goodness of fit? Fit for goodness? SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 36(2), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v36i2.939        [ Links ]

Vickers, M., Harris, C., & McCarthy, F. (2004). University-community engagement: Exploring service-learning options within the practicum. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 32(2), 129-141. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359866042000234223        [ Links ]

Wang, C., & Burris, M.A. (1997). Photovoice: Concept, methodology, and use for participatory needs assessment. Health Education & Behavior, 24(3), 369-387. https://doi.org/10.1177/109019819702400309        [ Links ]

Yin, R.K. (2003). Case study research: Design and methods (3rd edn.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.         [ Links ]

 

 

Correspondence:
Lené Jorgensen-Graupner
lene.jorgensen@nwu.ac.za

Received: 20 Mar. 2019
Accepted: 30 May 2019
Published: 10 Oct. 2019

^rND^sAguinis^nH.^rND^sGlavas^nA.^rND^sAguinis^nH.^rND^sGlavas^nA.^rND^sBarnard^nG.^rND^sFourie^nL.^rND^sCarroll^nA.B.^rND^sShabana^nK.M.^rND^sChilisa^nB.^rND^sKawulich^nB.B.^rND^sClaessens^nB.C.^rND^svan Eerde^nW.^rND^sRutte^nC.G.^rND^sRoe^nR.A.^rND^sDahlsrud^nA.^rND^sFouché^nC.B.^rND^sSchurink^nW.^rND^sGilbert^nD.U.^rND^sRasche^nA.^rND^sSchormair^nM.J.L.^rND^sSinger^nA.^rND^sHumphrey^nL.^rND^sJackson^nS.F.^rND^sPerkins^nF.^rND^sKhandor^nE.^rND^sCordwell^nL.^rND^sHamann^nS.^rND^sBuasai^nS.^rND^sKawulich^nB.B.^rND^sHolland^nL.^rND^sKim^nB.^rND^sKitchener^nK.S.^rED^sLeedy^nP.D.^rED^sOrmrod^nJ.E.^rND^sMoir^nL.^rND^sMoura-Leite^nR.C.^rND^sPadgett^nR.C.^rND^sOkpara^nJ.O.^rND^sIdowu^nS.O.^rND^sOlowu^nD.^rND^sOpdenakker^nR.^rND^sPeterson^nK.^rND^sDeCato^nL.^rND^sKolb^nD.A.^rND^sRamdass^nD.^rND^sZimmerman^nB.^rND^sRoth^nJ.^rND^sBrooks-Gunn^nJ.^rND^sMurray^nL.^rND^sFoster^nW.^rND^sRupp^nD.E.^rND^sSkarlicki^nD.^rND^sShao^nR.^rND^sSatcher^nD.^rND^sSerenko^nA.^rND^sBontis^nN.^rND^sShiel^nC.^rND^sLeal Filho^nW.^rND^sdo Paço^nA.^rND^sBrandli^nL.^rND^sSivaraman^nM.^rND^sSwitzer^nG.E.^rND^sSimmons^nR.G.^rND^sDew^nM.A.^rND^sRegalski^nJ.M.^rND^sWang^nC.-H.^rND^sTongco^nD.C.^rND^sTracy^nS.J.^rND^sVan Vuuren^nL.^rND^sVickers^nM.^rND^sHarris^nC.^rND^sMcCarthy^nF.^rND^sWang^nC.^rND^sBurris^nM.A.^rND^1A01^nMasefako A.^sGumani^rND^1A01^nMasefako A.^sGumani^rND^1A01^nMasefako A^sGumani

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

The influence of organisational stressors on the well-being and performance of operational police members

 

 

Masefako A. Gumani

Department of Psychology, School of Social Sciences, College of Human Sciences, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

---

ABSTRACT

ORIENTATION: Studies on the influence of organisational stressors on the well-being and performance of operational members of the South African Police Service in the visible policing and detective service programmes in rural areas, like the Vhembe district, Limpopo province, South Africa, have not been conducted yet
RESEARCH PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to explore and interpret operational members' experiences of organisational stressors, which influence their well-being and performance when attending to critical incidents of rape, domestic violence, murder and road accidents, in the Vhembe district, Limpopo province
MOTIVATION FOR THE STUDY: The study proposes ways of dealing with organisational stressors that influence the well-being and performance of operational members when performing their tasks.
RESEARCH APPROACH/DESIGN AND METHOD: An interpretative phenomenological research design was used and 17 South African Police Service participants were selected through purposive sampling. Unstructured face-to-face interviews, diary entries and telephonic interviews were conducted and field notes were used to collect the data, which were analysed using interpretative phenomenological analysis guidelines.
MAIN FINDINGS: The results highlight internal, external, task-related and individual organisational stressors among operational members of the South African Police Service that led to psychological distress, including negative perceptions of self and work, job dissatisfaction, considerations of resignation, increased training needs and strained working relationships
PRACTICAL/MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS: A need for a systems perspective on problem-solving, with top-bottom and bottom-up approaches, is proposed to manage organisational stressors among operational members of the South African Police Service in the Vhembe district.
CONTRIBUTION/VALUE-ADD: The study contributes towards the contextual understanding and management of organisational stressors in rural operational policing.

Keywords: Critical Incidents; Operational Work; Organisational Stressors; SAPS; Industrial Psychology; Rural Area; Victim Empowerment.

---

 

 

Introduction

Research on the influence of organisational stressors (unfavourable work conditions and tasks, including human resource management, record-keeping and bureaucratic procedures) is still relevant today (Acquadro Maran, Zedda, & Variety, 2018; Redelinghuys, Rothmann, & Botha, 2019) in police organisations (Shane, 2010). These stressors include work procedures and processes in the public sector, like policing, which play a major role in ensuring efficient service delivery in relation to available resources (Nzewi, 2013). The stressors not only influence work performance and well-being but also impact employee attrition (employees leaving an organisation), which calls for continued research on organisational stressors that lead to these challenges (Redelinghuys et al., 2019). The patterns of resignation among the South African Police Service (SAPS) members because of organisational stressors in the past 3 years are as follows, namely, 1889 in 2016/2017 and 2039 in 2017/2018, which suggests that there is an increase in the trend. This is the reason why improving the operational work environment has been set as a priority in the SAPS (SAPS, 2017/2018).

South African Police Service studies on the influence of organisational stressors were mostly conducted among randomly selected police members (Louw & Viviers, 2010; Madu & Poodhun, 2006; Meyer, Rothmann, & Pienaar, 2003; Mostert, Cronje, & Pienaar, 2006; Pienaar & Rothmann, 2003, 2006; Storm & Rothmann, 2003; Wiese, Rothmann, & Storm, 2003) and did not focus on members performing operational work (work that involves exposure to victims' critical incidents) (Rees & Smith, 2008). The organisational stressors have been indicated to impact the work efficiency of operational police members in the metropolitan areas (Kgalema, 2002) and in some rural parts of the country (Steyn, 2009). Based on findings in Italy, Acquadro Maran et al. (2018) recommended a comparison of organisational stressors (organisational demands that are primarily and directly embedded in the work environment and affect an employee's performance) (Hanton, Fletcher, & Coughlan, 2005) and operational stressors (demands of working and making decisions during critical incidents) (Rees & Smith, 2008), and their effects on the physical and psychological health of patrol police members. Although the current study does not compare the two types of stressors, limited literature on the influence of organisational stressors on operational SAPS members necessitated this study.

South African studies that have suggested a link between the two stressors are the following, namely, Kgalema (2002), who conducted a study in the Metro policing areas of eThekwini, Johannesburg, Cape Town, Tshwane and Ekurhuleni; Steyn (2009), who conducted a study on SAPS members in a rural area but only focused on the types and frequency of exposure to traumatic events; and Van Lelyveld (2008), who conducted a quantitative study that only determined how demographic factors and workload impacted the existence of Vicarious Traumatisation (VT). VT is a type of operational stress signified by a change in helping practitioners' inner experience because of indirect and empathetic exposure to clients' critical incidents (Ludick, Alexander, & Carmichael, 2007). Because possible links have been found among operational police members in these South African samples, this study aimed to explore the influence of organisational stressors among operational SAPS members in the visible policing and detective service programmes who are managing the policing needs of victims of rape, Domestic Violence (DV), murder and road accidents in the Vhembe district.

Bakker and Demerouti (2018) show that the well-being and performance of employees are affected by several organisational stressors, but empirical evidence on the dynamic impacts of organisational, leadership and team stressors on individual employees is still scarce. Such studies on police stations in rural areas are deemed limited based on study findings in Scotland (Smith, 2010). Yet findings in Australia show that such studies highlight the effectiveness of policing in relation to the characteristics of the rural communities being served (Jobes, 2003). Different reactions to organisational stressors among police members in rural and urban areas have also been found in South Korea (Lim & Kim, 2015). These are the reasons why the current study's focus is on the influence of organisational stressors on operational members of the SAPS in a rural district.

It is stipulated in the foreword by the Minister of Police, Mr Henry Cele, in the SAPS Annual Performance Plan (2018/2019) that plans were made to attend to organisational dynamics that negatively impact the roles and performance of operational police members. The plans, among others, include ensuring operational training of the police and providing resources that meet international standards to guarantee effective policing. This shows the need for further research to inform the supportive plans of the SAPS.

This study sought to qualitatively explore and interpret organisational stressors that are likely to occur among operational SAPS members in the Vhembe district and the consequent difficulties. The research question was the following, namely, 'how do SAPS members who do operational work in the Vhembe district experience the influence of organisational stressors in their work environments?' The Vhembe district was chosen for the following reasons.

The SAPS (2018) reported the following patterns of serious crimes in the country between 01 April 2017 and 31 March 2018: contact crimes (murder; sexual offences; attempted murder; assault with intent for grievous bodily harm; common assault; common robbery; robbery aggravated, including carjacking, residential and non-residential robbery) - 36.2% (601 366), contact-related crimes - 6.9% (115 361), other serious crimes - 26.3% (438 113), and property-related crimes - 30.5% (507 975). Motives for murders resulting from criminal behaviour were gang-related, taxi-related, and political-related. They were also associated with illicit mining, farm murders, mob justice, and murdering of police members.

In Vhembe district, the following increases in contact crimes were noted between 2011 and 2012, namely, murder cases increased from 18 to 24, attempted murder from 53 to 58, sexual crimes from 321 to 391, assault with intent to inflict grievous bodily harm from 700 to 794, common assault from 580 to 829, common robbery from 239 to 287 and robbery with aggravating circumstances from 133 to 215 (SAPS Crime Statistics, 2012). Current statistics show that the Thohoyandou police station in the Thulamela municipality, Vhembe district, was rated the fourth worst police station in the Limpopo province in 2018 because of the large number of reported crimes, amounting to 11 124. These included contact crimes like murder, attempted murder, sexual offences, assault with intent to inflict grievous bodily harm, common assault, common robbery and robbery with aggravating circumstances (Crime Statistics South Africa, 2018). The following statistical patterns of contact and other serious crimes between 2016 and 2018 in the Vhembe municipalities of Mutale, Thohoyandou, Tshaulu and Vuwani were found, namely, murder (71-81), sexual offences (279-357), attempted murder (87-111), assault with intent to inflict grievous bodily harm (731-936), common assault (695-912), driving under the influence of alcohol and drugs (421-506) and sexual offences detected as a result of police action (4-65) (Crime Statistics South Africa, 2019). These statistical patterns suggest that the occurrence of these crimes have remained relatively high over the years.

In addition, there is no research conducted on the link between organisational stressors and operational work in this district, yet literature emphasises studying this phenomenon in various rural areas in South Africa (Steyn, 2009; Van Lelyveld, 2008) and in other countries (Acquadro Maran et al., 2018; Jobes, 2003; Lim & Kim, 2015; Smith, 2010). The study findings should contribute to the body of knowledge in industrial psychology on current organisational stressors that influence operational SAPS members' well-being and performance. It should also inform the proposals to be drafted on the transformation of the SAPS operational police service (SAPS, 2018/2019).

Links between organisational and operational stress

Acquadro Maran et al. (2018) note that there is still much controversy within police research regarding the causes of the two forms of work-related stress, namely, organisational stress, which is experiences of psychological and physical strain resulting from a mismatch between the demands and pressures of work and an employee's coping capacity (Babatunde, 2013), and operational stress such as experiences of trauma emanating from routine and vicarious exposure to critical or traumatic incidents of victims (Rees & Smith, 2008). Various reports on the impact of organisational and operational stressors have been outlined. Some studies have reported that organisational stressors are more stressful, while others have cited that operational stressors are more stressful (Acquadro Maran et al., 2018; Lim & Kim, 2015). Kohan and Mazmanian (2003) have also found different perceptions of organisational and operational work based on the types of duties of police members.

Still other findings suggest the likelihood of convergence between the impacts of these two categories of stressors. A link was found between perceived increase in the organisational stressors of operational patrol police members and diminished well-being and performance (Shane, 2010). Acquadro Maran et al. (2018) have also found that operational or outdoor patrol members are more prone to suffer distress because of organisational and operational stressors than intra-departmental or indoor patrol members. However, organisational stressors were reported to be more problematic than operational stressors, leading to behavioural disengagement. Lim and Kim (2015) stated that organisational stress weakens the ability of field police members to perform their operational tasks. Kgalema (2002) confirmed the causes of organisational stress among operational police members as organisational stressors, such as the lack of or insufficient training, lack of follow-up on victims and repeated exposure to traumatising situations. The impact of organisational stressors is said to be 'relentless and inescapable', and has to be a priority for employee assistance programmes for operational police members (Shane, 2010, p. 185).

Conducive organisational conditions thus mediate the impact of critical incidents on operational police members (Maguen et al., 2009). Consequently, daily routine work challenges and operational work are regarded as crucial determinants of organisational stress and health among police members (Berg, Hem, Lau, & Ekeberg, 2006). Conducive organisational conditions have also been reported to moderate the experience of VT (Bober & Regehr, 2006), which has also been reported among South African police members (Kgalema, 2002), including operational SAPS members (Van Lelyveld, 2008). These include supervision and peer consultation, critical incident debriefing, professional training and self-assessment, juggling duties at work and a reasonable workload. This explains the reason why the fit between an individual and the work environment determines an employee's degree of job satisfaction - perceptions of an employee's wants being met at work (Redelinghuys et al., 2019). For this reason, Sabin-Farrell and Turpin (2003) show that the conditions under which helping practitioners - including police members who play a helping role within community policing (SAPS Annual Report, 2010/11) - work can determine the development of VT. Such conditions encompass the physical setting, the types of colleagues they work with, the caseload, supervision and services available to clients that are assisted, social and professional climates, and the way that financial issues such as staff remuneration are handled in an organisation. Pearlman and Saakvitne (1995) add organisational stressors such as a lack of time off work, an environment of disrespect and a lack of confidentiality and boundaries as contributory factors to this phenomenon. This further shows the impact of organisational stressors among helping practitioners, like operational police members.

Sources and outcomes of police organisational stress

Babatunde (2013) provides the following categories as general sources of organisational stress, namely, intrinsic job roles (work overload, time pressures, lack of job control and poor working conditions), role in an organisation (role stress, role conflict, role ambiguity and level of responsibility), career development (lack of job security, over-promotion, under-promotion and career stagnation), work relationships (workplace bullying, superior/subordinate face-offs, dark leadership and discrimination) and organisational climate or structure (formalisation, management style and decision-making participation).

Organisational stress among the police members is caused by the conditions, policies and procedures under which police members work (Burke & Paton, 2006, p. 1). These include job content or inherent job demands and job context or context job demands. The former are demands that are inherent in the job role, which include work schedules such as workload, repetitive tasks, long working hours, time pressure, exposure to demanding crime and traumatic scenes, and court work. These demands require physical and psychological effort and thus affect the well-being of police members and hamper their job performance. The job context or context job demands include organisational characteristics and the behaviour of those working in the context, which produce stress like imbalance between effort and rewards, relationship with and support from supervisors and co-workers, workplace discrimination, bureaucratic processes, poor leadership and insufficient staff, and administrative duties (Babatunde, 2013; Lim & Kim, 2015; Patterson, 2001b; Violanti et al., 2017).

The following types of police organisational stressors have been identified over the years, namely,

1. internal stressful events like policies, administration and availability of resources

2. task-related stressful events such as workload and shifts, and relationships with superiors

3. external stressful events like the justice system, public's perceptions of police work and sociopolitical changes and

4. individual stressful events, for example, life characteristics that impact police members' work (Acquadro Maran et al., 2018; Patterson, 2001b).

Lim and Kim (2015) concluded that police work comprises dynamic stressors. These are work-related factors that are changeable - for example, bureaucracy level in a police organisation, police relationships with communities, police skills, as well as job description and autonomy. The police work also encompasses static stressors. These are work-related factors that remain invariable, for example, gender, years of police service, location of police station and supervisory position.

The following organisational stressors cause harm to police members, namely,

1. general poor well-being like exhaustion or burnout, digestive disorders, cardiovascular disease and psychological distress (depression and anxiety)

2. negative job-related experiences like job dissatisfaction, rumination, helplessness, employee resignation, early retirement and absenteeism

3. performance-related problems like low morale, poor performance, being late for work, career uncertainty, lack of commitment to work and work-life conflict

4. psychosocial problems, for instance, divorce and suicide and

5. behavioural problems like hyper-aggression, excessive use of force, substance and alcohol abuse, and a threat to safety (Acquadro Maran et al., 2018; Babatunde, 2013; Lim & Kim, 2015; Redelinghuys et al., 2019).

Theories of organisational fit, motivation, job satisfaction, well-being and performance

The following theories shed light on the understanding of organisational stressors and their impact on job satisfaction as well as the well-being and performance of employees. The current study could add to the theories by highlighting these from operational SAPS members' experiences.

Firstly, the person-environment fit theory, which was developed by theorists such as Robert D. Caplan and Amy L. Kristof-Brown, among others, and explains the correlation between a person's characteristics and job constructs. It indicates that positive correlations between these two lead to positive outcomes, while the opposite leads to negative outcomes like maladjustment and poor work performance. The following models have been developed which highlight the likely components of fit in the work environments of operational police members, namely, person-job fit (a match between an individual's ability and job demands or tasks), person-organisation fit (link between the values of an employee and the organisation), person-group fit (compatibility between an individual and his or her work groups), person-supervisor fit (the match between the attitudes of supervisors and their subordinates), needs-supplies fit (correlation between an employee's needs and organisational supplies, rewards) and demands-abilities fit (a match between job demands and an employee's knowledge and abilities) (Klaic, Burtscher, & Jonas, 2018).

An association between the constructs of person-environment fit and job satisfaction is also shown. Job satisfaction reveals employees' perception of the extent to which their wants are met at a workplace as well as the amount of congruence between their perceptions and values. How they perceive their wants to be met in their organisations determines how satisfied they become with their jobs. This also influences how they perceive themselves to fit within their organisations and jobs (Redelinghuys et al., 2019).

The person-environment fit theory highlights the significance of a match between a police member's attributes, knowledge or abilities, values and needs, and the characteristics of the police organisation or unit and relationships to ensure good role performance and job satisfaction.

Secondly, the multiple levels in job demands-resources theory propose buffers for organisational stress. It helps to understand how operational police members' well-being and performance could be enhanced amidst organisational stressors. The following are considered.

Job demands (work tasks requiring effort and thus cause strain and negative behaviours) may influence employees, but the employees can also influence those demands through job crafting (making changes to work tasks and relationships). Also increasing organisational resources to achieve work goals is important as it increases employees' motivation and work engagement (a positive state of mind emanating from a work environment that stimulates involvement, vigour, dedication and absorption) in the midst of high job demands. In addition, employees' wellbeing, behaviour and performance are influenced by various organisational stressors at multiple levels within the work environment, including organisational initiatives and leaders and teams' behaviours. Therefore, proper management of workplace resources and relationships may lead to work engagement, job satisfaction, wellbeing and performance. (Bakker & Demerouti, 2018).

Similarly, Meyer, Gagne and Parfyonova's (2010) evidence-based engagement framework draws from Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan's self-determination theory of motivation as well as John Meyer and Natalie Allen's three-component model of commitment to give a sense of hope amidst organisational stressors. The framework shows that work engagement, in the forms of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and commitment, can be harnessed among employees when supportive organisational environments, suitable working climates and congruent organisation-employee values are created. The outcomes include a sense of autonomy, employee need satisfaction, behavioural engagement, increased performance, decreased employee resignation rates and employee well-being. Therefore, both the multiple levels in job demands-resources theory and the evidence-based engagement framework show how the SAPS operational environment and resources can be enhanced to achieve these outcomes.

 

Research design

Research approach and strategy

A qualitative, Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) was used to explore and interpret operational SAPS members' experiential meanings of being-in-the-world of handling the critical incidents of victims amidst organisational stressors, as well as their experiences of well-being and performance. Double hermeneutics was applied whereby a narrative account of the participants' experiences was written to reflect both their own interpretation of their experiences and my interpretation of their communicated experiences. This led to a shared interpretation of participants' experiences (Pietkiewicz & Smith, 2014).

Research setting

The Vhembe district is situated far north of Limpopo province and has four municipalities, namely, Musina, Makhado, Thulamela and Mutale. Nemasisi (2018) confirms the statistics provided above on the occurrence of violent crimes in this district. This puts pressure on the police members because they have to manage many critical incidents. For instance, the Thohoyandou Victim Empowerment Programme (TVEP) was established in the district in 2002 in the form of the Thohoyandou Victim Empowerment Trust and later was formally registered as the TVEP. The programme was formed based on the efforts of the Thohoyandou Community Policing Forum and the SAPS with the aim of curbing rife cases of abuse and supporting and empowering victims (Carty, 2010/2012). For this reason, policing appears to be visible (visible policing) in this district; hence, police stations are located at the entry points of major areas and villages. Based on these efforts and literature that emphasises studying the link between facing critical incidents (operational work) and organisational stressors in various rural areas in the country (Steyn, 2009; Van Lelyveld, 2008), as well as the lack of research conducted in this rural district, the district was seen as a viable option for this study. The district has a population of 1 232 218 and is mainly a rural district. However, infrastructural developments are taking place. Tshivenda is the most spoken language, followed by Xitsonga and others (Department of Cooperative Governance and Traditional Affairs, 2011).

Field entry and establishing researcher role

Police station commissioners assisted with access to willing potential participants.

Selection of participants

Purposive sampling, which is a sampling technique used to intentionally select participants who possess specific characteristics, including experience regarding the phenomenon under study, and can share knowledge about it (Franchuck, 2004), was used to select the study participants. They had to work in the family violence, child protection and sexual offences (FCS); DV; detective; social crime prevention (SCP); and field training police units, which handled incidents of rape, DV, murder and road accidents in the Thulamela and Mutale municipalities. The sample comprised 17 participants who were self-reported to experience VT reactions (see Table 1). The sample size of 17 was decided based on the IPA's recommended small sample sizes for in-depth engagement with individual participants' data (Pietkiewicz & Smith, 2014) as well as for reaching data saturation.

 

 

Data collection methods

Unstructured interviews were conducted and the main interview question was as follows, namely, 'could you please tell me how you experience your work conditions when helping victims of critical incidents in the communities that you serve?' Follow-up questions were asked. Among the Tshivenda-speaking participants, the interviews were conducted in their language in order to ensure that they were comfortable to express themselves and to share as much information as possible. However, one Xitsonga-speaking participant indicated the ability to express himself in English and was comfortable to do so. Nevertheless, it was taken into consideration that interviewing the Xitsonga-speaking participant in English could have restricted him from fully and clearly articulating his experience of the phenomenon under study. In addition, while careful translation of data from Tshivenda to English by a translator who is fluent in both languages was observed, the process could have led to some loss of meaning. Each interview lasted for about 1 h. Data were also collected through diaries and telephonic follow-ups to corroborate the interview data, thus ensuring triangulation and credibility of findings (Graneheim & Lundman, 2004). Both the face-to-face and telephonic interviews were conducted in pre-arranged private rooms (the police members' offices, station commissioners' offices and rooms where victims of DV were attended to) depending on where the members felt comfortable and could not be overheard by others.

Data recording

The interviews were voice recorded, verbatim transcription was made and field notes were taken.

Strategies to ensure data quality and integrity

In addition to triangulation, two experienced researchers verified the authenticity of the themes developed. The telephonic interviews were used for member checking. In-depth descriptions of the methodology were also provided. Thus, the credibility, confirmability, dependability and transferability of the findings were ensured (Graneheim & Lundman, 2004).

Individual police members signed consent forms after being informed of the purpose, risks involved and the right to withdraw from the study. Anonymity was ensured by using participant numbers. Voice-recorded data were deleted after transcription to ensure confidentiality. Potential emotional harm was prevented by not forcing participants to reveal issues that they did not want to discuss. The participants did not want the free consultation that was arranged with a clinical psychologist outside the SAPS. Consequently, the only indirect benefit of the participants was an opportunity to share their experiences on the topic under study to inform the development of assistance programmes for operational police members, specifically in the Vhembe district.

 

Data analysis

The following IPA guidelines from Pietkiewicz and Smith (2014) were applied, namely, individual transcripts were read several times for data familiarity (i.e. content, language usage, context, relationships and time). Interpretation notes and analytical memos were written and converted into emerging themes for conceptual understanding. Similar incidents in a transcript were compared. The themes were clustered based on similarities, and a table with superordinate and subordinate themes was created. The whole process was applied to all the transcripts, and new themes were noted with similarities and differences from individual experiences. A master table of themes was created and a narrative account of the participants' experiences was written and contextualised in current literature. A qualitative, narrative reporting style was followed to present and discuss the findings of the study.

 

Results

Operational police members in this study indicated that they experience organisational stressors at different levels at the workplace, which result in psychological distress, including negative perceptions of self and work, job dissatisfaction, considerations of resignation, increased training needs and strained working relationships. The themes and subthemes that emerged are presented in Table 2.

Case exposure

Quantity and frequency of case exposure

The police members complained that they are being overloaded with traumatic cases. For example, superintendents who are in a senior position and are responsible for allocating cases may allocate too many cases to themselves and end up being overwhelmed. The most common reasons for this were the shortage of staff and reluctance of police members to join the FCS police unit because of the nature of cases dealt with. The result may be intruding thoughts about such cases, which can linger in the mind for months or even years:

[R]equesting for more personnel to be transferred to my unit … none of those members applied to be in the unit … I used to take each and every case … It means each case makes me to recall a lot … This is more than a year. All those things do not get out of my mind. (Participant 1, Male, FCS)

One police member shared contrasting reports about the quantity and frequency of exposure to cases, defined by time intervals. While he reported that voluminous exposure to similar cases (quantity) over time served as a solution to getting used to the operational work and thus gaining experience in handling the cases, the frequency of exposure to the cases in a day also led to intrusions:

The only way of forgetting about a particular case is when you have to come across many other cases after this one … there are days on which I work on a lot of cases … three or four cases, then I will be thinking about them the whole day. (Participant 13, Male, Social crime prevention)

Timing of case exposure

Exposure to traumatic cases has various time dimensions, which may influence police members differently in the forms of emotional despair, fear and feeling overwhelmed. These dimensions include exposure to traumatic cases when entering the police service - thus not having the required experience - and first time exposure to specific types of cases, such as gang rape and murder. This may be exacerbated by exposure to victims of specific age groups, children and the elderly in this case. It is argued that experience in handling specific cases helps with understanding the distress associated with such cases, and how to handle the cases:

This affected me a lot because it was my first case … a case of a 7-year old … one of the cases that I worked on when I started working. I had not yet worked on other cases to have knowledge of other causes of the rape of young children, and why they were affecting me in that manner. (Participant 2, Female, FCS)

During our first years of working … the impact was there as we were affected. When alone I would be afraid … (Participant 3, Male, Detective)

During my first year of working I attended a case on culpable homicide … an accident involving a dead person. This was the first traumatic case that I worked on. I found it too big for me and felt that I could not handle it. (Participant 5, Male, Social crime prevention)

Type of case exposure

Attending to a post-mortem, especially that of a ritual murder, for the first time and being actively involved in assisting doctors to conduct post-mortems on dead bodies may be difficult to accept and thus emotionally disturbing:

… [A]t first it is hard … the first case whose post-mortem I attended was of a body that … most of the parts were removed and it was hard … it is hard at first to accept it … You are the one who must direct him, that 'I want this'. (Participant 6)

Police member support

Variable victim support

The police members explained that they provide a supportive role to community members during critical incidents, thus serving as helping practitioners in the SAPS. However, they reported that they faced an ambivalent situation of helping victims of trauma without the necessary facilities and supplies, thus wondering how they were supposed to do their work. When the victim empowerment service was required, there were no facilities or resources (shelters or places of safety, counselling rooms, blankets, vehicles, computers, telephones to call the victims and transport for police members after attending to the victims late at night), and scant availability of other personnel to provide supportive services. Additionally, the working hours of other helping practitioners (psychological counsellors, social workers and so forth) did not match those of the police members because police work was reported to be a 24-h service. This thwarted police members' referral role to those other helping practitioners. This was interpreted as a form of secondary victimisation of victims, and thus discouraging:

… [W]e do not have a place here to shelter her … victims have to sit on a bench the whole night and this is not comfortable … A victim is treated like the accused here … we do not have blankets, a place to sleep and it is very cold … as police members we indicate that there is nothing that we can do to help … We do not have people who provide counselling services … a victim empowerment organisation does not exist. We only have a temporary thing … a desk for victim empowerment … does not even operate for 24 hours the same way as police members do … when I work until late I do not get transport to take me home. (Participant 7, Male, Detective)

… I do not have a phone in my office … to phone someone who needs my assistance … I cannot just leave them unattended. I do not have a computer either in my office … (Participant 8, Male, Detective)

Some police members, nevertheless, indicated that they had the required facilities, resources and personnel at their police stations. These include trauma centres attached to police stations, witness protection programmes and day-to-day supplies for doing the work properly. Referral to various other professionals such as social workers, magistrates, doctors and the National Prosecuting Authority (NPA) was easier because of the availability of necessary facilities and personnel. An ideal victim empowerment programme was portrayed. The active involvement of station commissioners in the arrangement of the required resources was highlighted:

The victim will be taken to a doctor … form part of the evidence that will be used in court … If we do not have a car in our branch then we ask for a car from the station commissioner … (Participant 5, Male, Social crime prevention)

… [S]peak to my superior and explain that the victim is not safe … apply to the NPA for a witness protection programme … who will inform me of the date on which to bring the victim … we refer children to social workers in the Department of Social Welfare and Development … (Participant 9, Female, FCS)

… [T]here is a lot of support. You can never attend to a crime scene without the necessary resources. This helps in protecting our health. (Participant 10, Male, Domestic violence)

The trauma centre is right here … police members take them [victims] to sleep there for their safety … They will be counselled … 'I am taking you to the magistrate's office to have a protection order'. (Participant 13, Male, Social crime prevention)

Unnecessary bureaucratic processes

Where referral was possible, especially to clinical psychologists, such referral was not as smooth as expected because of unnecessary bureaucratic processes, which made the task of victim assistance difficult and delayed the help:

We also refer them to [clinical] psychologists so that we can discuss our cases with the prosecutor. If a psychologist does not want me to make a referral on my own then I request the public prosecutor to write a letter of referral to the psychologist. (Participant 2, Female, FCS)

Divergent debriefing services

Although the need for debriefing after exposure to traumatic cases by professionals, like psychologists, was expressed, a lack of such debriefing ended up being accepted as part of police work. Thoughts of resigning from work still remained. The lack of this support resulted in one police member equating policing to the job for the uneducated:

I could appreciate the support from our superiors … being assisted by those who … trained to provide counselling services because the victim's experience also affects me. It is often taken for granted that we are not affected by these situations … we are now used to the setting … concluding that perhaps this is how we are supposed to live … to put our experiences into perspective and help us to cope … I feel like resigning is better. I think about this all the time … What can we do? This is the job for the uneducated. (Participant 7, Male, Detective)

However, police members from different police stations had different experiences of this form of support. Some members indicated that they received the required debriefing by psychologists, social workers and pastors:

… [W]e have supporting units … psychologists and social workers … to provide counselling and debriefing. (Participant 4, Female, Field Training)

… [A]lso pastors who come to the station to encourage us in our work. (Participant 5, Male, Social prevention)

… [C]onsult with the EAS [Employee Assistance Services] personnel who will tell you how you can handle the situation … spiritual and social work services. (Participant 9, Female, FCS)

The SAPS arranges people who can counsel us when we have these constant thoughts about cases until they stop … (Participant 11, Male, Social crime prevention)

Unmet training needs

The police members emphasised that they are often the first ones to arrive at crime scenes and are in constant interaction with victims of trauma who experience suicide ideation and physical injuries. Such situations require them to offer support to victims, which may be beyond their job description and training. While referral to more experienced professionals like counsellors, firefighters and Emergency Medical Services (EMS) personnel is a requirement within their job description, some of the victims' conditions are so dire that immediate attention is required; hence, police members may try to assist the victims. Leaving a victim in the experienced state while waiting for other professionals to arrive was interpreted as inhumane. 'Trying to help', which was echoed by several police members as a way of containing the victims' situations and emotions, was regarded as an option. Pressure from onlookers during road accidents was also a reality as they expected the police members to 'do something'. 'Devising ways of helping' per case was said to be customary for them. A shortage of the professionals and long distances were cited as causes of the problem, and police members therefore expressed the need for extra skills in basic counselling, especially for special populations, first aid services and spiritual support.

… [S]he was crying … needed more help from me than I could offer as a police member … thinks of committing suicide … I try my level best … I do not want to leave the victim … (Participant 2, Female, FCS)

I must wait for the fire fighters and the EMS personnel to arrive … to assist as he is trapped under the car … community members shouting at you as they think that police members are able to do any type of work … our training should be expanded … on first aid services … domestic violence and … how a person is counselled. (Participant 3, Male, Detective)

… [Y]ou must start by assisting the person to face the situation before you can refer them … calm them down … take up the role of a pastor … saying a prayer … This line of work requires training in … counselling skills … social work skills … to give advices and devise solutions for various situations … have advanced knowledge about victims of trauma and what psychologists do … Sometimes victims come across urgent situations, which cannot wait … You cannot leave the victim in an office unattended … it takes time for a young child to talk about such things … start by telling jokes and play … when the child is free to speak, you start writing … (Participant 9, Female, FCS)

You must try … You must just remove her from the anger that you are observing in her … use tactics depending on the nature of the situation. (Participant 13, Male, Social crime prevention)

The members who have received some level of training in these areas emphasised the value of workshops on human rights and basic counselling:

… I no longer have a problem … Courses help us a lot … taught about such severe scenes … through simulated scenes … (Participant 5, Male, Social crime prevention)

… [W]e have been workshopped about human rights … we are able to sit down with a person and counsel them … (Participant 13, Male, Social crime prevention)

Perceived fair pay and career development opportunities

A lack of sufficient financial benefits was interpreted as a lack of support at work and a cause of dissatisfaction with the work. One member even likened police work to selling tomatoes because work had to be done but there were no matching financial benefits (salary and compensation) across ranks. Attending to critical incidents without any prospects of promotion to a higher rank was also reported to be discouraging. Even more frustrating was the lack of transparency on criteria for promotion, as the members were often not promoted regardless of experience and qualifications. Only their financial circumstances compelled them to continue with policing:

We do not really have support here … the work that I do can be likened to selling tomatoes … Our superiors … get better benefits while the juniors do not receive much. We are not remunerated for working overtime … being told to pursue a suspect who has stolen millions of rands from a bank while I am only earning a few thousand rands! … [T]he money for compensation in case I am killed while on duty is very little … We are forced to do this work because we are poor … It is not rewarding … a percentage increment in salary does not make a difference to me. (Participant 7, Male, Detective)

[T]here is no promotion here at work regardless of studying or showing competence in one's work. We do not know which criteria are followed to promote people in this place. ((Participant 8, Male, Detective)

Member favouritism

Member favouritism was also experienced, as some unit commanders favoured certain members over others. The result was that it led to the distrust of team members and superiors and created factions among members within the units:

[H]aving a commander who favours a particular group … you forget a small thing, which may be important in the evidence … you may not be treated well … if the same mistake is done by someone else then it may not be a big issue. This does not make a person feel free. (Participant 5, Male, Social crime prevention)

I am led by somebody who was lied to about me and believed what he was told without first ascertaining this with me. Leadership is lacking … (Participant 12, Male, Detective)

Lack of peer support

Both low- and high-ranking members mentioned that at times they had to work with pessimistic, uncooperative and lazy colleagues. Some hid case and court information from them. Ill-treatment by colleagues in the form of speaking malicious words about them to superiors, and even to community members, concerning the members' incompetency in handling cases was also reported. This signified not caring about victims and made their operational work difficult to do.

… [W]hen they have to check the DNA and involve psychologists … will say, 'Oh! It is a lot of work'. They are not there to do that type of a thing … 'We will all get our salaries even if we did not do the work …' (Participant 1, Male, FCS)

[W]hat makes work difficult is working with people who are negative in their thinking … not cooperative and are always complaining about work and lack of resources … (Participant 8, Male, Detective)

I complained of lack of cooperation among us as police members … no communication … working in this manner was not satisfactory … (Participant 9, Female, FCS)

[W]hen working on domestic problems … a member … will go home and tell the people involved in the case that the member working on the case has not handled it well … (Participant 14, Female, Domestic violence)

… I can request one of them to attend to a case and only find that he has not attended to it thoroughly … (Participant 15, Male, Detective)

Fragmentation in law enforcement

Most members showed that while there were case investigations that led to the perpetrators' incarceration, corruption and unfavourable court decisions were also common. These were in the forms of case dockets disappearing, distorted evidence, underserved bail, lenient sentences, disposal of serious cases of rape and murder, and premature release of perpetrators from correctional centres, and without rehabilitation. This was done without consideration of the incriminating evidence presented and the impact of the crimes on victims, even in crimes perpetrated by senior police members. This was interpreted as consideration of perpetrators' rights over those of victims. Experiences of pain, frustration, helplessness, perceived failure and self-doubt were reported:

[A] slim chance to win this type of case in court … the type of frustration I have … you may have overwhelming evidence against a perpetrator … but the court says 'No, … this person has the right to be released'. (Participant 1, Male, FCS)

I defend a bail but the magistrate grants it … it is not handled according to the report presented … the accused is given a sentence of 10, 15 or 5 years … come back not rehabilitated … and commit the same offences. (Participant 2, Female, FCS)

The state strips us of power … the accused has more rights than the victim … (Participant 7, Male, Detective)

I looked for the docket but could not find it … I discovered that the docket was with the public prosecutor … I asked the PP [public prosecutor] for a warrant of arrest but he refused … This appears as though I am not doing my work … (Participant 9, Female, FCS)

[A] criminal who … fabricates stories … in order to find a way out of the crime … this is painful … (Participant 10, Male, Domestic violence)

[A] lawyer … asking you questions to misrepresent your responses … It makes you feel like you have not done your job properly … (Participant 11, Male, Social crime prevention)

Ethical considerations

Permission and ethical clearance were obtained from the Provincial Commissioner of the South African Police Service and the Department of Psychology at the University of South Africa to conduct this study.

 

Discussion

Outline of the results, practical implications and recommendations

The nature of the findings gathered requires that they should be discussed concurrently with practical implications and viable recommendations (see Table 3).

Influences of organisational stressors

The following issues are highlighted in this study:

· The reported organisational stressors influenced the psychological well-being (personal growth, meaning, purpose and workplace relations) (Redelinghuys et al., 2019) and performance (Babatunde, 2013) of the operational police members, thus suggestive of organisational stress in the forms of negative thoughts and intrusions, emotional despair (Acquadro Maran et al., 2018), negative perceptions and acceptance, feeling demotivated (Redelinghuys et al., 2019), perceived professional incompetence (Violanti et al., 2017), need for more professional skills (Rees & Smith, 2008) and separation from others. Reports of these negative perceptions, thoughts, affect and behaviour because of exposure to the negative organisational stressors, which are depicted in Table 2, signify a presence of unpleasant reactions to the stressors and thus dissatisfaction with their jobs (Redelinghuys et al., 2019).

· However, the stressors are not unique to the setting in the Vhembe district because they have been identified among several police and other samples of helping practitioners in South Africa and globally, and they include perceptions relating to, namely, work experience and case exposure; availability of infrastructure, resources and personnel; member support (debriefing services and peer and superior encouragement); fair pay and career development opportunities; comprehensive training; and integration of law enforcement and the judicial system (Burke & Paton, 2006; Coetzee, 2005; Kgalema, 2002; Patterson, 2001b; Pienaar & Rothmann, 2006; Waters & Ussery, 2007).

· Negative implications for practice regarding a police member's satisfaction with working in an operational SAPS unit have been noted about the following: demands of victim support versus police members' resources, knowledge and abilities; attitudes and values of individual members versus those of unit commanders and team members; and the match between the members' needs and the SAPS rewards (Klaic et al., 2018).

· While the location of the police stations in a rural district cannot be changed, the identified organisational stressors can be modified (Lim & Kim, 2015), and hence the police members' suggestions for change.

These are explicated below.

Combined top-bottom and bottom-up approaches to problem-solving

This study supports Bakker and Demerouti's (2018) theory that the operational police members' work environment has multifaceted job demands in addition to their individual needs. This requires consideration of a top-bottom and bottom-up systems approach to problem-solving to devise relevant interventions that will ensure police members' satisfaction with their jobs. The following were considered.

The need for a strengthened police leadership and teamwork was evident. The operational members in this study used the top-bottom approach (relying on their superiors to determine work conditions) to deal with work challenges. What happened at the organisational, leadership and team levels led to the perception of their operational work as difficult and unworthy, being hindered, and not being supported in doing their work and progressing to higher ranks. This, in turn, affected their well-being and performance. While some reported provision of support, most of them showed that they could not make changes to how they implemented work tasks and managed relationships with unit commanders and peers (Bakker & Demerouti, 2018). One member in a very senior rank perceived the detrimental influence of allocating many cases to oneself because of a shortage of staff and lack of interest in police members to join a police unit. This means that while the bottom-up approach that police members suggested to make changes to their work environment (Bakker & Demerouti, 2018) to solve the problem could have been adopted in this case, the problem was complicated even more. The problem implied the involvement of the state in increasing personnel. It also implied consideration of individual police members' values, interests and preferences. Therefore, the effectiveness of individual coping resources was dependent on both higher and external resources.

Perhaps the solution lies in combining the top-bottom and bottom-up approaches to problem-solving. The first step is the Department of Police's investment of more resources (Bakker & Demerouti, 2018) and increasing the policing budget in order to improve the work conditions and personnel (top-bottom approach), especially in rural areas. The second step is to strike a balance between personal and environmental characteristics (Redelinghuys et al., 2019) whereby unit commanders could actively involve police members in tailoring their work environments (Bakker & Demerouti, 2018) through gathering suggestions for improvement and co-planning operational work activities. The involvement of industrial and clinical psychologists in assessing the police members' suitability to assist with critical incidents and recommending training requirements (Department of Health, 2011) could also be helpful. This could deal with the ambivalences of case exposure pertaining to police members' varying experiences of quantity, frequency, timing and type of case exposure (in this district, cases of rape, DV, road accidents and murder). The following characteristics could be considered: individual personalities, individual preferences and level of operational work experience. Allowing breaks from work could also be of benefit (Salston & Figley, 2003). In this way, police members' influence on how job goals are achieved (bottom-up approach) (Bakker & Demerouti, 2018; Morash, Haarr, & Kwak, 2006) could be encouraged.

Attention was also drawn to problematic leadership styles of some unit commanders regarding member favouritism, peer factions and office gossiping. This highlights the need for unit commanders to be trained by industrial and clinical psychologists in a specific leadership style in the operational setting. This could emphasise aspects such as operational office etiquette and sensitivity to individual police member needs. Unit commanders have to understand that they are leading individuals who are constantly exposed to traumatic situations, which may make them even more sensitive than the general public to suggestions of being overlooked in the workplace. Perhaps if unit commanders could instil the value of comradeship among peers (Waters & Ussery, 2007), it could help police members to be more empathetic towards one another, considering the trauma that their work entails. They would also be more supportive and would share the required case information.

Adding to the police organisational stressors are VEP paradoxes in the Vhembe district, which still have to be dealt with by the SAPS and the Department of Social Development, which is the custodian of the VEP (Department of Social Development, 2009). Birdsall, Kirby and McManus (2017) state that while studies on victim engagement are still new, they provide valuable knowledge that could be applied in the practice of victim empowerment. This study provides some findings on organisational stressors during the police members' engagement with victims that could contribute towards this course, with implications for industrial and other psychological services. The study suggests that efficient victim empowerment and support is possible in rural areas, provided that there is preparation to ensure availability of the following VEP requirements.

Uniform victim support - Irregularities in facilities, resources, personnel and services, as well as provision of transport after working hours and police training, which affect the quality of victim support, were noted. The interest of station commissioners in developing their police stations and their active involvement in negotiating with the government for the availability of VEP requirements were emphasised as solutions by the police members. This is, therefore, recommended as a starting point to address these irregularities.

According to the SAPS Annual Report (2010/2011), the following forms of training were already in place by then, namely, entry-level training for new recruits and managers, and in handling traumatic cases; advanced training in detective, victim support, emergency care development and violence against women and children; and leadership training, including police station management. The study shows that despite these and other training considerations by the SAPS, the following knowledge and skills gaps are urgent needs in the Vhembe district:

· High levels of prior operational work experience to face grave crime scenes during the initial years of policing are required (Rees & Smith, 2008) - continuous exposure to a safe environment of simulated cases with support from unit commanders as well as industrial and clinical psychologists could help in this instance with acquisition of basic experience before they are allocated real cases. Continuous education regarding trauma and its management has also proven valuable (Bell, Kulkarni, & Dalton, 2003), because police members' level of education determines the type of coping resources they use. This is because research shows that higher levels of education correlate with the ability to regulate one's emotions and to seek social support (Patterson, 2001a).

· Experience in facing mutilated corpses and active involvement in post-mortems among detectives appears to be a requirement - training could include systematic desensitisation, still in a safe environment, under professional psychological observation at the entry level by industrial and clinical psychologists. Accompanying junior detectives by experienced detectives during difficult cases could help absorb the pressure of exposure to such scenes until the required experience has been gained.

· Basic skills related to emotional and situation containment are also necessary - this suggests identification of the nature of cases that require such skills, including rape, DV, road accidents and murder. Offering basic training by registered counsellors in emotional and situation containment could help, as the counsellors' academic training prepares them for such a role (HPCSA, 2013).

· Knowledge and skills in handling rape cases of children and the elderly were noted. Similarly, Coetzee (2005) found that SAPS members who were investigating cases of sexual abuse needed in-depth training in interviewing children - clinical psychologists whose work involves dealing with life and developmental challenges (Department of Health, 2011) could assist with equipping the police members with such skills. Continuous adjustment in training with new organisational research findings is thus recommended to prevent the police members going beyond their job description.

Harmonious interdepartmental referrals - The need to refer victims' cases without hassles, especially to clinical psychologists, was highlighted to prevent delays in victim help. This shows the need for an improved police referral system to clinical psychologists. Visibility and easy accessibility of registered counsellors as community workers are also crucial (HPCSA, 2013). The employment and deployment of registered counsellors in police stations is important for basic psychological counselling services to be provided on a 24-h basis to match the police members' operational work expectations as suggested by some of the police members. This also calls for a close working relationship between registered counsellors and operational police members at the most common VEP programme entry points, namely, the crime scenes and the customer service centres at police stations (points where victims receive initial help from the police) (Department of Social Development, 2009). This would accompany visible policing with visible psychological services. The counsellors' visibility in communities could also reduce the pressure on police members to handle victims' immediate psychological needs, and thus not having to go beyond their job description. The same applies to social workers and EMS personnel. This has implications for the involvement of the Departments of Police, Social Development and Health.

Consistent police debriefing services - Randomness in rendering debriefing in police stations, which undermines operational police members' psychological health needs, was also noted. Babatunde (2013) shows the importance of effective stress management interventions in ensuring employee well-being and productivity. Such interventions should also be relevant to the type of police stress in operational settings (Sabin-Farrell & Turpin, 2003), in this case stress that is induced by organisational stressors. Strengthening the debriefing services by the SAPS supporting units (clinical psychologists, social workers and pastors) as suggested by the police members in this study is crucial. The recommendation for comradeship among peers would also set the stage for introducing peer debriefing, which was deemed successful among other samples (Waters & Ussery, 2007) in order to fill the gaps in the SAPS debriefing efforts.

All these would encourage workplace flourishing - an employee's perception of fitting in well with work, thus feeling and performing well in the workplace, and enjoying job satisfaction (Redelinghuys et al., 2019) among these operational police members.

Study limitations

The study limitations include the police units, ranks and member characteristics (age, gender, cultural group and religion), which were not equally represented in the study; however, these did not impact the credibility of the study as it did not intend to achieve this goal. The participants were self-reported to be experiencing VT reactions, and thus the study was not based on professional diagnostic reports. The findings are restricted to application within the study setting. Using telephonic interviews to ensure credibility and confirmability could have yielded insincere responses. No comparisons were made between the influences of organisational and operational stressors, as well as ways of coping with the combination of the two. Future quantitative and qualitative research should attend to these factors.

 

Conclusion

This study makes a meaningful contribution towards the understanding that organisational stressors influence operational SAPS members' well-being and performance. This influence is multi-layered, thus requiring a systems perspective (the state, the SAPS, other government departments, including industrial psychologists and other psychology practitioners, station commissioners, unit commanders, peers and individual police members) with top-bottom and bottom-up approaches to deal with the organisational stressors, and to ensure effective victim empowerment and support in the Vhembe district.

 

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank the University of South Africa for the funding of research publication fees for this paper.

Competing interests

The author declares that they have no financial or personal relationships which may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

Authors' contributions

M.A.G. (University of South Africa) is the sole researcher and author of this article.

Funding information

This study was supported by a grant from the University of Venda Research and Publications Committee for the main study from which the current one was extracted, titled: 'A grounded theory of police critical incidents impact management amongst SAPS officers in the Vhembe District, Limpopo Province.'

Data availability statement

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are the author's own and do not represent an official position of the University of South Africa or the University of Venda.

 

References

Acquadro Maran, D., Zedda, M., & Varetto, A. (2018). Organizational and occupational stressors, their consequences and coping strategies: A questionnaire survey among Italian patrol police officers. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(1), 166. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15010166        [ Links ]

Babatunde, A. (2013). Occupational stress: A review on conceptualisations, causes and cure. Economic Insights: Trends and Challenges, II(3), 73-80. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118539415.wbwell019        [ Links ]

Bakker, A.B., & Demerouti, E. (2018). Multiple levels in job demands-resources theory: Implications for employee well-being and performance. In E. Diener, S. Oishi, & L. Tay (Eds.), Handbook of wellbeing (pp. 1-13). Salt Lake City, UT: DEF Publishers.         [ Links ]

Bell, H., Kulkarni, S., & Dalton, L. (2003). Organizational prevention of vicarious trauma. Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Human Services, 84(4), 463-470. https://doi.org/10.1606/1044-3894.131        [ Links ]

Berg, A.M., Hem, E., Lau, B., & Ekeberg, O. (2006). An exploration of job stress and health in the Norwegian police service: A cross sectional study. Journal of Occupational Medicine and Toxicology, 1(26), 9. Retrieved from http://www.occup-med.com/content/1/1/26.         [ Links ]

Birdsall, N., Kirby, S., & McManus, M. (2017). Police-victim engagement in building a victim empowerment approach to intimate partner violence cases. Police Practice and Research, 18(1), 75-86. https://doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2016.1230061        [ Links ]

Bober, T., & Regehr, C. (2006). Strategies for reducing secondary or vicarious trauma: Do they work? Brief Treatment and Crisis Intervention, 6(1), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1093/brief-treatment/mhj001        [ Links ]

Burke, K.J., & Paton, D. (2006). Well-being in protective services personnel: Organizational influences. Australasian Journal of Disaster and Trauma Studies, 2(1), 1-13.         [ Links ]

Carty, C. (2010/12). Zero tolerance village alliance intervention model: Evaluation and report (Report). Thohoyandou: The Thohoyandou Victim Empowerment Programme.         [ Links ]

Coetzee, C. (2005). An explorative study of the training needs of investigating officers interviewing young victims of sexual abuse. Unpublished master's thesis, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch.         [ Links ]

Crime Statistics South Africa. (2018). Crime stats simplified. Retrieved from https://www.crimestatssa.com/toptenbyprovince.php?ShowProvince=Limpopo.         [ Links ]

Crime Statistics South Africa. (2019). Limpopo - Crime stats simplified. Retrieved from https://www.crimestatssa.com/provinceselect.php?ShowProvince=Limpopo#.         [ Links ]

Department of Cooperative Governance and Traditional Affairs. (2011). Vhembe District Municipality Profile. Retrieved from www.nda.agric.az/…/profiles%201011%20vhembe%20aug.docxLinks ] Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif" size="2">.

Department of Health. (2011). Government notice: Regulations defining the scope of the profession of psychology. Retrieved from www.hpcsa.co.za/Uploads/…/scope_of_profession_of_psychology_sept_2011.pdfLinks ] Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif" size="2">.

Department of Social Development. (2009). National policy guidelines for victim empowerment. Pretoria: Department of Social Development. Retrieved from https://pmg.org.za/policy-document/209/.         [ Links ]

Franchuck, J.E. (2004). Phenomenology vs grounded theory: The appropriate approach to use to study the perspectives of instructional librarians on their roles in information literacy education for undergraduates. Paper written for Interdisciplinary Studies 560, Qualitative Methods. Retrieved from http://www.slis.ualberta.ca/cap04/judy/paper.htm.         [ Links ]

Graneheim, U.H., & Lundman, B. (2004). Qualitative content analysis in nursing research: Concepts, procedures and measures to achieve trustworthiness. Nurse Education Today, 24(5), 105-112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2003.10.001        [ Links ]

Hanton, S., Fletcher, D., & Coughlan, G. (2005). Stress in elite sport performers: A comparative study of competitive and organizational stressors. Journal of Sports Sciences, 23(10), 1129-1141. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640410500131480        [ Links ]

Health Professions Council of South Africa. (2013). Form 258: Framework for education, training, registration and scope of registered counsellors. Retrieved from www.hpcsa.co.za/Uploads/editor/UserFiles/downloads/psych/psycho_policy/form_258_registered_counsellor_%2004oct_2013.pdf.         [ Links ]

Jobes, P.C. (2003). Human ecology and rural policing: A grounded theoretical analysis of how personal constraints and community characteristics influence strategies of law enforcement in rural new South Wales, Australia. Police Practice and Research, 4(1), 3-19. https://doi.org/10.1080/1561426032000059150        [ Links ]

Kgalema, L. (2002). Victim awareness and trauma management in metropolitan police services. Research report. Centre for the Study of Violence and Reconciliation. Retrieved from http://www.wits.ac.za/csvr/papers/papkgal2.htm.         [ Links ]

Klaic, A., Burtscher, M.J., & Jonas, K. (2018). Person-supervisor fit, needs-supplies fit, and team fit as mediators of the relationship between dual-focused transformational leadership and well-being in scientific teams. European Journal of Work and Organisational Psychology, 27(5), 669-682. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359432X.2018.1502174        [ Links ]

Kohan, A., & Mazmanian, D. (2003). Police work, burnout and pro-organizational behavior: A consideration of daily work experiences. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 30(5), 559-583. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854803254432        [ Links ]

Lim, H., & Kim, J.L. (2015). Organizational stressors associated with six aspects of police officer stress in South Korea. Health Science Journal, 10(1), 1-12.         [ Links ]

Louw, G.J., & Viviers, A. (2010). An evaluation of a psychosocial stress and coping model in the police work context. South African Journal of Industrial Psychology, 36(1). https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v35i1.442.         [ Links ]

Ludick, M., Alexander, D., & Carmichael, T. (2007). Vicarious traumatisation: Secondary traumatic stress levels in claims workers in the short-term insurance industry in South Africa. Problems and Perspectives in Management, 5(3), 99-110.         [ Links ]

Madu, S.N., & Poodhun, S.E.A. (2006). Stress symptoms and substance use among police officials in the central region of Limpopo Province, South Africa. Journal of Social Science, 12(3), 213-224. https://doi.org/10.1080/09718923.2006.11978394        [ Links ]

Maguen, S., Metzler, T.J., McCaslin, S.E., Inslicht, S.S., Henn-Haase, C., Neylan, T.C., & Marmar, C.R. (2009). Routine work environment stress and PTSD symptoms in police officers. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 197(10), 754-760. https://doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0b013e3181b975f8        [ Links ]

Meyer, J.P., Gagne, M., & Parfyonova, N. M. (2010). Toward an evidence-based model of engagement: What we can learn from motivation and commitment research. In S. L. Albrecht (Ed.), New horizons in management. Handbook of employee engagement: Perspectives, issues, research and practice (pp. 62-73). Northampton: Edward Elgar Publishing.         [ Links ]

Meyer, R., Rothmann, S., & Pienaar, J. (2003). Coping, stress and suicide ideation in the South African Police Service in the Eastern Cape. South African Journal of Economic Management Sciences, 6(4), 881-904. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajems.v6i4.1527        [ Links ]

Mostert, K., Cronje, S., & Pienaar, J. (2006). Job resources, work engagement and the mediating role of positive work-home interaction of police officers in the North West province. Acta Criminologica, 19(3), 64-87.         [ Links ]

Morash, M., Haarr, R., & Kwak, D. (2006). Multilevel influences on police stress. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 22(1), 26-43. https://doi.org/10.1177/1043986205285055        [ Links ]

Nemasisi, R.R. (2018). Contributory factors leading to domestic violence: A case study of Manganya village in Thulamela local municipality. Unpublished master's thesis. Thohoyandou: University of Venda.         [ Links ]

Nzewi, O. (2013). Organisational work procedures and service efficiency: Conceptual extrapolations and views from an organisational policy and procedures review process. Journal of Public Administration, 48(1), 5-20.         [ Links ]

Patterson, G.T. (2001a). Reconceptualising traumatic incidents experienced by law enforcement personnel [Electronic version]. The Australasian Journal of Disaster and Trauma Studies, 5(2).         [ Links ]

Patterson, G.T. (2001b). The relationship between demographic variables and exposure to traumatic incidents among police officers [Electronic version]. The Australasian Journal of Disaster and Trauma Studies, 2.         [ Links ]

Pearlman, L.A., & Saakvitne, K.W. (1995). Treating therapists with vicarious traumatization and secondary traumatic stress disorder. In C. R. Figley (Ed.), Compassion fatigue: Coping with secondary traumatic stress disorder in those who treat the traumatised (pp. 150-177). Bristol: Brunner/Mazel Publishers.         [ Links ]

Pienaar, J., & Rothmann, S. (2003). Coping strategies in the South African Police Service. Journal of Industrial Psychology, 29(4), 81-90. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v29i4.123        [ Links ]

Pienaar, J., & Rothmann, S. (2006). Occupational stress in the South African Police Service. South African Journal of Industrial Psychology, 32(3), 72-78. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v32i3.439        [ Links ]

Pietkiewicz, I., & Smith, J.A. (2014). A practical guide to using interpretative phenomenological analysis in qualitative research psychology. Psychological Journal, 20(1), 7-14. https://doi.org/10.14691/CPPJ.20.1.7        [ Links ]

Redelinghuys, K., Rothmann, S., & Botha, E. (2019). Workplace flourishing: Measurement, antecedents and outcomes. South African Journal of Industrial Psychology, 45(0), n. p. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v45i0.1549        [ Links ]

Rees, B., & Smith, J.S. (2008). Breaking the silence: The traumatic circle of policing. International Journal of Police Science and Management, 10(3), 267-279. https://doi.org/10.1350/ijps.2008.10.3.83        [ Links ]

Sabin-Farrell, R., & Turpin, G. (2003). Vicarious traumatisation: Implications for the mental health of health workers. Clinical Psychology Review, 23(3), 449-480. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-7358(03)00030-8        [ Links ]

Salston, M., & Figley, C.R. (2003). Secondary traumatic stress effects of working with survivors of criminal victimization. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 16(2), 167-174. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022899207206        [ Links ]

Shane, J.M. (2010). Organizational stressors and police performance. Journal of Criminal Justice, 38, 807-818. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2010.05.008        [ Links ]

Smith, R. (2010). Policing the changing landscape of rural crime: A case study from Scotland. International Journal of Police Science and Management, 12(3), 373-387. https://doi.org/10.1350/ijps.2010.12.3.171        [ Links ]

South African Police Service Annual Report. (2010/11). SAPS together squeezing crime to zero. Retrieved from http://www.info.gov.za/view/DownloadFileAction?id=152417.         [ Links ]

South African Police Service. (2013/2014). Annual report for 2013/2014 financial year - Vote 25: Department of Police. Retrieved January from https://pmg_assets.s3-website-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/141015SAPSar.pdf.         [ Links ]

South African Police Service. (2017/2018). Annual report 2017/2018. Retrieved from https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/201810/saps-annual-report.pdf.         [ Links ]

South African Police Service. (2018/2019). Annual Performance Plan: 2018/2019. Retrieved from https://www.saps.gov.za/…/strategic_plan/2018…/annual_performance_plan_2018_2019_updated.pdfLinks ] Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif" size="2">.

South African Police Service. (2018). Crime situation in RSA twelve months 01 April 2017 to 31 March 2018. Retrieved from https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/201809/crime-stats201718.pdf.         [ Links ]

South African Police Service Crime Statistics. (2012). Crime research and statistics. Retrieved from http://www.saps.gov.za/statistics/reports/crimestats/2012/categories/total_sexual_offences.pdf.         [ Links ]

Steyn, R. (2009). Types and frequency of trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder among rural police in South Africa. Acta Criminologica, 22(3), 139-148.         [ Links ]

Storm, K., & Rothmann, S. (2003, May). Burnout in the South African Police Service. Poster presented at the 11th European Congress of Work and Organisational Psychology, Lisbon.         [ Links ]

Van Lelyveld, C.R. (2008). The experience of vicarious trauma by the police officers within the South African Police Service in the Limpopo province. Unpublished master's thesis. University of Limpopo, Polokwane.         [ Links ]

Violanti, J.M., Charles, L.E., McCanlies, E., Hartley, T.A., Baugman, P., Andrew, M.E., … Burchfiel, C.M. (2017). Police stressors and health: A state-of-the-art review. An International Journal of Police Strategies and Management, 40(4), 642-656.         [ Links ]

Waters, J.A., & Ussery, W. (2007). Police stress: History, contributing factors, symptoms and interventions. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies and Management, 30(2), 169-188. https://doi.org/10.1108/13639510710753199        [ Links ]

Wiese, L., Rothmann, S., & Storm, K. (2003). Coping, stress and burnout in the South African Police Service in Kwazulu-Natal. South African Journal of Industrial Psychology, 29(4), 71-80. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v29i4.124        [ Links ]

 

 

Correspondence:
Masefako Gumani
gumanma@unisa.ac.za

Received: 26 Mar. 2019
Accepted: 24 July 2019
Published: 10 Oct. 2019

^rND^sAcquadro Maran^nD.^rND^sZedda^nM.^rND^sVaretto^nA.^rND^sBabatunde^nA.^rND^sBakker^nA.B.^rND^sDemerouti^nE.^rND^sBell^nH.^rND^sKulkarni^nS.^rND^sDalton^nL.^rND^sBerg^nA.M.^rND^sHem^nE.^rND^sLau^nB.^rND^sEkeberg^nO.^rND^sBirdsall^nN.^rND^sKirby^nS.^rND^sMcManus^nM.^rND^sBober^nT.^rND^sRegehr^nC.^rND^sBurke^nK.J.^rND^sPaton^nD.^rND^sGraneheim^nU.H.^rND^sLundman^nB.^rND^sHanton^nS.^rND^sFletcher^nD.^rND^sCoughlan^nG.^rND^sJobes^nP.C.^rND^sKlaic^nA.^rND^sBurtscher^nM.J.^rND^sJonas^nK.^rND^sKohan^nA.^rND^sMazmanian^nD.^rND^sLim^nH.^rND^sKim^nJ.L.^rND^sLouw^nG.J.^rND^sViviers^nA.^rND^sLudick^nM.^rND^sAlexander^nD.^rND^sCarmichael^nT.^rND^sMadu^nS.N.^rND^sPoodhun^nS.E.A.^rND^sMaguen^nS.^rND^sMetzler^nT.J.^rND^sMcCaslin^nS.E.^rND^sInslicht^nS.S.^rND^sHenn-Haase^nC.^rND^sNeylan^nT.C.^rND^sMarmar^nC.R.^rND^sMeyer^nJ.P.^rND^sGagne^nM.^rND^sParfyonova^nN. M.^rND^sMeyer^nR.^rND^sRothmann^nS.^rND^sPienaar^nJ.^rND^sMostert^nK.^rND^sCronje^nS.^rND^sPienaar^nJ.^rND^sMorash^nM.^rND^sHaarr^nR.^rND^sKwak^nD.^rND^sNzewi^nO.^rND^sPatterson^nG.T.^rND^sPatterson^nG.T.^rND^sPearlman^nL.A.^rND^sSaakvitne^nK.W.^rND^sPienaar^nJ.^rND^sRothmann^nS.^rND^sPienaar^nJ.^rND^sRothmann^nS.^rND^sPietkiewicz^nI.^rND^sSmith^nJ.A.^rND^sRedelinghuys^nK.^rND^sRothmann^nS.^rND^sBotha^nE.^rND^sRees^nB.^rND^sSmith^nJ.S.^rND^sSabin-Farrell^nR.^rND^sTurpin^nG.^rND^sSalston^nM.^rND^sFigley^nC.R.^rND^sShane^nJ.M.^rND^sSmith^nR.^rND^sSteyn^nR.^rND^sViolanti^nJ.M.^rND^sCharles^nL.E.^rND^sMcCanlies^nE.^rND^sHartley^nT.A.^rND^sBaugman^nP.^rND^sAndrew^nM.E.^rND^s… Burchfiel^nC.M.^rND^sWaters^nJ.A.^rND^sUssery^nW.^rND^sWiese^nL.^rND^sRothmann^nS.^rND^sStorm^nK.^rND^1A01^nFreda^svan der Walt^rND^1A02^nPieter^sSteyn^rND^1A01^nFreda^svan der Walt^rND^1A02^nPieter^sSteyn^rND^1A01^nFreda^svan der Walt^rND^1A02^nPieter^sSteyn

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Workplace spirituality and the ethical behaviour of project managers

 

 

Freda van der Walt^I; Pieter Steyn^II

^IDepartment of Business Management, Faculty of Management Sciences, Central University of Technology, Welkom, South Africa
^IIProject and Programme Management, Cranefield College, Midrand, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

---

ABSTRACT

ORIENTATION: Despite increased interest in the topic of ethical behaviour, the unethical behaviour of individuals in various professions is increasing. In order to support professional bodies in their quest to promote ethical behaviour of professionals, one needs to consider what organisations can do to promote ethical conduct
RESEARCH PURPOSE: The purpose of this research study was to investigate whether organisations that have spiritual values, that is, workplace spirituality, have a significant impact on the ethical behaviour of project managers
MOTIVATION FOR THE STUDY: Project management as a profession has always been concerned about quality and ethics, but ethical behaviour seems to be on the increase rather than on the decrease. Therefore, it is necessary to consider factors within the organisational context that can promote ethical behaviour.
RESEARCH APPROACH/DESIGN AND METHOD: The study was quantitative in nature, and data were collected from individuals studying towards a project management qualification. A descriptive case study design was used and data were collected once-off by means of a survey.
MAIN FINDINGS: The findings of the study indicated that workplace spirituality influenced ethical behaviour to some extent, as it promotes responsibility and fairness, which are key values of the Project Management Institute
PRACTICAL/MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS: If organisations adopt spiritual values and promote a spirituality-based culture, ethical behaviour could be encouraged. However, workplace spirituality should not be seen as a quick fix to reduce unethical behaviour, and unless there is honest commitment by organisational leaders to transform organisations into humanised and spirituality-based workplaces, not much will be achieved in terms of promoting ethical behaviour.
CONTRIBUTION/VALUE-ADD: The study contributes to the literature regarding ethical behaviour and workplace spirituality.

Keywords: Workplace Spirituality; Ethical Behaviour; Values; Project Management; Ethical Conduct.

---

 

 

Introduction

In today's knowledge economy, professionals are increasingly confronted with ethical dilemmas. One argument offered for this occurrence is that progress and evolution do not necessarily equate with what is best for society (Coccia & Bellitoo, 2018), and, as such, proceeding towards what is better can only be attained when the right tasks are performed in the right ways (Halis, Akova, & Tagraf, 2007). In many African developing countries, unethical behaviour is often widespread (Turyakira, 2018), which implies that more emphasis should be placed on ethical behaviour in these countries. In South Africa in particular, unethical behaviour has reached 'crisis proportions' (Patel, 2013, p. 1), which shows that individuals from different professions find it increasingly difficult to distinguish between right and wrong. Project management as a profession has always been concerned with quality and ethics; for this reason, professional bodies, such as the Project Management Institute (PMI), value ethics and actively support ethical conduct by their members (Rigamonti, 2016). Unfortunately, ethical behaviour cannot be promoted by ethics training, although it can potentially enhance intellectual awareness thereof (Bowden & Smythe, 2008). Therefore, it is necessary to consider factors within the organisational context that can promote ethical behaviour.

What complicates the understanding and predictability of ethical behaviour is that worldwide people differ in what they view as right and wrong and what they regard as morally relevant (Niemi & Young, 2013). In this regard, scholars have asserted that spirituality is empirically and theoretically linked to ethical cognitions, and that it may therefore be regarded as a critical factor determining how employees perceive an ethical situation (Giacalone & Jurkiewicz, 2003b). In South Africa, unethical behaviour is at times even rationalised so that individuals can convince themselves that they are not corrupt and that their acts are justified and acceptable (De Klerk, 2017). It is reported that rationalisation is the leading motivation factor for committing fraud because employees think that it will not hurt anyone, it is for a good reason or it will be rectified before anyone finds it out, or that they will not get caught (Global Economic Crime and Fraud Survey, 2018). This implies a general lack of understanding of what constitutes an ethical behaviour, and a lack of awareness of the consequences of unethical behaviour. Therefore, a descriptive approach to ethical behaviour through the creation of a professional code of conduct still seems relevant for South Africa.

It is critical that project managers act in an ethical manner so as to ensure that projects are successfully completed in line with corporate strategy. The PMI, as the professional body of project management overseeing the conduct of project management professionals, is very much concerned with the ethical behaviour of its members. As such, the PMI has developed a Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct. The purpose of a professional code of conduct seems to be twofold (Grobler et al., 2012). Firstly, it serves as 'moral anchors' to embody a profession's values so as to create an ethical climate and to provide a framework for evaluating alternative courses of action. Secondly, it reassures stakeholders that a profession's activities are underpinned by moral principles, and it provides them with a benchmark to evaluate the professional conduct of a profession. However, project managers are functioning within an organisational context and therefore it is necessary to consider how organisations can facilitate the ethical behaviour of these professionals.

Recent research has indicated that within South African workplaces, there is an increased need for employees and employers to find meaning, holistic well-being and mental health in their respective professions (Mayer & Walach, 2018). It is possible that if spiritual workplaces are created, then employees' well-being and mental health can be improved and unethical behaviour can be reduced. To create such spiritual workplaces, however, requires sound management that embraces spiritual values and is committed towards ethical behaviour. Carroll (2012) reported that 85% of employees in his study indicated that the spirituality of leaders influences their organisations. Fry (2005, p. 695) defines spiritual leadership as 'the values, attitudes, and behaviours required to intrinsically motivate one's self and others in order to have a sense of spiritual survival through calling and membership'. Thus, through spiritual leadership, spiritual workplaces can be created, in which ethical behaviour is envisioned, valued and rewarded.

Workplace spirituality can be considered from an individual and/or organisational perspective (Kolodinsky, Giacalone, & Jurkiewicz, 2008). From an organisational perspective, Mitroff and Denton (1999) found that organisations with a strong sense of spirituality (i.e. spiritual climate and organisational culture) allow employees to exercise stronger values and ethical beliefs in the workplace. Scholars (Ahmad & Omar, 2014) have also found that employees who experience workplace spirituality are more likely to be satisfied with their work and are less likely to engage in deviant workplace behaviour. On the other hand, from an individual or personal perspective, spiritually inclined individuals have been found to be ethical in business, because they demonstrate enhanced teamwork, greater kindness and fairness, increased awareness about others' needs, honesty and trust (McGhee & Grant, 2008). These latter scholars also maintain that spiritual individuals can perceive the ethical nature of business issues more clearly and are more sensitive to corporate social performance. Similar sentiments were mentioned by Fry (2003, p. 49), who states that spiritual leadership theory focuses on standards and criteria of behaviour that lead to positive health and ethical and spiritual well-being. Despite these findings, Kolodinsky et al. (2008) argue that organisation- centred spirituality is a better predictor of key outcomes than individual-centred spirituality. In line with this argument, the current study investigates workplace spirituality from an organisational perspective.

It is generally agreed that workplace spirituality comprises three key dimensions, namely, the inner life, meaningful and purposeful work, and a sense of community and connectedness (Houghton, Neck, & Krishnakumar, 2016). Focusing on meaning and purpose, Gull and Doh (2004) postulated that employees who become more engaged can work more responsibly, ethically and collaboratively with others when they find meaning in their work activities. In another study, Beekun and Westerman (2012) found that spirituality alone does not determine ethical behaviour, and that the simultaneous impact of spirituality, peer pressure and national culture should be considered. Although cognisance is taken of these findings, previous research studies have not focused on the relationship between ethical behaviour and workplace spirituality among project managers. Furthermore, Houghton et al. (2016) stated that mixed evidence has been reported regarding the relationship between workplace spirituality and ethical behaviours in the workplace. As such, it is necessary to confirm and extend previous research findings within this context.

Research purpose and objectives

The purpose of this research study was to investigate whether organisations that have spiritual values, that is, workplace spirituality, have a significant impact on the ethical behaviour of project managers. The primary research objective of the study was to establish to what degree, if any, workplace spirituality influences project managers' ethical behaviour. The secondary research objective of the study was to determine the extent to which project managers agree with the ethical values identified by the PMI as important.

Literature review

Ethical behaviour of project managers

The word 'ethics' is derived from the Greek word ethos, which initially referred to habitual conduct, usages, customs and character (Melden, 1967, p. 1). Ethics has more recently been defined as 'the study of moral principles or values that determine whether conduct or actions are right or wrong' (Werner & Bagraim, 2011, p. 45). It has also been defined as 'the morality of human conduct' (Edwards & Mauthner, 2012, p. 14). Clearly, these recent definitions make reference to morality, moral principles and moral values. The term 'morality' is derived from the Latin word mos, which means 'virtue', and 'moral', which means 'ethical' or 'conforming to ethics' (Halis et al., 2007, p. 129). Morality is mainly concerned with the good and the bad that guide an individual's beliefs and actions (Halis et al., 2007). Crossan, Mazutis and Seijts (cited in Molina, 2016, p. 6) explain that 'the term moral moves beyond values and virtues to incorporate societal norms about what ought or should be done, or what is valuable'. Thus, the concept of ethics includes both the rules and principles that guide the conduct one has to observe within society and the philosophy thereof (Halis et al., 2007).

To provide guidelines or clarity regarding expected ethical conduct, many companies and professional bodies publish a code of conduct, which employees and/or members have to adhere to (Larson & Gray, 2014). The Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct of the PMI is based on four values, namely, honesty, responsibility, respect and fairness, which are regarded as core values to the project management profession (PMI, 2017a). The four values are defined as follows (Kerzner, 2013):

· responsibility - this includes taking ownership of the decisions project managers make, or the failure to make decisions, as well as the consequences thereof, whether good or bad

· respect - this refers to the manner in which project managers regard themselves as well as the resources provided to them

· fairness - this focuses on the manner in which decisions are made; decisions should be made in an impartial and objective manner and should be free from conflicts of interest, favouritism and prejudice

· honesty - this refers to acting in a truthful manner.

From the above values mentioned by the PMI, it is clear that through its Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct, the PMI attempts to standardise the behaviour of project managers. Issa and Pick (2010) allude to the research theme of building up moral business communities through codes of ethics of professional bodies. However, Giacalone and Jurkiewicz (2003a) argue that formal codes of ethics are mere general statements of principles that serve to articulate an organisation's (or a professional body's) highest moral aspirations but not to dictate specific behaviours. Grobler et al. (2012) warn against a superficial approach to corporate ethics, where ethics is promoted solely as systems controlling behaviour because such an approach is consistent with the lowest level of moral development.

Previous research has established that ethical codes alone do not reduce unethical behaviour (Somers, 2001, cited in Fernando & Chowdhury, 2010). It has also been noted that individuals differ in their assessment of questionable practices, and, as such, they may engage in such unethical practices without moral restraint (Giacalone & Jurkiewicz, 2003b). Thus, although the Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct of the PMI is adopted by the project management profession, project managers will not necessarily abide by it. Furthermore, despite continued research in the field of ethics, the occurrence of ethical behaviour in the workplace, in particular in South Africa, seems to increase rather than decrease. This raises the question of whether there is not a more effective way that ethical behaviour can be guided and promoted, such as the creation of spiritual workplaces.

Workplace spirituality

The term 'spirituality' is derived from the Latin word spiritus, which means something that gives life to physical organisms, or spiritualis, which means breath (Tecchio, Cunha, & Santos, 2016). The study of spirituality within the context of the workplace emerged in the 1980s largely because of employee unhappiness triggered by lost personal values (Eginli, 2017). Since its inception, workplace spirituality has attracted increased business and academic interest which can be attributed to indications that it encourages individual well-being and quality of life, and organisational effectiveness (Van Der Walt & De Klerk, 2015). Unfortunately, empirical studies investigating workplace spirituality have been insufficient, particularly in management and business research (Honiball, Geldenhuys, & Mayer, 2014, p. 291), which is concerning if one takes into consideration that it may advance individual and organisational well-being.

Owing to various reasons, such as the newness of the field of study and the personal nature of spirituality, there is an absence of a widely accepted definition of workplace spirituality, and it is therefore necessary to define the concept of workplace spirituality for a particular study (Karakas, 2010). As alluded to earlier in this study, workplace spirituality is investigated from an organisational perspective and is therefore regarded as the spiritual nature of the organisation itself, which is evidenced by spiritual organisational values and a culture that facilitates employees' experience and sense of connectedness with others in a way that promotes feelings of completeness and fulfilment, with the recognition of an inner life that nourishes and is nourished by meaningful work in the context of the work community (Ashmos & Duchon, 2000; Kolodinsky et al., 2008).

An organisational culture is defined as 'an independent set of beliefs, values, behavioural tendencies and tools that become so common to an organisation that they maintain themselves over long periods of time' (Werner, 2011, p.251). Thus, an organisational culture dictates acceptable patterns of behaviour, such as integrity and ethical conduct, which become behavioural norms. Honiball et al. (2014) maintain that organisational cultures that are characterised by autonomy, trust, cohesiveness, support, recognition, innovation and fairness support employees' spiritual journeys to attain a sense of connectedness, and meaningful and purposeful work. They will not only support employees on their spiritual journeys but also positively influence employee behaviour (Werner, 2011). Therefore, it is possible that supportive organisational cultures that embrace spiritual values may promote ethical behaviour.

However, although workplace spirituality supports individual of personal spirituality, it does not necessarily predict or encourage such orientation. In essence, individual spirituality may be regarded as finding meaning and purpose in living, a value component, self-transcendence, an inner experience of events of living through thoughts, emotions and sensational experiences and the behavioural expression thereof, as well as connectedness to a higher being (Van Der Walt, 2008). This view of workplace spirituality focuses on spiritual transformation of the individual employee, which positively influences the organisational context (Pawar, 2009). This suggests that spiritual employees will be driven by an attitude based on personal values and philosophy (Kumar & Kumar, 2014), which provides them with a higher purpose and meaning in life and at work.

To transform organisational cultures to become spiritually based requires that organisational management shifts from self-centredness to interconnectedness, from self-interest to service and stewardship, and from a materialistic to a spiritual orientation (Karakas, 2010). To ensure such an organisational culture, the psychological climate should be perceived as consisting of dimensions such as autonomy, cohesion, trust, support, recognition, fairness and innovation (Koys & DeCotiis, 1991). Once these dimensions of the psychological climate are perceived positively, management will then be in a position to create spirituality-based organisational cultures that are characterised by having a strong sense of purpose, mutual trust, honesty and openness, humanistic work practices and tolerance of employee expression (De Klerk, 2005). Thus, it has been asserted that if organisational leadership is spiritual and is committed towards creating a spirituality-based organisational culture, employees will perceive and experience this spiritual orientation, which will lead to ethical behaviour.

Workplace spirituality holds many benefits for organisations (Ashmos & Duchon, 2000). These benefits include fostering wholeness and integration, promotion of ethics and aesthetics in the workplace, assisting in the development of emotional and spiritual competence, developing an enhanced team and community at work, empowering the workforce, promoting harmony within individuals and listening to others, better relations with others, an optimistic view of human nature, increased creativity and intuition, and more ethical behaviour (Honiball et al., 2014). This implies that if organisations become more spiritually inclined, they are likely to promote ethical behaviour, which points to a relationship between workplace spirituality and ethical behaviour.

 

Research design

Research approach

This study is situated in the positivist paradigm because it is assumed that reality is objective and functionally and politically necessary (Johnson & Duberley, 2000). As a result of the nature of this study, quantitative data were collected to answer the formulated research questions. The research design that was used in the study was a descriptive case study. By using a case study design, ethical behaviour and organisational spirituality could be understood within the context of project management. In order to establish the latter, primary empirical data had to be collected. This was executed by means of a cross-sectional study, which is often used during survey research to establish relationships between variables (Hair, Celsi, Money, Samouel, & Page, 2016). Individuals who are studying the phenomenon under investigation and some who are experiencing it commented on the subject area through collection of evidence. The primary unit of analysis was therefore individuals because questions were posed to individuals regarding their ethical behaviour and their perceptions of organisational spirituality.

Research method

Research participants

Data were collected from senior students who were enrolled for a degree in project management at a higher education institution in South Africa. The reason for this was that these students were mostly working adults who could mindfully complete the questionnaire. Although the intention was to draw a representative sample from the sample frame, consisting of 649 students, it was not possible because the research had to rely on students who attended scheduled classes, during which the questionnaires were distributed and completed. Therefore, convenience sampling was used.

To establish the sample size, the Raosoft sample size calculator recommends a sample size of 242 for this population size, at a confidence level of 95%. Questionnaires were distributed during a contact session, and they were completed by the students and returned at a central point in the venue. Although 242 questionnaires were distributed, only 128 were returned and were usable, thus providing a response rate of 52.9%. It should be noted that data collection was done towards the end of the academic year and, therefore, new questionnaires could not be distributed to the respondents who did not return their questionnaires. Thus, it was decided to commence with the data analysis because (1) a response rate of 50% is adequate for analysis and reporting (Babbie & Mouton, 2014) and (2) the statistician confirmed that a sufficient number of responses were received to execute the planned data analysis.

The final sample is described as follows, namely, the participants were South African citizens, mostly women (62.5%), black Africans (85.9%), between the ages of 36 and 45 years (50.8%), permanently employed (96.1%), having 6-10 years of work experience (28.1%), holding a certificate or a diploma (36.7%), working in managerial or supervisory positions (23.4%), employed by national government (80.5%) and having five or less years of experience in managerial positions (58.6%) and five or less years of project management experience (80.5%). Most of the sample participants (91.4%) stated that they were religious, with strong religious convictions (36.7%).

Measuring instrument

Because a quantitative approach was adopted by the study, a structured questionnaire was used which consisted of closed-ended questions. Part of the questionnaire consisted of statements or questions that solicited biographical data. The rest of the questionnaire consisted of five-point Likert-scale closed-ended question items. The measuring instrument consisted of three sections. Section A of the questionnaire consisted of sociodemographic statements or questions. Section B consisted of 26 questions enquiring about ethical behaviour. This section was self-constructed and was based on the four values identified by the Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct of the PMI, which are regarded as core values to the project management profession, namely, responsibility, respect, fairness and honesty. Items included in this section are, for example, 'I follow the rules of the organisation without favouritism' and 'I never share confidential information that has been entrusted to me'. Section C of the questionnaire consisted of 20 questions measuring organisational spirituality. The Organisational Spiritual Values Scale (OSVS) developed by Kolodinsky, Giacalone and Jurkiewicz (2004) was used to measure organisational spirituality, which consists of three dimensions, namely, awareness of life, compassion and larger context. Items included in the OSVS are, for example, 'in this organisation there is a sense of sacredness in life' and 'in this organisation we are encouraged to actively seek a sense of purpose in life'.

Research procedure

Before the final questionnaire was distributed, a pilot study was conducted to establish whether the questions posed were appropriate, understandable and formulated clearly and concisely. The layout of the questionnaire was also assessed, and the time it takes to complete the questionnaire was established. Thus, the face validity was ensured. Furthermore, in order to ensure content validity, experts in the fields of project management and psychology were requested to evaluate the statements in the questionnaire, to establish whether they are appropriate to measure ethical behaviour and organisational spirituality. To determine the initial internal consistency of the questionnaire, the Cronbach's alpha correlation coefficient was measured. The initial reliability of the subscale measuring ethical behaviour was 0.80, which may be regarded as very good, and organisational spirituality yielded a score of 0.90, which may be regarded as excellent (Hair et al., 2016). The final questionnaire was distributed to the sample in hard copy format. Data were collected by means of self-administered questionnaires. Primary data were collected once-off during a contact session with project management students.

Ethical considerations

Various ethical considerations were applied to the research study. In order to ensure that participants provided informed consent to participate in the study, a cover letter describing the nature of the study and the nature of the required participation (Watkins, 2016) was attached to the questionnaire. Issues that are specifically addressed in the cover letter include the participants' rights to privacy, voluntary participation, anonymity and confidentiality. Permission was obtained from the participating organisation in order to conduct the research study.

Statistical analysis

Data analysis was planned and directed by the researcher and an independent research psychologist. The data were captured by the researcher on an Excel spreadsheet, after which these were analysed by a research psychologist using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). Firstly, the reliability of the measuring instrument was established by using the Cronbach's alpha coefficient. A factor analysis was then performed to confirm the factor structure of the OSVS. Descriptive data analysis conducted included measures of central tendency, namely, means, medians, modes, standard deviations and correlations. To establish the relationship between organisational spirituality and ethical behaviour, Pearson's product-moment correlation coefficient was measured. Inferential statistical analysis was conducted to establish the influence of workplace spirituality on ethical behaviour. A multiple regression analysis was performed to establish the influence of organisational spirituality (the independent variable) on ethical behaviour (the dependent variable). The regression-squared (R²) was calculated to explain the variance in ethical behaviour.

 

Results

Validity and reliability of the questionnaire

The Cronbach's alpha coefficient for code of ethics yielded a score of 0.88, which may be regarded as very good, and organisational spirituality yielded a score of 0.94, which may be regarded as excellent. The Cronbach's alpha coefficient for organisational spirituality (measured by the OSVS) is similar to the Cronbach's alpha coefficients previously reported by Kolodinsky et al. (2008) for an international sample (0.93) and by Van Der Walt and De Klerk (2014) for a South African sample (0.95). It is slightly higher than the Cronbach's alpha coefficient reported by Van Der Walt (2018) for a South African sample (0.83). The total scale had a Cronbach's alpha coefficient of 0.92, which can be regarded as excellent. This shows that the measuring instrument had excellent internal consistency. Therefore, one may conclude that the measuring instrument was reliable for the current sample. A factor analysis with oblique (oblimin) rotation was utilised to determine the construct validity of the subscale measuring organisational spirituality. As the majority of the items loaded onto one factor, it was decided to regard organisational spirituality as a one-factor solution rather than as a three-factor solution. This is similar to the findings of Van Der Walt and De Klerk (2014) and Van Der Walt (2018).

Measures of central tendency

Table 1 presents the measures of central tendency for ethical behaviour components and organisational spirituality. The median represents the 50% mark in each case.

 

 

As can be seen from Table 1, only fairness has a mean score that exceeds the median and responsibility has a mean score that matches the 50% mark. However, respect, honesty and organisational spirituality have mean scores below the 50% mark. This shows that the respondents evaluated their behaviour as responsible and fair, but not necessarily as respectful and honest. Furthermore, they did not perceive their organisations to have spiritual values.

Correlations between workplace spirituality and ethical behaviour

Table 2 reflects the correlations between workplace spirituality and ethical behaviour.

 

 

From the data in Table 2, it is clear that organisational spirituality is statistically significantly correlated with responsibility (0.251) and fairness (0.286). Although Pearson's product-moment correlation coefficient confirmed relationships between many of the variables measured, it was necessary to perform a regression analysis in order to establish whether workplace spirituality influences ethical behaviour.

Multiple regression analysis

Multiple regression analysis was performed to determine the influence of workplace spirituality on responsibility and fairness. Note that normality was assumed.

From the data in Table 3, it is clear that organisational spirituality had a statistically significant influence on responsibility. The influence of organisational spirituality amounted to 25.1%. Moreover, organisational spirituality had a statistically significant influence on fairness which amounted to 21.6%.

 

 

Discussion

Outline of results

The secondary research objective of this study was to determine the extent to which project managers agree with the ethical values identified by the PMI as important. Four values were measured, namely, responsibility, respect, fairness and honesty. From the findings presented, it was noted that the value of responsibility was viewed neutrally, while only fairness solicited a positive response from the respondents. The respondents mostly disagreed with the statements regarding respect and honesty. Thus, one may conclude that the respondents agreed mostly with the fairness value identified by the PMI. The findings regarding ethical values can possibly be attributed to the project management environment, which is fast-paced and complex, and therefore rife with ethical dilemmas. Thus, one wonders whether it is not more appropriate to follow a dual approach, focussing on both a moral and descriptive approach in dealing with these ethical dilemmas. This is mainly because project managers are often not even aware that they are facing ethical dilemmas, where such awareness requires advanced moral development or moral awareness of sensitivity (Daniels, Diddams, & Van Duzer, 2011).

In line with Kohlberg's (1969) theory of moral development, it is argued that it is only in the sixth stage of moral development that right is understood as consisting of universal moral principles, such as justice, equality of human rights and respect for human dignity (Schreuder & Coetzee, 2011). These latter authors further state that adults who advance to this sixth stage are not only aware of these moral principles but also commit to these principles, which consequently guide their behaviour. Thus, it seems necessary that project managers develop morality in order for them to accept universal moral principles to guide their behaviour. Unfortunately, not all adults advance to this stage of cognitive moral development, but it seems to be necessary for project managers to reach this developmental phase of morality because they are continually facing ethical dilemmas.

In response to Kohlberg's (1969) theory, Rest's (1986) theory and Jones' (1991) theory focus on moral judgement, which is facilitated by both intuitive emotional processing and controlled cognitive processing. They propose that moral judgement will lead to moral intent, and that this may possibly lead to moral behaviour. However, in this process one component will not necessarily lead to the other, and therefore other variables, such as experience and reflection, have been proposed as influencing variables of cognitive behaviour. Unfortunately, research has not identified causal relationships between any of the mentioned variables. Previous research has found that cognitive moral development is only moderately predictive of unethical choices (Kish-Gephard et al., 2010, cited in Moore, Detert, Treviño, Baker, & Mayer, 2012). Moreover, even if a person is sophisticated in the way he or she deliberately reasons about ethical decisions, he or she may not necessarily behave ethically.

The primary research objective of this study was to establish to what degree, if any, workplace spirituality influences project managers' ethical behaviour. The findings of the study indicated that workplace spirituality influenced ethical behaviour to some extent, as it promotes responsibility and fairness, which are key values of the PMI. This shows that if organisations adopt spiritual values and promote a spirituality-based culture, ethical behaviour and possibly affective well-being and mental health could be encouraged.

It is postulated that workplace spirituality, life satisfaction, mental health and ethical behaviour are related. Firstly, the study found that workplace spirituality is related to fairness. Perceived fairness has also been found to be related to affective well-being, which is a component of mental health (Soto, DiDona, Aquililla, Ramirez, & Marrero, 2018). Lombardo, Jones, Wang, Shen and Goldner (2018) report a strong correlation between life satisfaction and mental health. The relationship between life satisfaction and workplace spirituality is implied by Garcia-Zamor (2003), who postulates that spirituality in the workplace creates a new organisational culture in which individuals feel happier. An empirical study conducted by Sawatzky, Ratner and Chiu (2005) confirmed the relationship between spirituality and quality of life (or life satisfaction). A positive relationship has also been found between meaning and purpose in life (a core dimension of workplace spirituality) and life satisfaction (Reker & Cousins, 1979). However, workplace spirituality should not be seen as a quick fix to reduce unethical behaviour and improve mental health, and unless there is honest commitment by organisational leaders to transform organisations into humanised and spirituality-based workplaces, not much will be achieved in terms of promoting positive affect and behaviour.

Limitations and recommendations

This study has revealed the importance of promoting workplace spirituality within the context of project management. Unfortunately, previous research studies on workplace spirituality have not been extensively conducted within this field of study, and, as such, more confirmatory empirical studies are needed to confirm the importance of promoting workplace spirituality. It is therefore suggested that research regarding ethical behaviour should be extended; in particular, future research studies should focus on the relationship between intuition, reflection, and experience and ethical conduct. Although the rational decision-making approach and a descriptive approach to ethical behaviour are to some extent appropriate, it is also necessary to confirm theories that propose that factors such as intuition, reflection and experience are predictors of ethical behaviour.

 

Conclusion

The primary research objective of this study was to establish whether workplace spirituality influences project managers' ethical behaviour. From the above discussion, it is clear that workplace spirituality influences project managers' ethical behaviour. The study provides an understanding of the ethical behaviour of project managers in terms of their theoretical orientations and the values that are promoted by the PMI. Although the descriptive approach to ethical behaviour has been criticised, it still seems relevant and necessary because of the complexity of work that project managers are faced with. However, having a code of ethics would not ensure ethical behaviour, but it could advance a collective understanding of ethical behaviour within the project management profession.

From the results presented, it is evident that organisations will benefit from creating spirituality-based workplaces in order to promote ethical acts within an environment that is rife with questionable business practices. The findings of this study hold many insights for the project management profession, as well as higher education institutions that train project managers. It is necessary that future studies continue to focus on possible influencing variables of ethical behaviour so as to obtain an in-depth understanding of this form of destructive behaviour, which is continually increasing. By promoting organisational spirituality, and consequently mental health, well-being and ethical conduct, future business success may be enhanced in an increasingly uncertain external business environment.

 

Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge the participating institution and Dr Petronella Jonck for assisting with the statistical analysis.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships which may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

Authors' contributions

F.v.d.W. is the first and main author of this article and contributed majorly to the writing of the article. P.S. was the supervisor and also contributed to the writing of the article.

Funding information

F.v.d.W received funding from the Central University of Technology, Free State (no grant number was provided).

Data availability statement

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this this article are the authors' own and not an official position of the institution or funder.

 

References

Ahmad, A., & Omar, Z. (2014). Reducing deviant behaviour through workplace spirituality and job satisfaction. Asian Social Sciences, 10(19), 107-112. https://doi.org/10.5539/ass.v10n19p107        [ Links ]

Ashmos, D. P., & Duchon, D. (2000). Spirituality at work: A conceptualization and measure. Journal of Management Inquiry, 9(2), 134-145. https://doi.org/10.1177/105649260092008        [ Links ]

Babbie, E., & Mouton, J. (2014). The practice of social research (South African edn.). Cape Town: Oxford University Press.         [ Links ]

Beekun, R. I., & Westerman, J. W. (2012). Spirituality and national culture as antecedents of ethical decision-making: A comparison between the United States and Norway. Journal of Business Ethics, 110(1), 33-44.         [ Links ]

Bowden, P., & Smythe, V. (2008). Theories on teaching & training in ethics. EJBO - Electronic Journal of Business Ethics and Organization Studies, 13(2), 19-26.         [ Links ]

Carroll, M. (2012). 4 Spiritual approaches shaping the workplace. Retrieved from https://www.huffpost.com/entry/4-spiritual-approaches-shaping-the-workplace_b_2286871.         [ Links ]

Coccia, M., & Bellitto, M. (2018). Critical analysis of human progress: Its negative and positive sides in the late-capitalism. CocciaLAB working paper, 30, 1-33.         [ Links ]

Daniels, D., Diddams, M., & Van Duzer, J. (2011). A magnetic pull on the internal compass: The moderating effect of response to culture on the relationship between moral identity and ethical sensitivity. Journal of Religion and Business Ethics, 2(2), 1-29.         [ Links ]

De Klerk, J. J. (2005). Spirituality, meaning in life, and work wellness: A research agenda. International Journal of Organizational Analysis, 13(1), 64-88. https://doi.org/10.1108/eb028998        [ Links ]

De Klerk, J. J. (2017). 'The Devil made me do it!' An inquiry into the unconscious 'devils within' of rationalized corruption. Journal of Management Inquiry, 26(3), 254-269. https://doi.org/10.1177/1056492617692101        [ Links ]

Edwards, R., & Mauthner, M. (2012). Ethics and feminist research: Theory and practice. In T. Miller, M. Birch, M. Mauthner & J. Jessop (Eds.), Ethics in qualitative research (2nd edn., pp. 14-28). London: Sage.         [ Links ]

Eginli, A. T. (2017). Spirituality in the workplace: What does it mean? A literature review. Advances in Social Science Research, 4(23), 82-97. https://doi.org/10.14738/assrj.423.3928        [ Links ]

Fernando, M., & Chowdhury, R. M. M. I. (2010). The relationship between spiritual well-being and ethical orientations in decision making: An empirical study with business executives in Australia. Journal of Business Ethics, 95(2), 211-225. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-009-0355-y        [ Links ]

Fry, L. W. (2003). Toward a theory of spiritual leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 14(6), 693-727. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2003.09.001        [ Links ]

Fry, L. W. (2005). Toward a paradigm of spiritual leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 16(4), 619-622.         [ Links ]

Garcia-Zamor, J. (2003). Workplace spirituality and organizational performance. Public Administration Review, 63(May/June), 355-362. https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-6210.00295        [ Links ]

Giacalone, R. A., & Jurkiewicz, C. L. (2003a). Handbook of workplace spirituality and organizational performance. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe.         [ Links ]

Giacalone, R. A., & Jurkiewicz, C. L. (2003b). Right from wrong: The influence of spirituality on perceptions of unethical business activities. Journal of Business Ethics, 46(1), 85-97.         [ Links ]

Global Economic Crime and Fraud Survey. (2018). The dawn of proactivity: Countering threats from inside and out. Retrieved from www.pwc.com/fraudsurvey.         [ Links ]

Grobler, P., Bothma, R., Bewster, C., Cary, L., Holland, P., & Wärnich, S. (2012). Contemporary issues in human resource management (4th edn.). Cape Town: Oxford University Press.         [ Links ]

Gull, G. A., & Doh, J. (2004). The 'transmutation' of the organization: Toward a more spiritual workplace. Journal of Management Inquiry, 13(2), 128-139. https://doi.org/10.1177/1056492604265218        [ Links ]

Hair, J. F., Celsi, M., Money, A., Samouel, P., & Page, M. (2016). Essentials of business research methods (3rd edn.). New York: Routledge.         [ Links ]

Halis, M., Akova, O., & Tagraf, H. (2007). The relationship between ethics and quality: Conflicts and common grounds. Serbian Journal of Management, 2(2), 127-145.         [ Links ]

Houghton, J. D., Neck, C. P., & Krishnakumar, S. (2016). The what, why, and how of spirituality in the workplace revisited: A 14-year update and extension. Journal of Management, Spirituality & Religion, 13(3). http://doi.org/10.1080/14766086.2016.1185292        [ Links ]

Honiball, G., Geldenhuys, D., & Mayer, C. -H. (2014). Acknowledging others as 'whole beings'. Managers' perceptions of spirituality and health in the South African workplace. International Review of Psychiatry, 26(3), 289-301. https://doi.org/10.3109/09540261.2014.881331        [ Links ]

Issa, T., & Pick, D. (2010). Ethical mindsets: An Australian study. Journal of Business Ethics, 96(4), 613-629.         [ Links ]

Johnson, P., & Duberley, J. (2000). Understanding management research: An introduction to epistemology. London: Sage.         [ Links ]

Jones, T. M. (1991). Ethical decision making by individuals in organizations: An issue-contingent model. Academy of Management Review, 16(2), 366-395. https://doi.org/10.2307/258867        [ Links ]

Karakas, F. (2010). Spirituality and performance in organizations: A literature review. Journal of Business Ethics, 94(1), 89-106.         [ Links ]

Kerzner, H. (2013). Project management: A systems approach to planning, scheduling and controlling. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.         [ Links ]

Kohlberg, L. (1969). Stage and sequence: The cognitive developmental approach to socialization. In D. Goslin (Ed.), Handbook of socialization theory and research (pp. 347-480). Chicago, IL: Rand McNally.         [ Links ]

Kolodinsky, R. W., Giacalone, R. A., & Jurkiewicz, C. L. (2004). Exploring personal, organizational and interactive workplace spirituality outcomes. Paper presented at the Academy of Management Annual Meeting, New Orleans, LA.         [ Links ]

Kolodinsky, R. W., Giacalone, R. A., & Jurkiewicz, C. L. (2008). Workplace values and outcomes: Exploring personal, organizational, and interactive workplace spirituality. Journal of Business Ethics, 81(2), 465-480. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-007-9507-0        [ Links ]

Koys, D. J., & DeCotiis, T. A. (1991). Inductive measures of psychological climate. Human Relations, 44(3), 265-285. https://doi.org/10.1177/001872679104400304        [ Links ]

Kumar, V., & Kumar, S. (2014). Workplace spirituality as a moderator in relation between stress and health: An exploratory empirical assessment. International Review of Psychiatry, 26(3), 344-351. https://doi.org/10.3109/09540261.2014.924909        [ Links ]

Larson, E. W., & Gray, C. F. (2014). Project management: The managerial process (6th edn.). Singapore: McGraw-Hill.         [ Links ]

Lombardo, P., Jones, W., Wan, L., Sheng, X., & Goldner, E. M. (2018). The fundamental association between mental health and life satisfaction: Results from successive waves of a Canadian national survey. BMC Public Health, 18(1), 342. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-018-5235-x        [ Links ]

Mayer, C., & Walach, H. (2018). Workplace spirituality in contemporary South Africa. In S. Dhiman, G. Roberts & J. Crossman (Eds.), The Palgrave handbook of workplace spirituality and fulfilment (pp. 1-18). New York: Springer.         [ Links ]

McGhee, P., & Grant, P. (2008). Spirituality and ethical behaviour in the workplace: Wishful thinking or authentic reality. Electronic Journal of Business Ethics and Organization Studies, 13(2), 61-69. Retrieved from http://ejbo.jyu.fi.         [ Links ]

Melden, A. I. (1967). Ethical theories: A book of readings (2nd edn.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.         [ Links ]

Mitroff, I. I., & Denton, E. A. (1999). A study of spirituality in the workplace. Sloan Management Review, 40(4), 83-92.         [ Links ]

Molina, L. (2016). Morality and competence of organizations: Effects on perceived organizational prestige, positive worth-of-mouth behaviour and organizational citizenship behaviour of employees, and the role of moral disengagement. Master's thesis. The Netherlands: Leiden University.         [ Links ]

Moore, C., Detert, J. R., Treviño, L. K., Baker, V. L., & Mayer, D. M. (2012). Why employees do bad things: Moral disengagement and unethical organizational behaviour. Personnel Psychology, 65, 1-48. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2011.01237.x        [ Links ]

Niemi, L., & Young, L. (2013). Caring across boundaries versus keeping boundaries intact: Links between moral values and interpersonal orientations. PLoS One, 8(12), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0081605        [ Links ]

Patel, K. (2013). Analysis: Perceptions and reality of corruption in South Africa. Daily Maverick, Dec. 5. Retrieved from http://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2013-12-05-analysis-perceptions-and-reality-of-corruption-in-south-africa/#.U-tpt-OSySo.         [ Links ]

Pawar, B. S. (2009). Workplace spirituality facilitation: A comprehensive model. Journal of Business Ethics, 90(3), 375-386.         [ Links ]

Project Management Institute (PMI). (2017a). Code of ethics and professional conduct. Retrieved from http://www.pmi.org/about/ethics/code        [ Links ]

Reker, G. T., & Cousins, J. B. 1979. Factor structure, construct validity and reliability of the seeking of noetic goals (SONG) and purpose in life (PIL) tests. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 35(1), 85-91. https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-4679(197901)35:1<85::AID-JCLP2270350110>3.0.CO;2-R        [ Links ]

Rest, J. (1986). Moral development: Advances in research and theory. New York: Praeger.         [ Links ]

Rigamonti, F. (2016). Ethics MAG represented at LIM. PMI Today, July 11.         [ Links ]

Sawatzky, R., Ratner, P. A., & Chiu, L. 2005. A meta-analysis of the relationship between spirituality and quality of life. Social Indicators Research, 72(2), 153-188.         [ Links ]

Schreuder, A. M. G., & Coetzee, M. (2011). Careers: An organisational perspective (4th edn.). Cape Town: Juta.         [ Links ]

Soto, W. C., DiDona, T., Aguililla, A. L. G., Ramirez, R., & Marrero, P. (2018). Well-being, fairness, and supervisor's ability and support. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, 8(5). http://doi.org/10.29322/IJSRP.8.5.2018.p7715        [ Links ]

Tecchio, E. L., Cunha, C. J. C. D. A, & Santos, F. B. (2016). Spirituality in organizations? Organizações & Sociedade, 23(79), 590-608. http://doi.org/10.1590/1984-9230794.         [ Links ]

Turyakira, P. K. (2018). Ethical practices of small and medium-sized enterprises in developing countries: Literature analysis. South African Journal of Economic and Management Sciences, 21(1), a1756. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajems.v21i1.1756        [ Links ]

Van Der Walt, F. (2008). The relationship between spirituality and job satisfaction. Doctoral thesis. Pretoria: University of Pretoria.         [ Links ]

Van Der Walt, F. (2018). Workplace spirituality, work engagement and thriving at work. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 44(0), a1457. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v44i0.1457        [ Links ]

Van Der Walt, F., & De Klerk, J. J. (2014). Workplace spirituality and job satisfaction. International Review of Psychiatry, 26(3), 379-389. https://doi.org/10.3109/09540261.2014.908826        [ Links ]

Van Der Walt, F., & De Klerk, J. J. (2015). The experience of spirituality in a multicultural and diverse work environment. African and Asian Studies, 14, 253-288. https://doi.org/10.1163/15692108-12341346        [ Links ]

Watkins, J. A. (2016). A practical guide for researchers to the preparation of written presentations of academic research. Cape Town: Lavender Moon.         [ Links ]

Werner, A. (2011). Social processes in the workplace. In Z. Bergh (Ed.), Introduction to work psychology (pp. 226-259). Cape Town: Oxford Southern Africa.         [ Links ]

Werner, A., & Bagraim, J. (2011). Organisational behaviour: A contemporary South African perspective (3rd edn.). Pretoria: Van Schaik.         [ Links ]

 

 

Correspondence:
Freda van der Walt
fvdwalt@cut.ac.za

Received: 30 Apr. 2019
Accepted: 24 July 2019
Published: 10 Oct. 2019

^rND^sAhmad^nA.^rND^sOmar^nZ.^rND^sAshmos^nD. P.^rND^sDuchon^nD.^rND^sBeekun^nR. I.^rND^sWesterman^nJ. W.^rND^sBowden^nP.^rND^sSmythe^nV.^rND^sCoccia^nM.^rND^sBellitto^nM.^rND^sDaniels^nD.^rND^sDiddams^nM.^rND^sVan Duzer^nJ.^rND^sDe Klerk^nJ. J.^rND^sDe Klerk^nJ. J.^rND^sEdwards^nR.^rND^sMauthner^nM.^rND^sEginli^nA. T.^rND^sFernando^nM.^rND^sChowdhury^nR. M. M. I.^rND^sFry^nL. W.^rND^sFry^nL. W.^rND^sGarcia-Zamor^nJ.^rND^sGiacalone^nR. A.^rND^sJurkiewicz^nC. L.^rND^sGull^nG. A.^rND^sDoh^nJ.^rND^sHalis^nM.^rND^sAkova^nO.^rND^sTagraf^nH.^rND^sHoughton^nJ. D.^rND^sNeck^nC. P.^rND^sKrishnakumar^nS.^rND^sHoniball^nG.^rND^sGeldenhuys^nD.^rND^sMayer^nC. -H.^rND^sIssa^nT.^rND^sPick^nD.^rND^sJones^nT. M.^rND^sKarakas^nF.^rND^sKohlberg^nL.^rND^sKolodinsky^nR. W.^rND^sGiacalone^nR. A.^rND^sJurkiewicz^nC. L.^rND^sKoys^nD. J.^rND^sDeCotiis^nT. A.^rND^sKumar^nV.^rND^sKumar^nS.^rND^sLombardo^nP.^rND^sJones^nW.^rND^sWan^nL.^rND^sSheng^nX.^rND^sGoldner^nE. M.^rND^sMayer^nC.^rND^sWalach^nH.^rND^sMcGhee^nP.^rND^sGrant^nP.^rND^sMitroff^nI. I.^rND^sDenton^nE. A.^rND^sMoore^nC.^rND^sDetert^nJ. R.^rND^sTreviño^nL. K.^rND^sBaker^nV. L.^rND^sMayer^nD. M.^rND^sNiemi^nL.^rND^sYoung^nL.^rND^sPawar^nB. S.^rND^sReker^nG. T.^rND^sCousins^nJ. B.^rND^sSawatzky^nR.^rND^sRatner^nP. A.^rND^sChiu^nL.^rND^sSoto^nW. C.^rND^sDiDona^nT.^rND^sAguililla^nA. L. G.^rND^sRamirez^nR.^rND^sMarrero^nP.^rND^sTecchio^nE. L.^rND^sCunha^nC. J. C. D. A^rND^sSantos^nF. B.^rND^sTuryakira^nP. K.^rND^sVan Der Walt^nF.^rND^sVan Der Walt^nF.^rND^sDe Klerk^nJ. J.^rND^sVan Der Walt^nF.^rND^sDe Klerk^nJ. J.^rND^sWerner^nA.^rND^1A01 A04^nEugine T.^sMaziriri^rND^1A02^nTinashe^sChuchu^rND^1A03^nNkosivile W.^sMadinga^rND^1A01 A04^nEugine T.^sMaziriri^rND^1A02^nTinashe^sChuchu^rND^1A03^nNkosivile W.^sMadinga^rND^1A01 A04^nEugine T^sMaziriri^rND^1A02^nTinashe^sChuchu^rND^1A03^nNkosivile W^sMadinga

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Antecedents of psychological well-being among workers within small and medium enterprises

 

 

Eugine T. Maziriri^{I, IV}; Tinashe Chuchu^II; Nkosivile W. Madinga^III

^IDepartment of Marketing, School of Economic and Business Sciences, Faculty of Commerce, Law and Management, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
^IIDepartment of Marketing Management, Faculty of Economic and Management Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
^IIIDepartment of Marketing, School of Management Studies, Faculty of Commerce, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
^IVDepartment of Business Management, Faculty of Economic and Management Sciences, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

---

ABSTRACT

ORIENTATION: In the contemporary business environment, employee mental health is neglected, especially in mental health research and practice in African Small and Medium-sized Enterprises (SMEs). This occurs even though this sector is the largest contributor to developed economies. This study highlights the importance of psychological well-being in SME performance and the individual employee
RESEARCH PURPOSE: To investigate the influence of perceived organisational support, career goal development and empowering leadership on the psychological well-being of SME employees in Gauteng province, South Africa
MOTIVATION FOR THE STUDY: Despite increasing research on SMEs, few studies have investigated the impact of perceived organisational support, career goal development, and empowering leadership on psychological well-being in a Southern African context.
RESEARCH APPROACH/DESIGN AND METHOD: This study followed a quantitative approach, using the survey methodology where a structured questionnaire was administered to 250 SME employees. To evaluate the psychometric properties of measurement scales, a confirmatory factor analysis was performed. Structural equation modelling was used to test the hypotheses.
MAIN FINDINGS: Perceived organisational support, career goal development and empowering leadership have a positive and significant impact on the psychological well-being of SME workers. A robust, positive and significant relationship exists between empowering leadership and psychological well-being
PRACTICAL/MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS: The results indicate that SME managers in South Africa should pay more attention to, or place greater emphasis on, supporting employees in their organisations, recognising and assisting them in achieving their goals, and empowering them to be happy at work. If the psychological well-being of employees is prioritised, SME business performance will ultimately improve.
CONTRIBUTION/VALUE-ADD: This study contributes to the current body of Africa's industrial psychology and mental health literature - a field that has received little research attention in developing countries like South Africa.

Keywords: Mental Health; Small and Medium Enterprises; SME; Psychological Well-Being; Mental Health Research.

---

 

 

Introduction

In most economies, the largest contributors to economic activity are Small and Medium-sized Enterprises (SMEs) (Struwig & Lillah, 2017). Abor and quartey (2010:218) agree that 'small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) are a key part of emerging economies', while Gama and Geraldes (2012) point out that SMEs produce nearly two-thirds of jobs in Europe. The innovative entrepreneurial spirit of the markets is also developed by SMEs (Bishop, 2018). Globally, SMEs are the foundation of economic growth and they find themselves in a competitive environment, as they compete directly with larger entities (Bishop, 2018). In the contemporary African business environment, South African SMEs contribute up to 22% of the country's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (Reynolds, Fourie, & Erasmus, 2019). This supports the view of various scholars (Desiree & Kengne, 2016; Mafini, Pooe, & Loury-Okoumba, 2016; Mafundu & Mafini, 2019; Oyelana & Adu, 2015) that SMEs are key drivers of economic growth and job creation, as they introduce innovations to tap new markets, boost competition and efficiency across the economy, and reduce poverty and inequality. Small and medium-sized enterprises are essential in improving living standards and national stability (Cant, Wiid, & Meyer, 2016).

Given the contribution of SMEs to the economy, it is imperative that the mental health of employees should be prioritised, as they are a critical strategic resource (Martin, Sanderson, Scott, & Brough, 2009). According to Luo et al. (2008), SME employees usually earn low wages and lack effective long-term occupational health services. Studies have shown that the mental health of SME employees is generally worse than that of the general population and those in big business (Luo, Huang, Ma, & Wang, 2012; Peng, Long, & Liang, 2012). Unfortunately, these employees' mental health is also largely neglected in occupational health research and practice (Martin et al., 2009). Zeng et al. (2014) assessed the mental health of SME employees in Guangdong, China, and explored the work environment's related physical and psychosocial factors. According to their results, 35.3% of employees had a poor sense of Psychological Well-being (PWB) - men, younger employees and migrant workers are more likely to have a poor sense of PWB (Zeng et al., 2014).

It is clear that mental health and employment in SMEs require greater attention. Globalisation and technological advancements have led to an increased demand for employment, subsequently leading to increased job strain (Ratanasiripong et al., 2016). Because mental health is frequently affected by, and has been linked to, work environment or job satisfaction, more research needs to be conducted to study employees' mental health, particularly in SMEs (Ratanasiripong et al., 2016). It is important to note that while many studies focus on SMEs (Gwena & Chinyamurindi, 2018; Mafundu & Mafini, 2019; Sitharam & Hoque, 2016; Struwig & Lillah, 2017; Wolmarans & Meintjes, 2015), very few studies address the impact of Perceived Organisational Support (POS), Career Goal Development (CGD) and Empowering Leadership (EL) on the PWB of SME employees.

Previous research in developing nations has examined SME employees in small and medium South African ventures by concentrating on the connection between flourishing at work, work commitment and 'thriving at work' (Van der Walt, 2018). Chinomona and Dhurup (2014) studied the impact of the nature of working life on representative occupation fulfilment, work responsibility and residency in Zimbabwe's SME sector. Literature on SME employees also investigates the impact of authoritative citizenship conduct and representative view of value on hierarchical duty in Zimbabwean SMEs (Chinomona, 2016). Furthermore, studies on SME workforces have also investigated the job satisfaction of SME employees in Thailand (Chaiprasit & Santidhiraku, 2011). Within a South African context, Joubert and Jonker (2009) examined emotions at work and SME client service worker well-being in Mpumalanga, South Africa.

Despite the availability of SME research, there is limited research on the background that influences PWB. The fundamental motivation behind this investigation is to fill this gap. Very few (if any) researchers have used Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) to test the causal relationships between POS, CGD, EL and PWB. In terms of this study, this robust research model is one of a kind.

The structure of the article is as follows: firstly, a research context is provided and thereafter the theoretical grounding and empirical literature is presented, followed by a conceptual model and a hypothesis development. The research design and methodology are then presented followed by a presentation of the results and the discussions. The final sections of the article discuss the implications, limitations and future research directions.

Rationale and importance of selecting workers in small and medium-sized enterprises

Cocker, Martin, Scott, Venn and Sanderson (2013) note that there is scant SME-specific research focused on the mental health of SME employees. As a result, available resources are often informed by research carried out in large organisations and developed without evidence that mental health factors in large organisations mirror those of SMEs (Cocker et al., 2013). Martin et al. (2009) point out that SMEs provide an outstanding environment for emotional infection research, as staff are often closer to the feelings of their executives. Some PWB studies were among entrepreneurial ventures (Parasuraman, Purohit, Godshalk, & Beutell, 1996; Uy, Foo, & Song, 2013), but a search of more than 700 studies using Ryff's (1989) PWB scale found no reference to small business studies (Ryff's Scale Information Document, 2016). It can be observed from the aforementioned interpretations that SME employees are academically relevant, especially in terms of mental health research. The following section focuses on the study's theoretical framework.

 

Theoretical grounding

This study explores the principles of the Social Exchange Theory (SET), the lifespan motivation theory and the empowerment theory, as it relates to the constructs and the relationships proposed between the constructs. These theories are discussed in the following sections.

Social Exchange Theory

Social Exchange Theory is based on the relational process and the principle of voluntary value exchange between individuals (employer-to-employee) and organisations (business-to-business [B2B]). According to the SET, 'relationship building is based on a subjective cost-benefit analysis and options assessment' (Liu, Min, Zhai, & Smyth, 2016, p. 54; Roberts-Lombard et al., 2017, p. 2). This means that the partners in a relationship will assess the future of a relationship on the value still to be accrued from a partner (e.g. financial rewards, a partner's trustworthiness and the level of future relationship satisfaction) (Sierra & Quitty, 2005:393). In addition, Ward and Berno (2011) opine that:

[S]ocial exchange is not always based on financial rewards, although the continuation of the relationship will be based on views on the comparative costs and benefits of the relationship, experience of satisfaction and its implications for future relationship satisfaction. (p. 1557)

In this regard, the SET principle of reciprocity explains the positive effects of POS, which is one of PWB's precedents. If employees feel supported, they are likely to return the appreciation through good performance, which, in turn, raises expectations for reward (Kurtessis et al., 2017). The principle of reciprocity is also applied when it is evident that an organisation lacks support or displays abusive behaviour. Poor employee behaviour is likely to result from unfavourable treatment (Cohen-Charash & Mueller, 2007).

This study postulates that the SET is associated with POS, CGD, EL and PWB. The SET confirms that when an organisation offers tangible and intangible resources, employees will respond in kind (Blau, 1964; Saks, 2006). Perceived organisational support has conventionally been considered as a social exchange process, as it forms the basis of exchange relationships (Blau, 1964; Eisenberger, Huntington, Hutchison, & Sowa, 1986; Shantz, Alfes, & Latham, 2016). Scholars have posited that POS acts as a beneficial resource for employees (Ensher, Thomas, & Murphy, 2001), and some consider career development as a part of the SET (Shantz et al., 2016). According to Su and Swanson (2019), the SET allows for greater levels of organisational trust and identification, which can subsequently enhance employee well-being. Perceived organisational support is a central construct in the SET, and the present study aligns with the limited research available that considers conceptualised POS as an essential resource that can alleviate the negative consequences of work-related attitudes and states (Hochwarter, Witt, Treadway, & Ferris, 2006; Panaccio & Vandenberghe, 2009; Witt & Carlson, 2006).

Motivational Theory of Lifespan Development

According to Kay and Heckhausen (2015), the Motivational Theory of Lifespan Development (MTD) explains the processes through which humans optimally pursue their development goals. In addition, MTD suggests that people select targets based on opportunities and constraints to promote development across multiple domains, and preserve various objectives (Heckhausen, 1997; Heckhausen & Schulz, 1993; Heckhausen, Schulz, & Wrosch, 1998; Schulz & Heckhausen, 1996). Development is most successful when people pursue suitable goals, engage in goal-oriented efforts to pursue their goals and disengage when goals have been achieved or are no longer achievable (Kay & Heckhausen, 2015). The MTD has consequences for lifelong achievement of goals, health and well-being (Kay & Heckhausen, 2015). Shane and Heckhausen (2019), however, claim that the MTD can be applied to a work environment also. The MTD questions aspects of the working life of an individual, including how work and career goals function as development goals that structure and direct the development of individuals; how control capacities and trajectories differ across careers and career stages; and how individuals organise their control efforts to capitalise on career development. As this study investigates the impact of CGD on PWB, the MTD will serve as the theoretical lens.

Empowerment theory

Budeli (2012) states that one of the best ways to support people's interests is by applying the empowerment theory. Robbins, Chatterjee and Canda (1998) posit that empowerment aims to provide conceptualisations of social stratification and oppression to identify personal and political barriers and dynamics that maintain oppression. In addition, empowerment provides value frameworks to promote human empowerment and liberation and identifies practical strategies to overcome oppression and achieve social justice. The empowerment theory recognises conditions of inequality and injustice (Budeli, 2012) and aims to help marginalised people. Small and medium-sized enterprise employees have the power to ensure effectiveness and social justice in their lives and work environment. Applying the empowerment theory can increase employees' PWB and stimulate SME performance. If SME leaders or managers empower their employees, their employees will feel more active in their organisations and this will help improve the quality of the organisation's output.

 

Empirical literature

This section focuses on reviewing literature on the research variables under investigation, namely, POS, CGD, EL and PWB.

Perceived organisational support

Perceived organisational support refers to the perception of employees regarding the organisation's appreciation of their efforts and care about their well-being (Eisenberger et al., 1986), which may play a crucial role in employee readiness (Gigliotti, Vardaman, Marshall, & Gonzalez, 2019), especially during organisational change (Gigliotti et al., 2019; Vardaman, Amis, Dyson, Wright, & Randolph, 2012). Tremblay, Gaudet and Vandenberghe (2019) consider POS as a collective, commonly accepted view that the organisation supports its members. For employees, POS is expressed through payment, job enrichment, recognition and other benefits. Concern about the well-being of employees is also reflected in the offer of organisational policies and human resources practices that facilitate meeting and balancing job and external demands (Worley, Fuqua, & Hellman, 2009). Perceived organisational support meets the socio-emotional needs of the employee, contributing to organisational identification, emotional commitment (Kurtessis et al., 2017) and positive impact (Caesens, Stinglhamber, & Ohana, 2016). Prior literature on POS (Gigliotti et al., 2019; Tremblay et al., 2019) concurs that it epitomises organisations that are concerned for their employees. Other scholars (Arogundade, Arogundade, & Adebajo, 2015) posit that the personification of organisations is the result of POS. The aforementioned studies did not, however, empirically examine the impact of POS on the PWB of employees.

Career goal development

Career goal development refers to the objectives that people pursue at work. These goals include promoting, increasing pay and developing skills (Rahim & Siti-Rohaida, 2015; Zikic & Klehe, 2006). Koekemoer (2014), however, argues that a successful career development by the employee implies that certain organisational objectives have been achieved. Career development takes the form of a lifelong career in one organisation, or a steady climb up the corporate ladder for the individual (Koekemoer, 2014). Career goal development can therefore be defined as individuals' objective or subjective perception of achievements during their work experiences, suggesting an objective and subjective dimension (Koekemoer, 2014). Some researchers postulate that traditional career development models are only marginally effective in the modern global economic context (Dean, Shogren, Wehmeyer, Almire, & Mellenbruch, 2019). Hu, Hood and Creed (2018) investigated career feedback and stress, while Dickmann and Cerdin (2018) explored career development and transfer of career capital, such as skills and connections. These studies did not, however, assess the relationship between CGD and mental health.

Empowering leadership

Empowering leadership is defined as behaviours that share power with team members, and, in turn, raise the intrinsic motivation levels of all members (Gyu-Park, Sik-Kim, Yoon, & Joo, 2017). Empowering leaders show four types of behaviours, namely, emphasising the importance of work, providing decision-making participation, fostering confidence that performance will be excellent and removing any bureaucratic constraints (Ahearne, Mathieu, & Rapp, 2005). These leadership empowerment behaviours are based on Conger and Kanungo's (1988) broad conceptualisation of empowerment. They indicate that empowerment is a process of motivation, rather than a simple delegation of power to employees. A team leader needs to help team members understand the importance of their roles, involve them in the decision-making process, believe in their ability to achieve high performance and simplify administrative rules and procedures in order to be empowered and motivated (Ahearne et al., 2005).

Previous empirical studies have shown substantial evidence of the positive relationship between EL and different team and organisational outcomes, including task performance (Vecchio, Justin, & Pearce, 2010), job satisfaction (Konczak, Stelly, & Trusty, 2000; Vecchio et al., 2010), engagement (Konczak et al., 2000) and organisational citizenship behaviour (Yun et al., 2007). Gyu-Park et al. (2017) explain that only a few studies have looked at the influence of EL on employee psychology. It is, therefore, important to understand how leaders influence the mindset and organisational behaviour of employees. Kearney, Shemla, Van Knippenberg and Scholz (2019) posited that EL leads to goal clarity in organisations but failed to address employee mental well-being, while Han, Harold and Cheong (2019) examined empowerment leadership and trust in organisations. The above-mentioned research however did not examine the influence of EL on an employee's PWB.

Psychological well-being

Psychological well-being refers to positive mental health (Edwards, 2005; Ismail & Desmukh, 2012). Farrington (2017:47) describes PWB as the 'perception of engaging with life's existential challenges', whereas Winefield, Gill, Taylor and Pilkington (2012:2) describe it as 'a combination of positive affective states such as happiness and functioning with optimal efficacy in individual and social life'. Optimum PWB levels are likely to depend on the external circumstances of an individual, as well as the resources and challenges they face (Farrington, 2017). Psychological well-being has been investigated in various organisational contexts, including employee well-being (Žižek, Treven, & Čančer, 2015), commitment (Kanten & Yesıltas, 2015) and job satisfaction (Jones, Hill, & Henn, 2015), as well as relationships between family and work (Grzywacz & Butler, 2005). It has been found that PWB is associated with positive results in terms of work performance of an employee. For instance, Wright and Cropanzano (2000) point out that PWB benefits include an increase in an individuals' cognitive functioning and health, and ultimately the happy functioning of society.

Psychological well-being is generally considered necessary for effective human functioning (Ryan & Deci, 2001). Previous literature on PWB explored workplace collegiality, such as the relationship between employees and PWB (López, Sanderman, Ranchor, & Schroevers, 2018). Hernandez et al. (2018) assessed PWB as physical health, reinforcing the notion that PWB is essential in organisations. However, these studies did not investigate the impact of POS, CGD and EL on PWB. Robertson and Cooper (2010) found that individuals with higher levels of PWB behave in ways that may lead to higher levels of workplace engagement, which, in turn, affects business success. In this context, it may be concluded that SME employees who display positive PWB are more likely to contribute to positive outcomes, like successful businesses.

 

Conceptual research model and hypotheses development

The relationship between the variables investigated in this study is described in a conceptual model (Maziriri, Mapuranga, & Madinga, 2018). Maziriri et al. (2018) add that a conceptual model schematic diagram helps the readers to visualise the theoretical relationships between the variables in the model and formulate a quick idea of how the problem can be solved. The conceptual model in this study indicates that the predictor variables are POS, CGD and EL. Psychological well-being is the dependent or outcome variable for this study model. A conceptual model to guide the empirical study as shown in Figure 1 was proposed based on a synthesis of the converging literature related to the research variables.

 

 

Proposed hypotheses

The available literature highlights several validated works, which inform the hypotheses for this study. These hypotheses emphasise specific relationships between variables in a way that allows for empirical testing. The hypotheses are used to validate the theories used in the research and allow for logical analysis of relationships between variables. Based on scientific evidence regarding POS, CGD, EL and PWB, as well as considering the underlying theories, three hypotheses were developed, which are discussed in the following sections.

Perceived organisational support and psychological well-being

It is imperative to elucidate on the nexus between POS and PWB. Caesens et al. (2016) revealed that PWB is positively linked with overall well-being. In their study that determines the influence of POS and PWB on organisational commitment, Aggarwal-Gupta, Vohra and Bhatnagor (2010) revealed that POS significantly influences PWB and all components of organisational commitment. Roemer and Harris (2018) also pointed out that, in terms of POS, employees with perceived higher levels of organisational support are more likely to experience higher levels of well-being. Perceptions of support seem to foster positive emotions in employees and may be strongly associated with their PWB (Ryff & Singer, 1998). Therefore, the following hypothesis has been formulated:

H1: POS has a positive and a significant impact on PWB among SME employees.

Career goal development and psychological well-being

The more focused employees' career goals are, the more likely they are to engage in behaviours that will help them reach their goals, and the greater their motivation to participate in development activities (Rahim & Siti-Rohaida, 2015). Evidence shows that individuals who actively reflect on career goals and have stronger vision in what they want to attain during their career report a higher level of career success (De Vos & Soens, 2008). In addition, self-managing individuals are more likely to strive to obtain their desired career goals, which in turn will make them feel more successful in their career (Arthur et al., 2005). In the career literature, goal focus has been shown to be an important determinant of career goal attainment and satisfaction with career progress (Sugalski & Greenhaus, 1986). Therefore, career goals are expected to influence the level of PWB of individuals (Rahim & Siti-Rohaida, 2015). However, very few studies have been conducted on the theoretical relationship between CGD and PWB (Rahim & Siti-Rohaida, 2015). Based on this assumption, a second hypothesis is formulated as follows:

H2: CGD has a positive and significant impact on PWB among SME employees.

Empowering leadership and psychological well-being

Gyu-Park et al. (2017) explained that empowerment can affect job-related characteristics of PWB, such as skill utilisation and workload. In this vein, Heller and Wilpert (1981) demonstrated that employees' skill utilisation is associated with participatory decision-making, which is a characteristic of empowering leaders (Arnold, Arad, Rhoades, & Drasgow, 2000). Thus, empowerment can be an effective means to maintain job satisfaction and reduce burnout when an employee's workload is increased (Andrews, Wilmington, & Kacmar, 2014). Empowering leadership focuses on the relationship between leaders and subordinates, while attending to individual psychological reasons for motivation (Thomas & Velthouse, 1990). In another study, Fitzsimons and Fuller (2002) showed that having a sense of empowerment is associated with reduced psychological distress. They also reported a positive association between psychological empowerment and self-esteem. Molix and Bettencourt (2010) posited that psychological empowerment partially mediates the relationship between group identity and PWB. Along these lines, deriving from the literature and the empirical proof above, it is hypothesised that:

H3: EL has a positive and significant impact on PWB among SME employees.

 

Research methodology

This article pursues a positivist paradigm, as it tries to discover a connection between constructs expressed for this examination, and utilises target estimation instruments for the information gathering and investigation methods. A quantitative research approach was employed, as it elevates result accuracy through statistical analysis. The target population for this investigation includes employees of SMEs situated in the Gauteng province of South Africa during 2019, when the data were gathered. The sampling frame for the examination comprises SME workers in the Gauteng province. A total of 1945 SMEs in Gauteng province were acquired from the Small Enterprise Development Agency (SEDA), a focal point of small enterprise development in South Africa, as the study sample. Respondents were given a questionnaire to complete. The simple random probability sampling strategy (using the Raosoft test calculator) was used to select the respondents. The assessed populace of 1945 was used, with a margin error of 5%, confidence interval of 95% and response distribution of 50% - thus resulting in a sample size of 321 SME workers.

Measuring instrument

For this study, a self-administered questionnaire was used to collect the necessary data. Leedy and Ormrod (2010:197) describe a questionnaire as a research instrument in which a researcher poses a series of questions to willing respondents and summarises their responses with percentages, frequency counts or more sophisticated statistical indexes, upon which inferences are made about a population. Because of the nature of this research, a questionnaire was deemed the most appropriate data collection method. The questionnaire was categorised into five sections, all of which are described in the following.

Section A of the questionnaire comprises demographic questions, such as gender, age, level of education, number of employees (full-time) in the business and age (years) and location of the business. Section B assesses POS and comprises eight items adapted from Eisenberger et al.'s (1986) study, with a Cronbach's alpha of 0.93. In Section C, CGD was measured using four items adapted from Rahim and Siti-Rohaida's (2015) work, which had a composite reliability value of 0.901. Section D of the questionnaire comprises questions on EL that were assessed using a 12-item scale adapted from Gyu-Park et al. (2017), with a Cronbach's alpha of 0.97. Section E measures PWB and adapted five items from the scale used by Zeng et al. (2014), which met the reliability criteria with a Cronbach's alpha of 0.61. Responses were recorded using a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) for all the variables in this study.

In terms of reliability, all Cronbach's alpha coefficients were above 0.8, exceeding the expected value of 0.7 (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994). The Cronbach's aplha values are as follows: POS (0.795), CGD (0.782), EL (0.818) and PWB 0.742, respectively. A more detailed presentation of the reliability and validity results is given in Table 2.

Data analysis

The data gathered from SMEs were recorded on an Excel spreadsheet after screening returned questionnaires. The data were analysed using a software for descriptive statistics, Cronbach's alpha values and correlations, and the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS version 25.0). To test the psychometric properties of the measurement scales, and the hypotheses, the Analysis of Moment Structures (AMOS version 25.0) statistical software was used.

Demographic profile summary

In the wake of checking for missing values and anomalies, it was found that 250 questionnaires out of the sample of 321 were completed (a 77.8% response rate). Of these, 71 were unusable because a few items on the questionnaires were not answered. Table 1 presents the classification of information related to gender. The largest proportion of the sample indicated that they were men (62.4%; n = 156), followed by those who revealed that they were women (33.2%; n = 83). The remaining 4.4% (n = 11) preferred not to mention their gender.

 

 

Most of the respondents (32.4%; n = 81) were between 50 and 59 years old, 30.0% (n = 75) were between 31 and 39 years old, 18.4% (n = 46) were between 40 and 49 years old, 12.4% (n = 31) were between 18 and 30 years old, and the remaining 6.8% (n = 17) revealed that they were 60 years and above.

In terms of the level of education, 37.6% of respondents had a diploma, 30.0% (n = 75) had degrees, 20.0% (n = 50) had no formal education and the remaining 12.4% (n = 31) had only obtained some basic education.

The employment figures for this specific sample profile (Table 1) indicate that most of the SME businesses employ fewer than 50 employees, 44% (n = 110) employ 10-50 employees, 32% employ 100-200 employees, 21.2% (n = 53) employ 50-100 employees, with the remaining 2.4% (n = 6) employing fewer than 10 employees. These findings coincide with the findings of Moodley (2002:37), who asserts that 'SMEs are important, because, although recruiting less per entity, their potential for job creation is in numbers'. Table 1 provides the profile of the surveyed SMEs in terms of their location. Most of the respondents (74%; n = 185) indicated that their business was local (in the industrial areas of the Gauteng province of South Africa). The remaining 26% (n = 65) indicated that they are located in the various Central Business Districts (CBDs) of the Gauteng province.

 

Research results

The results section focuses on the results of Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), hypothesis tests performed through SEM and discussions. A CFA is a unique type of factor analysis used to assess whether a construct's measurements are compatible with that construct's nature (Kline, 2011). The SEM method is used to evaluate interactions between variables that are latent (unobservable), such as dependent and independent constructs (Bagozzi & Yi, 2012; Mafini & Loury-Okoumba, 2018).

Psychometric properties of measurement scales

The assessment of the measurement scales' psychometric characteristics was performed through a CFA to determine the construct's reliability, validity and model fit. Table 2 presents the outcomes of the CFA assessment.

The means, Standard Deviations (SD), item to total correlation values, Cronbach's alpha values, composite reliability values, average variance extracted values and standardised factor loadings are reported in Table 2.

As shown in Table 2, mean scores ranging between 3.58 and 4.21 (out of 5.0) were computed for all the constructs examined in the study. These scores depict a collective inclination towards both the 'agree' and 'strongly agree' positions on the Likert scales. As posited by Hair, Babin, Anderson and Tatham (2010), the relationship between the mean and the SD is that a small estimated SD denotes that respondents' responses were consistent and that the response distributions lie close to the mean. Conversely, a large SD indicates that the responses are varying, making the response distribution values fall away from the mean of the distribution (Hair et al., 2010). Moreover, the SD value should be less than 1, but it is recommended to at least include a value of less than 2 to ensure that there is no issue of outliers (Drost, 2011). Table 2 reveals that the highest SD value was reported at 1.266 and the lowest SD value was 0.881. This information indicates that the data points are clustered around the mean. The SD values are below 2; hence, it indicates that there was no presence of outliers.

A further analysis of Table 2 reveals that, on POS, three items (POS6, POS7 and POS8) were deleted, as the item to total correlation values were less than 0.5. On EL, four items (EL9, EL10, EL11 and EL12) were deleted, as the POS8 item to total correlation values were less than 0.5. On PWB, two items were deleted, namely PWB1 and PWB2, as the item to total correlation values were less than 0.5. It is worth mentioning that all these items were deleted because they did not meet convergent validity, they did not measure at least 50% of what they were supposed to measure. As such, these items did not require further analysis.

According to Nunnally (1978), the reliability of a measure is supported if Cronbach's alpha is 0.7 or higher. The results provided in Table 2 range from the lowest Cronbach's alpha (0.742) to the highest (0.818). Cronbach's alpha scores indicate that each construct exhibits strong internal reliability (Lee, 2009). Because the Cronbach's alpha values of the constructs exceeded the recommended value of 0.70, they met the required threshold, demonstrating that the constructs used to measure variables are very reliable for all the variables.

Table 2 shows the loading of each item on their construct. The lowest value for each respective item loading for the research constructs is 0.514; all the individual item loadings exceed the recommended value of 0.5 (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988). This indicates that all the measurement instruments are acceptable and reliable, because all the individual items converged well and with more than 50% of each item's variance shared with its respective construct (Fraering & Minor, 2006).

Composite reliability and AVE for each construct were also computed and assessed to determine if they met the required thresholds for reliability and validity. As per the results shown in Table 2, the lowest CR value (0.740) is well above the recommended value of 0.6 (Hulland, 1999), while the lowest obtained AVE value (0.420) is above the recommended value of 0.4 (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988). This indicates that convergent validity was achieved, further confirming excellent internal consistency and reliability of the measurement instruments used. As such, all pairs of constructs revealed an adequate level of discriminant validity (see Table 2). By and large, these results provided evidence for acceptable levels of research scale reliability (Chinomona & Chinomona, 2013:20; Chinomona & Mofokeng, 2016).

 

Discriminant validity

The inter-construct correlation matrix is used to assess the validity of measurement instruments, specifically discriminant validity (Ab Hamid, Sami, & Sidek, 2017). Correlations among constructs were evaluated to see if they were lower than 1. The higher the correlation between variables, the lower the validity of those variables (Kafetzopoulos, Gotzamani, & Gkana, 2015; Kim, Trail, Woo, & Zhang, 2011). The inter-construct correlation values must be below 0.6, and in some cases below 0.85, to indicate discriminant validity. According to Table 3, the highest correlation value was 0.518 and the lowest correlation value was 0.419. These correlation values are below 0.85 and, therefore, it can be concluded that there is discriminant validity between all the constructs (Morar, Venter, & Chuchu, 2015).

 

 

Measurement model assessment

Confirmatory factor analysis was performed to examine the reliability, convergent validity and discriminant validity of the multi-item construct measures. This study used overall acceptable CFA fit indices. According to Schreiber et al. (2006), to meet the acceptable level, the chi-square Chi-sqaure (CMIN) or Degree of Freedom (DF) value must be confined to 1 and 3. The Goodness of Fit Index (GFI), the Comparative Fit Index (CFI), the Incremental Fit Index (IFI) and the Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) must all be equal to or greater than 0.90 in order to be acceptable (Bollen, 1990; Hu & Bentler, 1995). The Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) must be equal to or less than 0.08 in order to be acceptable (Browne & Cudeck, 1993). The recommended figures show an acceptable data fit for the general model final assessment, namely: χ²/(df) = 1.911, GFI = 0.901, TLI = 0.932, IFI = 0.965, CFI = 0.958, Normed Fit Index (NFI) = 0.958 and RMSEA = 0.054.

 

Structural model assessment and hypothesis testing

The results of the CFA were satisfactory and therefore SEM was applied. A model fit analysis was performed for the SEM phase prior to testing the hypotheses. The results show that the ratio between the chi-square and the degree of freedom was 1.976. This is below the recommended threshold of 3.0 and confirms the fitness of the model. The recommended thresholds were, respectively, met by CFI, RMSEA, NFI, TLI, IFI, GFI and Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index (AGFI) values, which were 0.968, 0.056, 0.942, 0.936, 0.959, 0.952 and 0.915 (West, Taylor, & Wu, 2012). The anticipated conceptual model converged well and made it conceivable for the data collected. The hypothesis path modelling test was developed to regulate the strength and weakness of causal relationships. Figure 2 presents the structural model.

 

 

Outcome of hypotheses testing

In this study, hypotheses testing was determined by path coefficient values as well as the p-values for the structural model. In the model, relationships of constructs proposed in this study generate the coefficients of paths. These coefficients form the basis of hypothesis examination.

Outcome of testing hypothesis 1

Hypothesis 1 states that POS has a positive and significant impact on PWB among workers in SMEs as indicated in Table 4. Based on the results of the final model testing, the relationship between POS and PWB shows a β = 0.301 at p < 0.01. This evidence demonstrates that hypothesis 1 is supported. Hence, it can be noted that POS influences the PWB of workers within SMEs. It is also worth mentioning that these findings reinforce the results obtained in the study of Caesens et al. (2016), who found that POS is positively correlated with well-being.

 

 

Outcome of testing hypothesis 2

Hypothesis 2 asserts that CGD has a positive and significant impact on PWB among workers in SMEs. The final structural model presents the relationship between CGD and PWB results in a coefficient β = 0.241 at p < 0.01. Thus, hypothesis 2 is supported. These results mean that CGD influences PWB among workers in SMEs. It is also essential to mention that these findings corroborate the results obtained in the works of Rahim and Siti-Rohaida (2015), who elucidated that career goals are expected to influence the level of PWB of individuals.

Outcome of testing hypothesis 3

Hypothesis 3 states that EL has a positive and significant impact on PWB among workers in SMEs. Based on the results of the final model testing, the relationship between EL and PWB shows a β = 0.423 at p < 0.01. This evidence demonstrates that hypothesis 3 is supported. These results imply that EL influences PWB. The results obtained in this study also align with the finding of Gyu-Park et al. (2017), who found that employee empowerment can affect PWB.

Ethical considerations

Permission was granted by the management of the Small Enterprise Development Agency (SEDA). The researchers obtained the permission letter which allowed them to collect data from SMEs registered with SEDA before questionnaires were given out to respondents. Ethical consideration was approved unconditionally and this research study acted in accordance with the ethical standards of academic research, which include, among other things, protecting the identities and interest of respondents and assuring confidentiality of information provided by the respondents. Respondents gave their informed consent to participate in this research and were informed beforehand about the purpose of the investigation to ensure that they were not misled. Despite all the above-mentioned precautions, it was made clear to the respondents that the research was only for academic research purpose and their participation was absolutely voluntary. No one was forced to participate.

 

Discussion

The aim of this study was to determine the relationships between POS, CGD, EL and PWB. The results of the analysis suggest that significant relationships can be found between POS, CGD, EL and PWB among SME employees. The relationship between POS and PWB has been extensively studied in industrial psychology literature, which supports the relationship between POS and PWB (Aggarwal-Gupta et al., 2010; Caesens et al., 2016; Roemer & Harris, 2018). These sources conclude that employees with higher levels of organisational support tend to be in a positive mood in the workplace. The results provide evidence that CGD could predict PWB, as suggested by Robertson (2013). This study's findings reveal a positive and significant relationship between EL and PWB of employees, confirming the conceptual relationship between these variables (Fitzsimons & Fuller, 2002; Fong & Snape, 2015; Gyu-Park et al., 2017; Molix & Bettencourt, 2010).

 

Managerial implications

This study presents several implications for academics. An investigation of the research findings indicates that POS and PWB have a strong influence on each other, as indicated by a path coefficient of 0.301. For academics in the field of mental health, small business management and industrial psychology, this finding would enhance their understanding of the relationship between POS and PWB, making this study an important contribution to the existing literature.

On the practitioners' side, the findings of this study provide solutions from which SME owners and managers can benefit. Given the robust relationship between EL and PWB, as indicated by a path coefficient of 0.423, managers of SMEs in South Africa should pay attention to or emphasise empowering their employees to have increased PWB and job satisfaction. According to Nel (2013), employees who are empowered have a sense of purpose (their work is vital to them and they are concerned about it), competence (they are confident about their capability to do their work well), self-determination (they freely choose how they do their work and are not micro-managed) and impact (they believe they make an impact at work and their ideas are listened to).

 

Recommendations

The results of this study present opportunities for SMEs in South Africa. Based on the literature analysis and the findings of the empirical research, the following recommendations are made:

· From a management perspective, SME owners and managers must foster a culture that promotes good mental health in SMEs.

· Occupational health nurses, workplace managers and public health officials must raise awareness of the positive benefits of recognising the CGD of employees, they should support employees and empower them to improve their PWB. This will result in improved business performance.

· Managers should be trained in people management skills (with a mental health component). Then they will be able to recognise the signs when an employee becomes less well. This approach should be complemented by training at a peer-to-peer level. Mental Health training will enable staff to provide support to their colleagues.

 

Limitations and future research suggestions

The data used in this study were gathered from SME employees and not from those in managerial positions. The results would be more generalisable if data from both groups were compared. The current study was limited to a sample of SMEs in the Gauteng province of South Africa and questionnaires were used to collect the data from respondents. The study's quantitative characteristic may have prompted the disregard of more illuminating and extravagant information, which a qualitative methodology could have created had it been converged in the investigation. Nevertheless, using triangulation would erase the effects of common method bias. Other researchers might opt to use both questionnaires and interviews to strengthen the research.

Future researchers should also focus on other factors that influence the PWB of SME employees. For instance, future researchers should investigate depression, anxiety, happiness and work motivation as predictors of PWB of SME employees. Comparative studies between the findings of this study and those obtained from other firms in different sectors or through meta-analyses should also be considered in the future. This could lead to other thought-provoking insights that were not captured in the present study.

 

Conclusion

This study was conducted with the intention of investigating the impact of POS, CGD and EL on the PWB of SME employees in Gauteng province of South Africa. The study validates the assumption that factors like POS, CGD and EL are instrumental in stimulating PWB. Perceived organisational support was positively correlated with PWB in a significant way, and CGD was found to have a stronger impact on PWB. A robust relationship was also found on the nexus between EL and PWB.

The results support all the postulated hypotheses, and managerial implications of the findings, limitations of the study and suggested future research were discussed. This study contributes new knowledge to the existing body of mental health, industrial psychology and small business management literature in the African setting - a research context that is often neglected by academics.

 

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to say a special thank-you to the Guest Editor, Prof. Willie Tafadzwa Chinyamurindi, and all the anonymous reviewers for their invaluable comments and feedback. The authors are also thankful to the SME employees who responded to this study.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships which may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

Authors' contributions

E.T.M. initiated this research and was the project leader, concept developer, article structure designer, writer and data analyst. T.C. and N.W.M. reviewed the empirical literature section of the article and contributed to the writing of the research introduction and ramifications.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability statement

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the authors.

 

References

Ab Hamid, M. R., Sami, W., & Sidek, M.H.M. (2017). Discriminant validity assessment: Use of Fornell & Larcker criterion versus HTMT criterion. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 890, 1-5. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/890/1/012163        [ Links ]

Abor, J., & Quartey, P. (2010). Issues in SME development in Ghana and South Africa. International Research Journal of Finance and Economics, 39(6), 215-228.         [ Links ]

Aggarwal-Gupta, M., Vohra, N., & Bhatnagar, D. (2010). Perceived organizational support and organizational commitment: The mediational influence of psychological well-being. Journal of Business and Management, 16(2), 105-124.         [ Links ]

Ahearne, M., Mathieu, J., & Rapp, A. (2005). To empower or not to empower your sales force? An empirical examination of the influence of leadership empowerment behavior on customer satisfaction and performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90(5), 945-955. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.90.5.945        [ Links ]

Anderson, J.C., & Gerbing, D.W. (1988). Structural equation modeling in practice: A review and recommended two-step approach. Psychological Bulletin, 103(3), 411-423. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.103.3.411        [ Links ]

Andrews, M.C., Wilmington, N.C., & Kacmar, K.M. (2014). Easing employee strain: The interactive effects of empowerment and justice on the role overload-strain relationship. Journal of Behavioral & Applied Management, 15(2), 43-58.         [ Links ]

Arnold, J.A., Arad, S., Rhoades, J.A., & Drasgow, F. (2000). The empowering leadership questionnaire: The construction and validation of a new scale for measuring leader behaviors. Journal of Organizational Behaviour, 21(3), 249-269. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1379(200005)21:3%3C249::AID-JOB10%3E3.0.CO;2-#        [ Links ]

Arogundade, T.O., Arogundade, B.A., & Adebajo, O. (2015). The influence of perceived organizational support on job stress among selected public and private sector employees in Lagos state, Nigeria. Advances in Research, 3(6), 541-547. https://doi.org/10.9734/AIR/2015/14048        [ Links ]

Arthur, M.B., Khapova, S.N., & Wilderom, C.P.M. (2005). Career success in a boundaryless career world. Journal of Organizational Behaviour, 26, 177-202.         [ Links ]

Bagozzi, R., & Yi, Y. (2012). Specification, evaluation, and interpretation of structural equation models. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 40(1), 8-34. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-011-0278-x        [ Links ]

Bishop, W.A. (2018). A project management framework for small- and medium-sized entities: Accounting software implementation. Journal of Economic and Financial Sciences, 11(1), a183. https://doi.org/10.4102/jef.v11i1.183        [ Links ]

Blau, P.M. (1964). Exchange and power in social life. New York, NY: Wiley.         [ Links ]

Bollen, K.A. (1990). Overall fit in covariance structure models: Two types of sample size effects. Psychological Bulletin, 107(2), 256-259. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.107.2.256        [ Links ]

Browne, M.W., & Cudeck, R. (1993). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. In K.A. Bollen & J.S. Long (Eds.), Testing Structural Equation Models, (pp. 136-159). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.         [ Links ]

Budeli, M.C. (2012). Barriers and coping capacities experienced by people living with disability in the Nzhelele area of Limpopo province. Magister Artium thesis. Unpublished Thesis. University of Johannesburg.         [ Links ]

Caesens, G., Stinglhamber, F., & Ohana, M. (2016). Perceived organizational support and well-being: A weekly study. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 31(7), 1214-1230. https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-01-2016-0002        [ Links ]

Cant, M.C., Wiid, J.A., & Meyer, A. (2016). SMEs: Do they follow a shotgun or rifle approach when it comes to target marketing?. Problems and Perspectives in Management, 14(3), 504-511. https://doi.org/10.21511/ppm.14(3-2).2016.06        [ Links ]

Chaiprasit, K., & Santidhiraku, O. (2011). Happiness at work of employees in small and medium-sized enterprises, Thailand. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 25, 189-200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.10.540        [ Links ]

Chinomona, E. (2016). Organisational citizenship behaviour and employee perception of equity on organisational commitment, Corporate Ownership & Control, 14(1), 230-240. https://doi.org/10.22495/cocv14i1c1p6        [ Links ]

Chinomona, E., & Mofokeng, T.M. 2016. Impact of organisational politics on job dissatisfaction and turnover intention: An application of social exchange theory on employees working in Zimbabwean Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs). Journal of Applied Business Research, 32(3), 857-871. https://doi.org/10.19030/jabr.v32i3.9661        [ Links ]

Chinomona, R., & Chinomona, E. (2013). The influence of employees' perceptions of organizational politics on turnover intentions in Zimbabwe's SME sector. South African Journal of Business Management, 44(2), 15-24. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajbm.v44i2.156        [ Links ]

Chinomona, R., & Dhurup, M. (2014). The influence of the quality of working life on employee job satisfaction, job commitment and tenure intention in the SME sector in Zimbabwe. South African Journal of Economic and Management Sciences, 17(4), 363-378. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajems.v17i4.296        [ Links ]

Cocker, F., Martin, A., Scott, J., Venn, A., & Sanderson, K. (2013). Psychological distress, related work attendance, and productivity loss in small-to-medium enterprise owner/managers. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 10(10), 5062-5082. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph10105062        [ Links ]

Cohen-Charash, Y., & Mueller, J.S. (2007). Does perceived unfairness exacerbate or mitigate interpersonal counterproductive work behaviours related to envy? The Journal of Applied Psychology, 92(3), 666-680. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.92.3.666        [ Links ]

Conger, J.A., & Kanungo, R.N. (1988). The empowerment process: Integrating theory and practice. Academy of Management Review, 13(3), 471-482. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1988.4306983        [ Links ]

De Vos, A., & Soens, N. (2008). Protean attitude and career success: The mediating role of self-management. Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 73, 449-456. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2008.08.007        [ Links ]

Dean, E.E., Shogren, K.A., Wehmeyer, M.L., Almire, B., & Mellenbruch, R. (2019). Career design and development for adults with intellectual disability: A program evaluation. Advances in Neurodevelopmental Disorders, 3(2), 111-118. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41252-018-0080-6        [ Links ]

Desiree, B., & Kengne, S. (2016). Mixed-gender ownership and financial performance of SMEs in South Africa. International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 8(2), 117-136. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJGE-10-2014-0040        [ Links ]

Dickmann, M., & Cerdin, J.L. (2018). Exploring the development and transfer of career capital in an international governmental organization. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 29(15), 2253-2283. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2016.1239217        [ Links ]

Drost, E.A. (2011). Validity and reliability in social science research. Education Research and Perspectives, 38(1), 86-105.         [ Links ]

Edwards, S.D. (2005). A psychology of breathing methods. International Journal of Mental Health Promotion, 7(4), 28-34. https://doi.org/10.1080/14623730.2005.9721958        [ Links ]

Eisenberger, R., Huntington, R., Hutchison, S., & Sowa, D. (1986). Perceived organizational support. Journal of Applied Psychology, 71(3), 500-507. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.71.3.500        [ Links ]

Ensher, E.A., Thomas, C., & Murphy, S.E. (2001). Comparison of traditional, step-ahead, and peer mentoring on protégés' support, satisfaction, and perceptions of career success: A social exchange perspective. Journal of Business and Psychology, 15(3), 419-438. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1007870600459        [ Links ]

Farrington, S.M. (2017). Psychological well-being and perceived financial performance: An SME perspective. South African Journal of Business Management, 48(4), 47-56. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajbm.v48i4.42        [ Links ]

Fitzsimons, S., & Fuller, R. (2002). Empowerment and its implications for clinical practice in mental health: A review. Journal of Mental Health, 11(5), 481-499. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638230020023        [ Links ]

Fong, K.H., & Snape, E. (2015). Empowering leadership, psychological empowerment and employee outcomes: Testing a multi-level mediating model. British Journal of Management, 20, 126-138. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8551.12048        [ Links ]

Fraering, M., & Minor, M.S. (2006). Sense of community: An exploratory study of US consumers of financial services. International Journal of Bank Marketing, 24(5), 284-306. https://doi.org/10.1108/02652320610681738        [ Links ]

Gama, A.P.M., & Geraldes, H.S.A. (2012). Credit risk assessment and the impact of the New Basel Capital Accord on small and medium-sized enterprises: An empirical analysis. Management Research Review, 35(8), 727-749. https://doi.org/10.1108/01409171211247712        [ Links ]

Gigliotti, R., Vardaman, J., Marshall, D.R., & Gonzales, K. (2019). The role of perceived organizational support in individual change readiness. Journal of Change Management, 19(2), 86-100.         [ Links ]

Grzywacz, J.G., & Butler, A. (2005). The impact of job characteristics on work-to-family facilitation: Testing a theory and distinguishing a construct. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 10(2), 97-109. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.10.2.97        [ Links ]

Gwena, C., & Chinyamurindi, W.T. (2018). Effects of knowledge management on innovation capabilities amongst small and medium enterprises in South Africa: The case of Buffalo City Metropolitan Municipality. The Southern African Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business Management, 10(1), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajesbm.v10i1.177        [ Links ]

Gyu Park, J., Sik Kim, J., Yoon, S.W., & Joo, B.K. (2017). The effects of empowering leadership on psychological well-being and job engagement: The mediating role of psychological capital. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 38(3), 350-367. https://doi.org/10.1108/LODJ-08-2015-0182        [ Links ]

Hair, J.F., Babin, B.J., Anderson, R.E., & Tatham, R.L. (2010). Multivariate data analysis. A global perspective (7th edn.). London: Prentice-Hall.         [ Links ]

Han, S., Harold, C.M., & Cheong, M. (2019). Examining why employee proactive personalisty influences empowering leadership: The roles of cognition-and affect-based trust. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 92(2), 352-383. https://doi.org/10.1111/joop.12252        [ Links ]

Heckhausen, J. (1997). Developmental regulation across adulthood: Primary and secondary control of age-related challenges. Developmental Psychology, 33, 176-187. https://doi.org/10.1037//0012-1649.33.1.176.         [ Links ]

Heckhausen, J., & Schulz, R. (1993). Optimisation by selection and compensation: Balancing primary and secondary control in life span development. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 16, 287-303. https://doi.org/10.1177/016502549301600210.         [ Links ]

Heckhausen, J., Schulz, R., & Wrosch, C. (1998). Developmental regulation in adulthood: Optimization in primary and secondary control - A multiscale questionnaire (OPS-scales). Berlin: Max Planck Institute for Human Development        [ Links ]

Heller, F.A., & Wilpert, B. (1981). Competence and power in managerial decision making. Chichester, NY: John Wiley & Sons.         [ Links ]

Hernandez, R., Bassett, S.M., Boughton, S.W., Schuette, S.A., Shiu, E.W., & Moskowitz, J.T. (2018). Psychological well-being and physical health: Associations, mechanisms, and future directions. Emotion Review, 10(1), 18-29. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073917697824        [ Links ]

Hochwarter, W.A., Witt, L.A., Treadway, D.C., & Ferris, G.R. (2006). The interaction of social skill and organizational support on job performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91(2), 482-489. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.91.2.482        [ Links ]

Hu, L.T., & Bentler, P.M. (1995). Evaluating model fit. Structural equation modeling: Concepts, issues, and applications. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.         [ Links ]

Hu, S., Hood, M., & Creed, P.A. (2018). Career goal importance as a moderator in the relationship between career feedback and career-related stress. Journal of Career Development, 45(1), 3-18. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894845316667847        [ Links ]

Hulland, J. (1999). Use of partial least squares (PLS) in strategic management research: A review of four recent studies. Strategic Management Journal, 20(2), 195-204. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-0266(199902)20:2%3C195::AID-SMJ13%3E3.0.CO;2-7        [ Links ]

Ismail, Z., & Desmukh, S. (2012). Religiosity and psychological well-being. International Journal of Business and Social Science, 3(11), 20-28.         [ Links ]

Jones, N., Hill, C., & Henn, C. (2015). Personality and job satisfaction: Their role in work-related psychological well-being. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 25(4), 297-304. https://doi.org/10.1080/14330237.2015.1078086        [ Links ]

Joubert, S., & Jonker, C.S. (2009). Emotion work and well-being of client service workers within small and medium-sized enterprises. Management Dynamics: Journal of the Southern African Institute for Management Scientists, 18(2), 35-48.         [ Links ]

Kafetzopoulos, D., Gotzamani, K., & Gkana, V. (2015). Relationship between quality management, innovation and competitiveness. Evidence from Greek companies. Journal of Manufacturing Technology Management, 26(8), 1177-1200. https://doi.org/10.1108/JMTM-02-2015-0007        [ Links ]

Kanten, P., & Yesıltas, M. (2015). The effects of positive and negative perfectionism on work engagement, psychological well-being and emotional exhaustion. Procedia Economics and Finance, 23(2015): 1367-1375. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2212-5671(15)00522-5        [ Links ]

Kay, J.S., & Heckhausen, J. (2015). Motivational theory of lifespan development. In N.A. Pachana (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Geropsychology, (pp. 1-10). Singapore: Springer.         [ Links ]

Kearney, E., Shemla, M., van Knippenberg, D., & Scholz, F.A. (2019). A paradox perspective on the interactive effects of visionary and empowering leadership. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes. (issue in press). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2019.01.001.         [ Links ]

Kim, Y.K., Trail, G.T., Woo, B., & Zhang, J. (2011). Sports consumer-team relationship quality: Development and psychometric evaluation of a scale. International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship, 12(3), 57-74. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSMS-12-03-2011-B006        [ Links ]

Kline, R. (2011). Principles and practice of structural equation modelling (3rd edn.). New York, NY: Guilford Press.         [ Links ]

Koekemoer, E. (2014). An explorative study on factors influencing the career success of management employees. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 40(2), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v40i2.1204        [ Links ]

Konczak, L.J., Stelly, D.J., & Trusty, M.L. (2000). Defining and measuring empowering leader behaviors: Development of an upward feedback instrument. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 60(2), 301-313. https://doi.org/10.1177/00131640021970420        [ Links ]

Kurtessis, J.N., Eisenberger, R., Ford, M.T., Buffardi, L.C., Stewart, K.A., & Adis, C.S., (2017). Perceived organizational support: A meta-analytic evaluation of organizational support theory. Journal of Management, 43(6), 1854-1884. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206315575554        [ Links ]

Lee, M.C. (2009). Predicting and explaining the adoption of online trading: An empirical study in Taiwan. Decision Support Systems, 47(2), 133-142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dss.2009.02.003        [ Links ]

Leedy, P.D., & Ormrod, J.E. (2010). Practical Research: Planning and Design. Ohio: Merrill Prentice Hall.         [ Links ]

Liu, Z., Min, Q., Zhai, Q., & Smyth, R. (2016). Self-disclosure in Chinese micro-blogging: A social exchange theory perspective. Information & Management, 53, 53-63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.im.2015.08.006        [ Links ]

López, A., Sanderman, R., Ranchor, A.V., & Schroevers, M.J. (2018). Compassion for others and self-compassion: Levels, correlates, and relationship with psychological well-being. Mindfulness, 9(1), 325-331. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-017-0777-z        [ Links ]

Luo, X.L., Huang, L.L., Ma, J.H., & Wang, X. (2012). Mental health status and its influencing factors among workers in the small industrial enterprises in Guangzhou City. Occupation Health, 28, 2709-2711.         [ Links ]

Luo, Y.Y., He, J.M., Du, W.J., Zeng, W.F., Li, J.L., & Liu, Y.M. (2008). Survey on occupational hazards of 58 small industrial enterprises in Guangzhou city. Chinese Journal of Industrial Medicine, 21, 186-187.         [ Links ]

Mafini, C., & Loury-Okoumba, W.V. (2018). Extending green supply chain management activities to manufacturing small and medium enterprises in a developing economy. South African Journal of Economic and Management Sciences, 21(1), a1996. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajems.v21i1.1996        [ Links ]

Mafini, C., Pooe, D.R.I., & Loury-Okoumba, V.W. (2016). Interrogating antecedents to SME supplier performance in a developing country. Southern African Business Review, 20, 259-285. https://doi.org/10.25159/1998-8125/6053        [ Links ]

Mafundu, R.H., & Mafini, C. (2019). Internal constraints to business performance in black-owned small to medium enterprises in the construction industry. The Southern African Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business Management, 11(1), 10. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajesbm.v11i1.165        [ Links ]

Martin, A., Sanderson, K., Scott, J., & Brough, P. (2009). Promoting mental health in small-medium enterprises: An evaluation of the 'Business in Mind' program. BMC Public Health, 9(1), 239-247. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-9-239        [ Links ]

Maziriri, E.T., Mapuranga, M., & Madinga, N.W. (2018). Self-service banking and financial literacy as prognosticators of business performance among rural small and medium-sized enterprises in Zimbabwe. The Southern African Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business Management, 10(1), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajesbm.v10i1.180        [ Links ]

Molix, L., & Bettencourt, B. (2010). Predicting well-being among ethnic minorities: Psychological empowerment and group identity. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 40(3), 513-533. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2010.00585.x        [ Links ]

Morar, A., Venter, M., & Chuchu, T. (2015). To vote or not to vote: Marketing factors influencing the voting intention of university students in Johannesburg. Journal of Economics and Behavioral Studies, 7(6), 81-93.         [ Links ]

Moodley, S. (2002). Global market access in the Internet era: South Africa's wood furniture industry. Internet Research: Electronic Networking Applications and Policy, 12(1), 31-42.         [ Links ]

Nel, T. (2013). Investigating positive leadership, psychological empowerment, work engagement and satisfaction with life in a chemical industry. Magister Commercii in Industrial Psychology dissertation. School of Behavioural Sciences, North-West University, Vanderbijlpark, Vaal Triangle.         [ Links ]

Nunnally, J. (1978). Psychometric methods. New York: McGraw-Hill.         [ Links ]

Nunnally, J.C., & Bernstein, I.H. (1994). Psychological theory. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, pp. 131-147.         [ Links ]

Oyelana, A.A., & Adu, E.O. (2015). Small and medium enterprises (SMEs) as a means of creating employment and poverty reduction in Fort Beaufort, Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. Journal of Social Sciences, 45(1), 8-15. https://doi.org/10.1080/09718923.2015.11893481        [ Links ]

Panaccio, A., & Vandenberghe, C. (2009). Perceived organizational support, organizational commitment and wellbeing: A longitudinal study. Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 75(2), 224-236. https://doi.org/10.5465/ambpp.2009.44228413        [ Links ]

Parasuraman, S., Purohit, Y.S., Godshalk, V.M., & Beutell, N.J. (1996). Work and family variables, entrepreneurial career success and psychological well-being. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 48(3), 275-300. https://doi.org/10.1006/jvbe.1996.0025        [ Links ]

Peng, H.J., Long, Y., & Liang, H.J. (2012). The Tenth National Chinese Psychiatric Academic Conference. Nanjing City, China: Jiangsu Medical Association; Mental health status of the SMEs employees in the Pearl River Delta.         [ Links ]

Rahim, N.B., & Siti-Rohaida, M.Z. (2015). Protean career orientation and career goal development: Do they predict engineer's psychological well-being? Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 172, 270-277. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.01.364        [ Links ]

Ratanasiripong, P., Kaewboonchoo, O., Bell, E., Haigh, C., Susilowati, I., Isahak, M., … Low, W.Y. (2016). Depression, anxiety and stress among small and medium enterprise workers in Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, and Vietnam. International Journal of Occupational Health and Public Health Nursing, 3(2), 13-29.         [ Links ]

Reynolds, A., Fourie, H., & Erasmus, L. (2019). A generic balanced scorecard for small and medium manufacturing enterprises in South Africa. The Southern African Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business Management, 11(1), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajesbm.v11i1.193        [ Links ]

Robbins, S.P., Chatterjee, P., & Canda, E.R. (1998). Contemporary human behaviour theory: A critical Perspective for social Work. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.         [ Links ]

Roberts-Lombard, M., Mpinganjira, M., & Svensson, G. (2017). Antecedents and outcomes of satisfaction in buyer-supplier relationships in South Africa: A replication study. South African Journal of Economic and Management Sciences, 20(1), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajems.v20i1.1497        [ Links ]

Robertson, I.T., & Cooper, C.L. (2010). Full engagement: The integration of employee engagement and psychological well-being. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 31(4), 324-336. https://doi.org/10.1108/01437731011043348        [ Links ]

Robertson, P.J. (2013). The impact of career guidance on well-being outcomes. Unpublished PhD thesis. Edinburgh Napier University.         [ Links ]

Roemer, A., & Harris, C. (2018). Perceived organisational support and well-being: The role of psychological capital as a mediator. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 44(1), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v44i0.1539        [ Links ]

Ryan, R.M., & Deci, E.L. (2001). To be happy or to be self-fulfilled: A review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 141-166. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.141        [ Links ]

Ryff, C.D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(6), 1069-1081. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.57.6.1069        [ Links ]

Ryff, C.D., & Singer, B. (1998). The contours of positive human health. Psychological Inquiry, 9, 1-28. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327965pli0901_1        [ Links ]

Ryff's Scale Information Document. (2016). Obtained through personal contact with Carol Ryff. Unpublished internal information document. Madison, WI: UW-Madison Institute on Aging (IOA).         [ Links ]

Saks, A.M. (2006). Antecedents and consequences of employee engagement. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 21(7), 600-619. https://doi.org/10.1108/02683940610690169        [ Links ]

Schreiber, J.B., Nora, A., Stage, F.K., Barlow, E.A., & King, J. (2006). Reporting structural equation modeling and confirmatory factor analysis results: A review. The Journal of Educational Research, 99(6), 323-338.         [ Links ]

Schulz, R., & Heckhausen, J. (1996). A life span model of successful aging. The American Psychologist, 51, 702-714. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066X.51.7.702        [ Links ]

Shane, J., & Heckhausen, J. (2019). 'Motivational theory of lifespan development'. In B.B. Baltes, C.W. Rudolph & H. Zacher (Eds.), In work across the lifespan, (pp. 111-134). London: Academic Press.         [ Links ]

Shantz, A., Alfes, K., & Latham, G.P. (2016). The buffering effect of perceived organizational support on the relationship between work engagement and behavioral outcomes. Human Resource Mmanagement, 55(1), 25-38. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrm.21653        [ Links ]

Sierra, J.J., & McQuitty, S. (2005). Service providers and customers: Social exchange theory and service loyalty. Journal of Services Marketing, 19(6), 392-400. https://doi.org/10.1108/08876040510620166        [ Links ]

Sitharam, S., & Hoque, M. (2016). Factors affecting the performance of small and medium enterprises in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Problems and perspectives in Management, 14(2), 277-288. https://doi.org/10.21511/ppm.14(2-2).2016.03        [ Links ]

Struwig, F.M.W., & Lillah, R. (2017). South African small and medium-sized enterprise owners' intention to implement an environmental management system. The Southern African Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business Management, 9(1), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajesbm.v9i1.104        [ Links ]

Su, L., & Swanson, S.R. (2019). Perceived corporate social responsibility's impact on the well-being and supportive green behaviors of hotel employees: The mediating role of the employee-corporate relationship. Tourism Management, 72, 437-450. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2019.01.009        [ Links ]

Sugalski, T., & Greenhaus, J.H. (1986). Career exploration and goal setting among managerial employees. Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 29(1), 102-114. https://doi.org/10.1016/0001-8791(86)90033-3        [ Links ]

Thomas, K.W., & Velthouse, B.A. (1990). Cognitive elements of empowerment: An 'interpretive' model of intrinsic task motivation. Academy of Management Review, 15(4), 666-681. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1990.4310926        [ Links ]

Tremblay, M., Gaudet, M.C., & Vandenberghe, C. (2019). The role of group-level perceived organizational support and collective affective commitment in the relationship between leaders' directive and supportive behaviors and group-level helping behaviors. Personnel Review, 48(2), 417-437.         [ Links ]

Uy, M.A., Foo, M., & Song, Z. (2013). Joint effects of prior start-up experience and coping strategies on entrepreneurs' psychological well-being. Journal of Business Venturing, 28(5), 583-597. https://doi.org/10.1108/PR-06-2017-0172        [ Links ]

Van der Walt, F. (2018). Workplace spirituality, work engagement and thriving at work. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 44(1), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v44i0.1457        [ Links ]

Vardaman, J.M., Amism J.M., Dyson, B.P., Wright, P.M., & Randolph R. (2012). Interpreting change as controllable: The role of network centrality and self-efficacy. Human Relations, 65(7), 835-859.         [ Links ]

Vecchio, R.P., Justin, J.E. & Pearce, C.L. (2010). Empowering leadership: An examination of mediating mechanisms within a hierarchical structure. The Leadership Quarterly, 21(3), 530-542. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2010.03.014        [ Links ]

Ward, C., & Berno, T. (2011). Beyond social exchange theory: Attitudes toward tourists. Annals of Tourism Research, 38(4), 1556-1569. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2011.02.005        [ Links ]

West, S.G., Taylor, A.B., & Wu, W. (2012). Model fit and model selection in structural equation modelling. In R.H. Hoyle (ed.), Handbook of structural equation modeling (pp. 209-231). New York: Guilford Press.         [ Links ]

Winefield, H.R., Gill, T.F., Taylor, A.W., & Pilkington, R.M. (2012). Psychological well-being and psychological distress: Is it necessary to measure both? Psychology of Well-Being, 2(3), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1186/2211-1522-2-3        [ Links ]

Witt, L.A., & Carlson, D.S. (2006). The work-family interface and job performance: Moderating effects of conscientiousness and perceived organizational support. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 11(4), 343-357. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.11.4.343        [ Links ]

Wolmarans, H.P., & Meintjes, Q. (2015). Financial management practices in successful Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs). The Southern African Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business Management, 7(1), 88-116. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajesbm.v7i1.8        [ Links ]

Worley, J.A., Fuqua, D.R., & Hellman, C.M. (2009). The survey of perceived organizational support: Which measure should we use? SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 35(1), 112-116. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v35i1.754        [ Links ]

Wright, T.A., & Cropanzano, R. (2000). Psychological well-being and job satisfaction as predictors of job performance. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5(1), 84-94. https://doi.org/10.1037//1076-8998.5.1.84        [ Links ]

Yun, C.J., Lin, C.C., Tung, Y.C., & Ko, Y.T. (2007). Associations of organizational justice and ingratiation with organizational citizenship behaviour: The beneficiary perspective. Social Behaviour and Personality: an International Journal, 36(3), 289-302.         [ Links ]

Zeng, Z., Guo, Y., Lu, L., Han, L., Chen, W., & Ling, L. (2014). Mental health status and work environment among workers in small-and medium-sized enterprises in Guangdong, China-a cross-sectional survey. BMC Public Health, 14(1), 1162. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-14-1162        [ Links ]

Zikic, J., & Klehe, U.C. (2006). Job loss as a blessing in disguise: The role of career exploration and career planning in predicting reemployment quality. Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 69, 391-409. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2006.05.007        [ Links ]

Žižek, S.Š., Treven, S., & Čančer, V. (2015). Employees in Slovenia and their psychological well-being based on Ryff's model of psychological well-being. Social Indicators Research, 121(2), 483-502. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-014-0645-3        [ Links ]

 

 

Correspondence:
Eugine Maziriri
maziririet@ufs.ac.za

Received: 30 Apr. 2019
Accepted: 01 July 2019
Published: 10 Oct. 2019

^rND^sAb Hamid^nM. R.^rND^sSami^nW.^rND^sSidek^nM.H.M.^rND^sAbor^nJ.^rND^sQuartey^nP.^rND^sAggarwal-Gupta^nM.^rND^sVohra^nN.^rND^sBhatnagar^nD.^rND^sAhearne^nM.^rND^sMathieu^nJ.^rND^sRapp^nA.^rND^sAnderson^nJ.C.^rND^sGerbing^nD.W.^rND^sAndrews^nM.C.^rND^sWilmington^nN.C.^rND^sKacmar^nK.M.^rND^sArnold^nJ.A.^rND^sArad^nS.^rND^sRhoades^nJ.A.^rND^sDrasgow^nF.^rND^sArogundade^nT.O.^rND^sArogundade^nB.A.^rND^sAdebajo^nO.^rND^sArthur^nM.B.^rND^sKhapova^nS.N.^rND^sWilderom^nC.P.M.^rND^sBagozzi^nR.^rND^sYi^nY.^rND^sBishop^nW.A.^rND^sBollen^nK.A.^rND^sBrowne^nM.W.^rND^sCudeck^nR.^rND^sCaesens^nG.^rND^sStinglhamber^nF.^rND^sOhana^nM.^rND^sCant^nM.C.^rND^sWiid^nJ.A.^rND^sMeyer^nA.^rND^sChaiprasit^nK.^rND^sSantidhiraku^nO.^rND^sChinomona^nE.^rND^sChinomona^nE.^rND^sMofokeng^nT.M.^rND^sChinomona^nR.^rND^sChinomona^nE.^rND^sChinomona^nR.^rND^sDhurup^nM.^rND^sCocker^nF.^rND^sMartin^nA.^rND^sScott^nJ.^rND^sVenn^nA.^rND^sSanderson^nK.^rND^sCohen-Charash^nY.^rND^sMueller^nJ.S.^rND^sConger^nJ.A.^rND^sKanungo^nR.N.^rND^sDe Vos^nA.^rND^sSoens^nN.^rND^sDean^nE.E.^rND^sShogren^nK.A.^rND^sWehmeyer^nM.L.^rND^sAlmire^nB.^rND^sMellenbruch^nR.^rND^sDesiree^nB.^rND^sKengne^nS.^rND^sDickmann^nM.^rND^sCerdin^nJ.L.^rND^sDrost^nE.A.^rND^sEdwards^nS.D.^rND^sEisenberger^nR.^rND^sHuntington^nR.^rND^sHutchison^nS.^rND^sSowa^nD.^rND^sEnsher^nE.A.^rND^sThomas^nC.^rND^sMurphy^nS.E.^rND^sFarrington^nS.M.^rND^sFitzsimons^nS.^rND^sFuller^nR.^rND^sFong^nK.H.^rND^sSnape^nE.^rND^sFraering^nM.^rND^sMinor^nM.S.^rND^sGama^nA.P.M.^rND^sGeraldes^nH.S.A.^rND^sGigliotti^nR.^rND^sVardaman^nJ.^rND^sMarshall^nD.R.^rND^sGonzales^nK.^rND^sGrzywacz^nJ.G.^rND^sButler^nA.^rND^sGwena^nC.^rND^sChinyamurindi^nW.T.^rND^sGyu Park^nJ.^rND^sSik Kim^nJ.^rND^sYoon^nS.W.^rND^sJoo^nB.K.^rND^sHan^nS.^rND^sHarold^nC.M.^rND^sCheong^nM.^rND^sHeckhausen^nJ.^rND^sHeckhausen^nJ.^rND^sSchulz^nR.^rND^sHernandez^nR.^rND^sBassett^nS.M.^rND^sBoughton^nS.W.^rND^sSchuette^nS.A.^rND^sShiu^nE.W.^rND^sMoskowitz^nJ.T.^rND^sHochwarter^nW.A.^rND^sWitt^nL.A.^rND^sTreadway^nD.C.^rND^sFerris^nG.R.^rND^sHu^nS.^rND^sHood^nM.^rND^sCreed^nP.A.^rND^sHulland^nJ.^rND^sIsmail^nZ.^rND^sDesmukh^nS.^rND^sJones^nN.^rND^sHill^nC.^rND^sHenn^nC.^rND^sJoubert^nS.^rND^sJonker^nC.S.^rND^sKafetzopoulos^nD.^rND^sGotzamani^nK.^rND^sGkana^nV.^rND^sKanten^nP.^rND^sYesıltas^nM.^rND^sKay^nJ.S.^rND^sHeckhausen^nJ.^rND^sKim^nY.K.^rND^sTrail^nG.T.^rND^sWoo^nB.^rND^sZhang^nJ.^rND^sKoekemoer^nE.^rND^sKonczak^nL.J.^rND^sStelly^nD.J.^rND^sTrusty^nM.L.^rND^sKurtessis^nJ.N.^rND^sEisenberger^nR.^rND^sFord^nM.T.^rND^sBuffardi^nL.C.^rND^sStewart^nK.A.^rND^sAdis^nC.S.^rND^sLee^nM.C.^rND^sLiu^nZ.^rND^sMin^nQ.^rND^sZhai^nQ.^rND^sSmyth^nR.^rND^sLópez^nA.^rND^sSanderman^nR.^rND^sRanchor^nA.V.^rND^sSchroevers^nM.J.^rND^sLuo^nX.L.^rND^sHuang^nL.L.^rND^sMa^nJ.H.^rND^sWang^nX.^rND^sLuo^nY.Y.^rND^sHe^nJ.M.^rND^sDu^nW.J.^rND^sZeng^nW.F.^rND^sLi^nJ.L.^rND^sLiu^nY.M.^rND^sMafini^nC.^rND^sLoury-Okoumba^nW.V.^rND^sMafini^nC.^rND^sPooe^nD.R.I.^rND^sLoury-Okoumba^nV.W.^rND^sMafundu^nR.H.^rND^sMafini^nC.^rND^sMartin^nA.^rND^sSanderson^nK.^rND^sScott^nJ.^rND^sBrough^nP.^rND^sMaziriri^nE.T.^rND^sMapuranga^nM.^rND^sMadinga^nN.W.^rND^sMolix^nL.^rND^sBettencourt^nB.^rND^sMorar^nA.^rND^sVenter^nM.^rND^sChuchu^nT.^rND^sMoodley^nS.^rND^sOyelana^nA.A.^rND^sAdu^nE.O.^rND^sPanaccio^nA.^rND^sVandenberghe^nC.^rND^sParasuraman^nS.^rND^sPurohit^nY.S.^rND^sGodshalk^nV.M.^rND^sBeutell^nN.J.^rND^sRahim^nN.B.^rND^sSiti-Rohaida^nM.Z.^rND^sRatanasiripong^nP.^rND^sKaewboonchoo^nO.^rND^sBell^nE.^rND^sHaigh^nC.^rND^sSusilowati^nI.^rND^sIsahak^nM.^rND^s… Low^nW.Y.^rND^sReynolds^nA.^rND^sFourie^nH.^rND^sErasmus^nL.^rND^sRoberts-Lombard^nM.^rND^sMpinganjira^nM.^rND^sSvensson^nG.^rND^sRobertson^nI.T.^rND^sCooper^nC.L.^rND^sRoemer^nA.^rND^sHarris^nC.^rND^sRyan^nR.M.^rND^sDeci^nE.L.^rND^sRyff^nC.D.^rND^sRyff^nC.D.^rND^sSinger^nB.^rND^sSaks^nA.M.^rND^sSchreiber^nJ.B.^rND^sNora^nA.^rND^sStage^nF.K.^rND^sBarlow^nE.A.^rND^sKing^nJ.^rND^sSchulz^nR.^rND^sHeckhausen^nJ.^rND^sShane^nJ.^rND^sHeckhausen^nJ.^rND^sShantz^nA.^rND^sAlfes^nK.^rND^sLatham^nG.P.^rND^sSierra^nJ.J.^rND^sMcQuitty^nS.^rND^sSitharam^nS.^rND^sHoque^nM.^rND^sStruwig^nF.M.W.^rND^sLillah^nR.^rND^sSu^nL.^rND^sSwanson^nS.R.^rND^sSugalski^nT.^rND^sGreenhaus^nJ.H.^rND^sThomas^nK.W.^rND^sVelthouse^nB.A.^rND^sTremblay^nM.^rND^sGaudet^nM.C.^rND^sVandenberghe^nC.^rND^sUy^nM.A.^rND^sFoo^nM.^rND^sSong^nZ.^rND^sVan der Walt^nF.^rND^sVardaman^nJ.M.^rND^sAmism^nJ.M.^rND^sDyson^nB.P.^rND^sWright^nP.M.^rND^sRandolph^nR.^rND^sVecchio^nR.P.^rND^sJustin^nJ.E.^rND^sPearce^nC.L.^rND^sWard^nC.^rND^sBerno^nT.^rND^sWest^nS.G.^rND^sTaylor^nA.B.^rND^sWu^nW.^rND^sWinefield^nH.R.^rND^sGill^nT.F.^rND^sTaylor^nA.W.^rND^sPilkington^nR.M.^rND^sWitt^nL.A.^rND^sCarlson^nD.S.^rND^sWolmarans^nH.P.^rND^sMeintjes^nQ.^rND^sWorley^nJ.A.^rND^sFuqua^nD.R.^rND^sHellman^nC.M.^rND^sWright^nT.A.^rND^sCropanzano^nR.^rND^sYun^nC.J.^rND^sLin^nC.C.^rND^sTung^nY.C.^rND^sKo^nY.T.^rND^sZeng^nZ.^rND^sGuo^nY.^rND^sLu^nL.^rND^sHan^nL.^rND^sChen^nW.^rND^sLing^nL.^rND^sZikic^nJ.^rND^sKlehe^nU.C.^rND^sŽižek^nS.Š.^rND^sTreven^nS.^rND^sČančer^nV.^rND^1A01^nKevin R.^sMurphy^rND^1A01^nKevin R.^sMurphy^rND^1A01^nKevin R^sMurphy

REBUTTAL

 

Reducing our dependence on null hypothesis testing: A key to enhance the reproducibility and credibility of our science

 

 

Kevin R. Murphy

Department of Work and Employment Studies, Kemmy Business School, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland

Correspondence

 

 

---

ABSTRACT

PROBLEMIFICATION: Over-reliance on null hypothesis significance testing (NHST) is one of the most important causes of the emerging crisis over the credibility and reproducibility of our science
IMPLICATIONS: Most studies in the behavioural and social sciences have low levels of statistical power. Because 'significant' results are often required, but often difficult to produce, the temptation to engage in questionable research practices that will produce these results is immense
PURPOSE: Methodologists have been trying for decades to convince researchers, reviewers and editors that significance tests are neither informative nor useful. A recent set of articles published in top journals and endorsed by hundreds of scientists around the world seem to provide a fresh impetus for overturning the practice of using NHST as the primary, and sometimes sole basis for evaluating research results
RECOMMENDATIONS: Authors, reviewers and journal editors are asked to change long-engrained habits and realise that 'statistically significant' says more about the design of one's study than about the importance of one's results. They are urged to embrace the ATOM principle in evaluating research results, that is, accept that there will always be uncertainty, and be thoughtful, open and modest in evaluating what the data mean

Keywords: Significance Testing; Confidence Intervals; Questionable Research Practices; Null Hypothesis.

---

 

 

Introduction

There are many indications that several sciences, including psychology, have a reproducibility crisis in their hands (Ioannidis, 2005; McNutt, 2014; Pashler & Wagenmakers, 2012). Peer-reviewed research that is published in highly reputable journals has often failed to replicate; papers that attempt to replicate published research very often report smaller and non-significant effects (Open Science Collaboration, 2015). This persistent failure to replicate published findings calls the credibility and meaning of those findings and, by extension, of other published research into question. Efendic and Van Zyl (2019) provide an excellent summary of the challenges this crisis poses to Industrial and Organizational Psychology, and they outline several thoughtful responses this journal might make to increase the robustness and credibility of the research published in the South African Journal of Industrial Psychology. The changes they propose will not be easy to implement, in part because they require authors, reviewers and editors to change their perspectives and their behaviours. However, there are reasons to be optimistic about one of the major changes the authors propose.

Many of the problems with reproducibility can be traced to our field's long reliance on Null Hypothesis Significance Testing (NHST). Efendic and Van Zyl (2019) documented two of the most problematic aspects of the use of statistical tests of the null hypothesis in making decisions about study results. These were (1) the inadequate power of most studies and (2) the strong temptation to engage in a range of questionable research practices (ranging from p fishing [i.e. trying multiple statistical tests to find one in which p < 0.05] to outright fabrication [Banks, Rogelberg, Woznyj, Landis, & Rupp, 2016; Neuroskeptic, 2012]) in search of a 'significant' (p < 0.05) result. While many of the changes proposed by Efendic and Van Zyl (2019) could help to address some of the problems caused by an over-reliance on NHST, I do not think they go far enough. As long as the pursuit of p < 0.05 remains central to our evaluation of research results, I do not think we will make a meaningful dent in addressing the reproducibility crisis. Fortunately, there are reasons to believe that the long reign of NHST is coming to an end.

 

The slow demise of null hypothesis significance testing

For decades, methodologists (e.g. Cohen, 1962, 1988, 1994; Fidler, Thomason, Cumming, Finch, & Leeman, 2004; Meehl, 1978; Murphy, Myors, & Wolach, 2014; Schmidt, 1996; Sterling, 1959) have been warning the research community about the perils of relying on NHST as a method for evaluating research results. Despite decades of criticism, null hypothesis tests are still widely used for evaluating the results of research. For example, Bakker, Van Dijk and Wicherst (2012) cited several reviews that together suggest that over 95% of papers in psychology use null hypothesis testing as one criterion for evaluating results. Authors who find that their results are not significant may decide to abandon that hypothesis or to not submit their work (self-censorship); reviewers and editors who see that the principal results of a study are not statistically significant may decide not to accept that study for publication. Several studies (e.g. Bakker et al., 2012; Ioannidis, 2005) have modelled the effects of reliance on null hypothesis testing to show how it biases the published literature and how it contributes to the reproducibility crisis in the social sciences.

There are many critiques of NHST, but in my view, two are paramount. Firstly, NHST tests a hypothesis that very few people believe to be credible - the hypothesis that treatments have no effect whatsoever or that variables are completely uncorrelated (Cohen, 1994). It is indeed plausible that treatments might have a very small effect (perhaps so small that they can safely be ignored) or that the correlations between two variables might be quite small, but the hypothesis that they are precisely zero is not a credible one (Murphy et al., 2014). The null hypothesis is a point hypothesis that divides the set of possible outcomes into two zones, that is, either that a specific hypothesis about the value of some statistic is true (i.e. ρ is precisely equal to zero) or the entire range of alternatives (ρ is precisely equal to any value other than zero, to the millionth decimal place) contains the truth. It is well known that the likelihood of any point hypothesis being precisely true is exceedingly small, and that it does not matter whether a value of zero or some other specific value for a statistic is assumed. Because a point hypothesis is infinitely precise and the range of alternatives to a point hypothesis is infinitely large, the likelihood that any point hypothesis - including the classic null that the effect is precisely zero - is true will tend to approach zero. This undermines the whole architecture of NHST. For example, if H₀ is never, or essentially never true, it is impossible to make a type I error and all of the statistical tools designed to minimise these errors (e.g. stringent alpha levels, Bonferroni corrections) become meaningless. Several alternate approaches have been developed to test the more credible hypothesis, such as the hypothesis that the effects of treatments fall within a range of values that are all trivially small (Murphy et al., 2014; Rouanet, 1996; Serlin & Lapsley, 1985, 1993), but their uptake has been limited.

Secondly, the outcomes of NHST are routinely misinterpreted. If you fail to reject H₀, you are likely to conclude that your treatments did not work or that the variables you are interested in are not related to one another. That is, you are very likely to interpret NHST as telling you something about your results. This is wrong (Murphy et al., 2014). The failure to reject H₀ tells you something about the design of your study, in particular, that you did not build a study with sufficient statistical power. One of the lessons learnt by scanning power tables is that given a sufficiently large sample, you can reject virtually any null hypothesis, no matter what treatments or variables you are studying (Cohen, 1988; Murphy et al., 2014). Conversely, if your sample is small enough, you can be virtually certain that you will not reject H₀, regardless of the treatments or variables being studied. Null hypothesis significance testing is essentially an assessment of whether or not your study was powerful enough to detect whatever effect you are studying, and it is very little else.

Recent developments in the scientific literature have finally given some reason for optimism that our over-reliance on NHST is coming to an end. A series of recent articles (Amrhein, Greenland, & McShane, 2019; Wasserstein & Lazar, 2016; Wasserstein, Schirm, & Lazar, 2019) in high-profile journals (e.g. Nature and American Statistician) have accomplished three things that decades of research papers and chapters of previous critics of NHST had not been able to accomplish. Firstly, they have described in clear and largely non-technical language the deficiencies of NHST as a method for making decisions about the meaning of results. Secondly, they have gathered the support of hundreds of signatories (there were over 800 signatories from over 50 countries within a week of the distribution of Amrhein et al.'s 2019 draft) to statements calling for an end to mechanical reliance on significance testing for evaluating findings. Thirdly, and most importantly, they (particularly Wasserstein et al., 2019) have presented constructive alternatives. I believe this recent wave of papers presents an opportunity for researchers in virtually all disciplines to improve the methods they apply to make sense of data and to advance the cause of reproducible science.

 

A call for action

I therefore urge the South African Journal of Industrial Psychology to adopt the core principles articulated by Wasserstein et al. (2019). Firstly, it is not sufficient to simply say 'don't use significance testing'; it is critical to help researchers and readers to understand and empower them to utilise the available alternatives. For example, Serlin and Lapsley (1985, 1993) developed methods for assessing whether or not the hypothesis of no effect was a good enough approximation of reality to serve as a working description of one's result. Rather than testing whether the effect was precisely zero, their methods allowed one to evaluate the possibility that the effects were close enough to zero to be treated as such. Building on these concepts, Murphy et al. (2014) showed how the entire body of methods subsumed under the general linear model (e.g. correlation, t-tests, Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) and Multiple Regression) could be adapted to test the hypothesis that the effects of interventions fell within a range of values that were all so trivially small that we could conclude with confidence that whatever effect interventions might have, they were too small to care about. Alternatively, one might move away from the binary (significant vs. non-significant) classification systems these methods imply to simply describe the range of plausible valuables for key parameters, using tools such as confidence intervals (Fidler et al., 2004). I will return to this suggestion below.

Secondly, it is important to change the way in which we view and report our results. In essence, we need to change our collective 'scientific language'. Readers often appear to interpret the phrase 'this result is statistically significant' to mean 'this result is important'. This has to stop. Thirdly, accept uncertainty. We sometimes compute confidence intervals or some similar measure, but we do this mainly to see whether or not our confidence interval includes zero (or whatever value is used to define a particular point hypothesis). It is much better to be aware of, and to understand, the implications of uncertainty in estimating population statistics from samples and to keep this uncertainty in mind when interpreting the results. Fourthly, be thoughtful in the design, analysis and interpretation of studies. In particular, we should use statistics and data analysis as a tool for helping us understand what the data mean. The use of NHST as a tool for making binary decisions (significant vs. non-significant) discourages thoughtful analysis; as we move away from a mechanical procedure for evaluating data, we will be forced to move towards methods of data analysis that compel us to think about what the data mean. Fifthly, be open. If we get rid of a simple widely known (but not widely understood) procedure for making sense of data, we are going to have to fall back on informed judgement for evaluating results. That is, we will have to present and defend criteria for evaluating data rather than falling back on a familiar but ultimately meaningless procedure such as NHST.

Finally, Wasserstein et al. (2019) encourage scientists to be open and modest in the interpretation of their data. They advocate that we operate using the ATOM principle, that is, accept that there will always be uncertainty, and be thoughtful, open and modest. This strikes me as a very useful piece of advice for the South African Journal of Industrial Psychology, its contributing authors and incoming editorial board.

 

Conclusion

Will reducing our reliance on NHST solve all of the problems that have come to light in recent research on the credibility and reproducibility of our results? Certainly not! However, it is a good start towards enhancing the credibility, reproducibility and meaning of the research published in our journals. Does this mean that we should abandon significance tests altogether? Probably not; this would be a step too far for many of the journal's readers, authors, editors and reviewers. However, I believe that it is a realistic step to require all studies to start with a realistic power analysis and to report the results of this analysis. This would have two salutatory effects. Firstly, it would allow authors to think concretely about what sort of effects they expect to observe and to justify their assumptions about effect size. Secondly, it would discourage authors from attempting to use small sample studies to address important problems. Unless the effect you expect to observe (and can articulate a realistic basis for this expectation) is quite large, power analyses will encourage you to collect larger sample than you might otherwise settle for. Larger samples would enhance the stability and reproducibility of the results reported in our journals. Serious attention to statistical power would also render most NHST tests essentially moot. The whole point of performing a power analysis before you collect data is to help you design a study where you will easily reject the null hypothesis H₀.

Finally, a wholehearted adoption of power analysis will help to wean authors away from dependence on significance tests. If these tests become a foregone conclusion, their apparent value as evidence is likely to decline. This will not totally solve the problem of creating credible and reproducible science, but it strikes me as the best first step.

 

Acknowledgements

Competing interests

The author declares that they have no financial or personal relationships which may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

Author's contributions

K.R.M. is the sole contributor to this article.

Ethical considerations

I confirm that ethical clearance was not needed or required for the study.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability statement

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the author.

 

References

Amrhein, V., Greenland, S., & McShane, B. (2019). Scientists rise up against statistical significance. Nature, 567, 305-307. https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-019-00857-9        [ Links ]

Bakker, M., Van Dijk, A., & Wicherts, J.M. (2012). The rules of the game called psychological science. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7, 534-554. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691612459060        [ Links ]

Banks, G.C., Rogelberg, S.G., Woznyj, H.M., Landis, R.S., & Rupp, D.E. (2016). Editorial: Evidence on questionable research practices: The good, the bad and the ugly. Journal of Business and Psychology, 31, 323-338. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-016-9456-7        [ Links ]

Cohen, J. (1962). The statistical power of abnormal-social psychological research: A review. Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology, 65, 145-153. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0045186        [ Links ]

Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd edn.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.         [ Links ]

Cohen, J. (1994). The earth is round (p < .05). American Psychologist, 49, 997-1003. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.49.12.997        [ Links ]

Efendic, E., & Van Zyl, L.E. (2019). On reproducibility and replicability: Arguing for open science practices and methodological improvements at the South African Journal of Industrial Psychology. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 45(0), a1607. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v45i0.1607        [ Links ]

Fidler, F., Thomason, N., Cumming, G., Finch, S., & Leeman, J. (2004). Editors can lead researchers to confidence intervals, but can't make them think. Psychological Science, 15, 119-126. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.01502008.x        [ Links ]

Ioannidis, J.P. (2005). Why most published research findings are false. PLoS Medical, 2, e124. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.0020124        [ Links ]

McNutt, M. (2014). Reproducibility. Science, 343, 229. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1250475        [ Links ]

Meehl, P. (1978). Theoretical risks and tabular asterisks: Sir Karl, Sir Ronald, and the slow progress of psychology. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 46, 806-834. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.46.4.806        [ Links ]

Murphy, K., Myors, B., & Wolach, A. (2014). Statistical power analysis: A simple and general model for traditional and modern hypothesis tests (4th edn.). New York: Tayor & Francis.         [ Links ]

Neuroskeptic. (2012). The nine circles of scientific hell. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7, 643-644. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691612459519        [ Links ]

Open Science Collaboration. (2015). Estimating the reproducibility of psychological science. Science, 349, aac4716. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aac4716        [ Links ]

Pashler, H., & Wagenmakers, E.J. (2012). Editors' introduction to the special section on replicability in psychological science: A crisis of confidence? Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7, 528-530. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691612465253        [ Links ]

Rouanet, H. (1996). Bayesian methods for assessing the importance of effects. Psychological Bulletin, 119, 149-158. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.119.1.149        [ Links ]

Schmidt, F.L. (1996). Statistical significance testing and cumulative knowledge in psychology: Implications for training of researchers. Psychological Methods, 1, 115-129. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.1.2.115        [ Links ]

Serlin, R.A., & Lapsley, D.K. (1985). Rationality in psychological research: The good-enough principle. American Psychologist, 40, 73-83. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.40.1.73        [ Links ]

Serlin, R.A., & Lapsley, D.K. (1993). Rational appraisal of psychological research and the good-enough principle. In G. Keren & C. Lewis (Eds.), A handbook for data analysis in the behavioral sciences: Methodological issues (pp. 199-228). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.         [ Links ]

Sterling, T.D. (1959). Publication decisions and their possible effects on inferences drawn from tests of significance - Or vice versa. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 54, 30-34. https://doi.org/10.1080/01621459.1959.10501497        [ Links ]

Wasserstein, R.L., & Lazar, N.A. (2016). The ASA's statement on p-values: Context, process, and purpose, The American Statistician, 70(2), 129-133. https://doi.org/10.1080/00031305.2016.1154108        [ Links ]

Wasserstein, R.L., Schirm, A.L., & Lazar, N.A. (2019). Moving to a world beyond 'p < 0.05'. The American Statistician, 73(sup1), 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1080/00031305.2019.1583913        [ Links ]

 

 

Correspondence:
Kevin Murphy
Kevin.R.Murphy@ul.ie

Received: 16 July 2019
Accepted: 27 Aug. 2019
Published: 05 Nov. 2019

^rND^sAmrhein^nV.^rND^sGreenland^nS.^rND^sMcShane^nB.^rND^sBakker^nM.^rND^sVan Dijk^nA.^rND^sWicherts^nJ.M.^rND^sBanks^nG.C.^rND^sRogelberg^nS.G.^rND^sWoznyj^nH.M.^rND^sLandis^nR.S.^rND^sRupp^nD.E.^rND^sCohen^nJ.^rND^sCohen^nJ.^rND^sEfendic^nE.^rND^sVan Zyl^nL.E.^rND^sFidler^nF.^rND^sThomason^nN.^rND^sCumming^nG.^rND^sFinch^nS.^rND^sLeeman^nJ.^rND^sIoannidis^nJ.P.^rND^sMcNutt^nM.^rND^sMeehl^nP.^rND^sPashler^nH.^rND^sWagenmakers^nE.J.^rND^sRouanet^nH.^rND^sSchmidt^nF.L.^rND^sSerlin^nR.A.^rND^sLapsley^nD.K.^rND^sSerlin^nR.A.^rND^sLapsley^nD.K.^rND^sSterling^nT.D.^rND^sWasserstein^nR.L.^rND^sLazar^nN.A.^rND^sWasserstein^nR.L.^rND^sSchirm^nA.L.^rND^sLazar^nN.A.^rND^1A01^nNatasha^sMaximo^rND^1A01^nMarius W.^sStander^rND^1A01^nLynelle^sCoxen^rND^1A01^nNatasha^sMaximo^rND^1A01^nMarius W.^sStander^rND^1A01^nLynelle^sCoxen^rND^1A01^nNatasha^sMaximo^rND^1A01^nMarius W^sStander^rND^1A01^nLynelle^sCoxen

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Authentic leadership and work engagement: The indirect effects of psychological safety and trust in supervisors

 

 

Natasha Maximo; Marius W. Stander; Lynelle Coxen

Optentia Research Focus Area, North-West University, Vanderbijlpark, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

---

ABSTRACT

ORIENTATION: The orientation of this study was towards authentic leadership and its influence on psychological safety, trust in supervisors and work engagement.
RESEARCH PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of authentic leadership on trust in supervisors, psychological safety and work engagement. Another aim was to determine whether trust in supervisors and psychological safety had an indirect effect on the relationship between authentic leadership and work engagement. An additional objective was to determine if authentic leadership indirectly influenced psychological safety through trust in supervisors.
MOTIVATION FOR THE STUDY: Globally, businesses are faced with many challenges which may be resolved if leaders are encouraged to be more authentic and employees more engaged. In this study, investigating the role of trust in supervisors and psychological safety on the relationship between authentic leadership and work engagement is emphasised.
RESEARCH DESIGN, APPROACH AND METHOD: This study was quantitative in nature and used a cross-sectional survey design. A sample of 244 employees within the South African mining industry completed the Authentic Leadership Inventory, Utrecht Work Engagement Scale, Workplace Trust Survey and Psychological Safety Questionnaire.
MAIN FINDINGS: The results indicated that authentic leadership is a significant predictor of both trust in supervisors and psychological safety. This study further found that authentic leadership had a statistically significant indirect effect on work engagement through trust in supervisors.
PRACTICAL OR MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS: The main findings suggest that having more authentic leaders in the mining sector could enhance trust in these leaders. Authentic leadership thus plays an important role in creating a positive work environment. This work environment of authenticity and trust could lead to a more engaged workforce.
CONTRIBUTION OR VALUE-ADD: Limited empirical evidence exists with regard to the relationship between authentic leadership, work engagement, psychological safety and trust in supervisors. This is particularly true in the mining sector. This study aimed to contribute to the limited number of studies conducted.

Keywords: Authentic leadership; trust in supervisor; work engagement; psychological safety; mining industry.

---

 

 

Introduction

Because of continuous changes in the global business environment, organisations are facing numerous challenges. These challenges may result in many organisations experiencing economic and ethical meltdowns (Deloitte, 2014; George, Sims, McLean, & Mayer, 2007). In particular, South African mining companies are experiencing cost pressures and constraints which place tremendous strain on the mining industry. The daily operations of mines are further adversely affected by the continual shortage of frontline and professional skills within South Africa (Deloitte, 2014). As experienced personnel retire or leave the supply of experienced skills in frontline positions, such as supervisors, the workforce is placed under tremendous pressure. This has a direct effect on production output, quality and safety while further increasing overhead costs (Deloitte, 2014).

Changing the type of leadership and the way that mining employees perceive their leaders could assist in addressing the challenges experienced in the mining industry (Breytenbach, 2017). Leaders should display integrity, strong values and purpose as well as the ability to develop durable organisations through the motivation of subordinates (Breytenbach, 2017). Integrity and authenticity are widely regarded as highly important societal values and are important components of effective leadership (George et al., 2007). Leaders should be open and transparent as well as cognisant of the effects that their actions might have on others. They should further be aware of the internal and external influences and processes of an organisation (Clapp-Smith, Vogelgesang, & Avey, 2009). If they possess these behaviours, subordinates will be able to identify with the organisation's goals and challenges (Clapp-Smith et al., 2009). When subordinates perceive their supervisors to possess the necessary skills and abilities to facilitate growth and productivity within the organisation, it leads to an increased assurance among subordinates of a better and more profitable future in the organisation (Hassan & Ahmed, 2011). This may result in an increase in work engagement as subordinates gain a sense of trust and feelings of safety in the capabilities and competence of their supervisors (Hassan & Ahmed, 2011).

For the purposes of this study, authentic leadership as a form of positive leadership will be focused on (Stander & Coxen, 2017) as it has been found to have a positive effect on many organisational and employee behaviours (Avolio & Gardner, 2005; Coxen, Van der Vaart, & Stander, 2016). These behaviours may include psychological safety, trust in supervisors and work engagement.

The topic of authentic leadership has become more prominent in recent years in both practical and academic fields (Agote, Aramburu, & Lines, 2015; Coxen et al., 2016; Du Plessis & Boshoff, 2018; Shamir & Eilam-Shamir, 2018; etc.). Previous studies have indicated that authentic leadership may have a positive effect on psychological safety (Eggers, 2011), trust in supervisors (Caldwell & Dixon, 2010; Coxen et al., 2016) and work engagement (Walumbwa, Avolio, Gardner, Wernsing, & Peterson, 2008; Walumbwa, Wang, Wang, Schaubroeck, & Avolio, 2010). Although studies have been conducted to link authentic leadership with certain behavioural outcomes, the indirect effects of some of these outcomes have not been empirically tested in the South African mining context. The indirect effects of psychological safety have been tested (Lyu, 2016), but not as a mechanism through which authentic leaders influence subordinate behaviour. According to Hsieh and Wang (2015), trust fully mediates the relationship between authentic leadership and employee engagement. It would be interesting to determine if these findings can also be replicated in a South African context, with particular reference to the mining industry. The specific model (including the constructs) indicated in this study has not yet been empirically tested in a South African mining organisation. Work engagement is often regarded as an important employee outcome in ensuring optimal performance (Breevaart, Bakker, Demerouti, & Derks, 2015).

The purpose of this study was, therefore, to: (1) examine the effects of authentic leadership on trust in supervisors, psychological safety and work engagement; (2) investigate whether psychological safety and trust in the supervisor indirectly affect the relationship between authentic leadership and work engagement; and (3) determine whether trust in the supervisor indirectly affects the relationship between authentic leadership and psychological safety.

 

Literature review

Authentic leadership

According to Gardner, Avolio, Luthans, May and Walumbwa (2005), authentic leadership can be described as the process whereby leaders are aware of their thoughts and behaviours within the context in which they operate. Authentic leaders are often aware of their own leader and subordinate values, moral perspectives, strengths and knowledge (Avolio & Luthans, 2006). They are regarded as mindful of both their own personal authenticity and the manner in which they allow subordinates to achieve common goals and objectives (Clapp-Smith et al., 2009).

Recent studies suggested that authentic leadership is a 'higher-order, multidimensional construct, comprised of self-awareness, balanced processing, the internalisation of moral and ethical perspectives and relational transparency' (Walumbwa et al., 2008, p. 89). Self-awareness refers to leaders' knowledge of themselves, their mental state and the perceived image they have of themselves (Gardner et al., 2005; Neider & Schriesheim, 2011), whereas balanced processing refers to a leader's ability to consider and analyse all relevant facts objectively before making a decision (Gardner et al., 2005; Neider & Schriesheim, 2011). Possessing a moral perspective is when leaders rely on their own morals, values and standards to drive their actions, irrespective of external pressures (Gardner et al., 2005; Neider & Schriesheim, 2011). Finally, relational transparency refers to these leaders' ability to express their true thoughts and motives, facilitating their ability to openly share information (Gardner et al., 2005; Neider & Schriesheim, 2011).

Authentic leadership is focused on a leader's relationship with his or her subordinates (Avolio & Gardner, 2005; Wong & Cummings, 2009). A fair number of leadership theories emphasise a leader's behaviours and characteristics; however, very few leadership theories focus on the relationship between leaders and subordinates (Wong & Cummings, 2009). Even though authentic leadership has a significant focus on the relational transparency and self-awareness of leaders, it also focuses on personal and social identification (Wong & Cummings, 2009). Authentic leadership views personal and social identification as processes through which the behaviour of a leader results in self-awareness among the leaders and subordinates (Wong & Cummings, 2009).

A positive moral perspective and balanced processing are important components of authentic leadership (Neider & Schriesheim, 2011). Leaders need to objectively consider all of the facts to engage in ethical and transparent decision-making; therefore, authentic leaders utilise their own moral capacity and resilience to confront and deal with ethical dilemmas and make moral decisions. Making decisions in a fair and moral manner is crucial given the nature of change in social, political and business environments (Sarros & Cooper, 2006). The nature of these environments makes it important to rely on leaders who are genuine and possess moral attributes.

Because of the high moral standards, integrity and honesty displayed by authentic leaders, subordinates may develop positive expectations as well as increased levels of trust and a stronger willingness to cooperate with leaders to the benefit of the organisation (Avolio, Gardner, Walumbwa, Luthans, & May, 2004; Wang & Hsieh, 2013). This is confirmed by Caldwell and Dixon (2010), who found that authentic leaders influence individuals at various levels in an organisation. Authentic leaders thus have a significant impact on both their subordinates and the organisations that they lead.

Trust in supervisors

Although building stronger trust in leaders is required to address the many challenges faced by organisations, trust continues to be low in organisations (Gallup, 2012). To foster trust in supervisors, leadership that impacts the entire organisation in a positive manner is required. To achieve such leadership, loyalty, commitment and the willingness to take risks should be the important characteristics of organisational members. The above-mentioned characteristics can only be achieved if leaders instil extensive trust within their subordinates.

According to Agote et al. (2015), trust in a leader will have an effect on subordinates' work attitudes and behaviours. Trust can be defined as the disposition of an individual to be vulnerable to the actions of another while believing that the other will conduct a specific action (with good intentions) - this action should be important to the trustor (Clapp-Smith et al., 2009; Roussin, 2008). Trust is also the willing exchange of actions between individuals. This exchange only takes place if the trustor believes that exploitation is unlikely and as a result is willing to display trust behaviours and to risk vulnerability (Eggers, 2011; Ferres, 2003).

The intentions and actions of an individual must be confidently perceived, while the expectation of ethical treatment should also be present for trust to exist (Eggers, 2011; Ferres, 2003). In order for trust to exist within a leader-follower relationship, it is necessary for a subordinate to observe the following characteristics within a leader: open communication, cooperation, willingness to sacrifice, confidence, predictability and fair treatment (Clapp-Smith et al, 2009; Ferres, 2003). As a result, unbiased processing as well as moral and ethical perspectives can be expected to nurture trust within a leader-follower relationship (Miniotaite, 2012).

Leaders can develop collaborative relationships, build credibility and gain the respect of subordinates when they act authentically, thereby building trusting relationships with subordinates (Avolio et al., 2004). A subordinate's trust stems from judgements of authenticity which are based on consistent leader actions (Coxen et al., 2016). Dirks and Ferrin (2002) suggest that when a subordinate is treated fairly and respectfully, he or she is more likely to display positive attitudes and commitment to a leader.

Studies have suggested that trust plays an important role in the relationship between leadership constructs (e.g. authentic leadership) and follower outcomes (e.g. employee behaviours) (Clapp-Smith et al., 2009; Coxen et al., 2016).

Psychological safety

Both psychological safety and trust involve vulnerability or the perception of risk through choices which seek to minimise negative consequences (Edmondson, Kramer, & Cook, 2004). Psychological safety is conceptualised as an individual's view of the risks and consequences associated with his or her work environment, stemming from a subconscious conviction of how others will respond when an individual finds him/herself in a particular situation (Edmondson et al., 2004; Roussin, 2008). The presence of psychological safety creates confidence in an individual that others will accept and not reprimand his or her actions (Edmondson, 1999).

The difference between psychological safety and trust stems from choice. The trustor's conscious decisions to trust an individual cannot be a choice to feel psychologically safe, but can be a choice to place his or her trust in someone (Edmondson et al., 2004). Psychological safety is thus defined as an individual's perception of the consequences of taking an interpersonal risk in his or her job environment, without the fear of negative consequences to his or her image, status or career (Edmondson & Lei, 2014).

The relationship between a supervisor and subordinate has a direct influence on the feeling of psychological safety that the subordinate experiences within the work environment (Edmondson, 1999; Newman, Donohue, & Eva, 2017). When a supervisor supports rather than controls the subordinate, the subordinate will experience a sense of psychological safety. Such supervisors show a sense of concern for their subordinates' feelings and needs, providing them with positive feedback which not only enables them to develop new skills, but also encourages them to share their opinions without any fear of negative consequences (Edmondson, 1999; Roussin & Webber, 2011).

Employees might be less willing to take risks or express themselves if they perceive these risks to result in negative consequences or even if these risks may lead to embarrassment (Detert & Burris, 2007). Examples of such interpersonal workplace risk include (1) harm resulting from opportunism; (2) identity damage as a result of social interactions and (3) neglect of an individual's interest by others (Williams, 2007). Trust in supervisors can serve to mitigate these interpersonal risks in the workplace, which could result in increased psychological safety (Ning Li & Hoon Tan, 2012).

An increased experience of psychological safety may result in work engagement (Lyu, 2016), as psychological safety reflects upon the belief that an individual can be engaged without any fear of negative consequences (Edmondson, 1999; Eggers, 2011; Roussin & Webber, 2011). Where a work environment displays ambiguity, unpredictability and is threatening, the opposite would be true as subordinates would perceive the environment as being psychologically unsafe. Subordinates working in a perceived psychologically unsafe work environment may disengage from their work and may be reluctant to attempt new things (May, Gilson, & Harter, 2004).

Authentic leaders utilise their own self-awareness as well as the self-awareness of their subordinates to lead (Avolio & Gardner, 2005). Displaying an awareness of their own strengths and shortcomings as well as those of their subordinates helps them to lead more transparently. They motivate their subordinates by inspiring them and displaying charisma (Eggers, 2011). Authentic leaders further motivate subordinates by being intellectually stimulating and considerate of subordinates' individuality (Eggers, 2011). Through this, leaders assist their subordinates in developing leadership skills by helping them become more aware of their own feelings, behaviours and thoughts. Leaders and subordinates must be aware of one another's expectations, needs and wants. This leads to positive change in an organisation through developing psychological safety. Psychological safety and trust will lead to transparency, positive self-awareness, a positive moral perspective and a willingness to continually learn (Eggers, 2011).

Work engagement

Work engagement is defined as the 'harnessing of organisational members' selves to their work roles: In engagement, people employ and express themselves physically, cognitively, emotionally and mentally during role performances' (Kahn, 1990, p. 694). Bakker, Schaufeli, Leiter and Taris (2008) describe work engagement as 'a positive, fulfilling and effective motivational state of work-related well-being that is characterised by vigour, dedication and absorption' (p. 187). Vigour refers to increased levels of energy and mental resilience at work, whereas dedication refers to an individual's involvement and fulfilment in his or her work (Bakker et al., 2008). Finally, absorption refers to an individual's happiness and concentration at work which allows time to pass quickly (Schaufeli, Salanova, Gonzales-Roma, & Bakker, 2002).

Engaged employees are energetic and experience a feeling of enthusiasm for their work, and as a result, are completely absorbed by their work to the extent that time flies while working (Bakker et al., 2008; Hassan & Ahmed, 2011). The improvement of work engagement levels in the workforce has become critical for organisational success (Harter, Schmidt, & Hayes, 2002; Du Plessis & Boshoff, 2018). This is because work engagement has a positive impact on business, financial and in-role performance, as well as employee productivity (Bakker & Demerouti, 2008; Du Plessis & Boshoff, 2018).

Various studies suggest that leadership is an important factor that positively contributes to work engagement, either directly or indirectly through other constructs (Coxen et al., 2016; Ebrahim, 2017; Harter et al., 2002; Heyns & Rothmann, 2018). Authentic leaders lead by example - they lead through their values and strive for truthful relationships (Gardner et al., 2005; Kernis, 2003). Leading by example illustrates one's commitment to work and provides guidance to subordinates (Bandura, 1977), allowing subordinates to remain emotionally and physically connected as well as cognitively vigilant in their work roles.

Authentic leadership, trust in supervisors and work engagement

A key element of leadership effectiveness is having trust in supervisors (Coxen et al., 2016). According to Hsieh and Wang (2015), trust in supervisors is linked to favourable organisational outcomes, such as job satisfaction, employee commitment and organisational citizenship behaviour. Studies indicate that trust in supervisors has an indirect effect between the leader's actions and employee behaviours (Coxen et al., 2016; Hsieh & Wang, 2015). When subordinates perceive their supervisors as being trustworthy, it will positively affect their psychological well-being (Lee, 2017). As a result, these subordinates will experience higher levels of work engagement (Wang & Hsieh, 2013). Furthermore, a subordinate's desire to voluntarily return authenticity is increased when the subordinate perceives his or her supervisor to have authenticity. This, in turn, creates an environment of trust and dependency which enables subordinates to be engaged and fully immersed in their work (Wang & Hsieh, 2013). Therefore, trust and employees' attitudes are inextricably linked with leadership being an antecedent.

Authentic leadership, psychological safety and work engagement

Authentic leaders' behaviour stems from their own values and such leaders are driven to display truthfulness and openness in relationships (Gardner et al., 2005; Kernis, 2003). These leaders can be said to lead by example through the demonstration of transparent decision-making (Avolio & Gardner, 2005). Supervisors' commitment to their work is displayed when leading by example. This provides subordinates with guidance to become cognitively vigilant as well as emotionally and physically connected with their work performance (Bandura, 1977). According to the research of Kahn (1990), leaders have an influence on the levels of work engagement displayed by subordinates. In a psychologically safe environment, an individual feels accepted and supported as well as able to provide input without any fear of negative consequences or social embarrassment (Kahn, 1990).

Based on the above discussion, the hypotheses of this study were formulated as follows:

H1: Authentic leadership is a significant predictor of trust in supervisors.

H2: Authentic leadership is a significant predictor of psychological safety.

H3: Authentic leadership has an indirect effect on psychological safety through trust in supervisors.

H4: Authentic leadership is a significant predictor of work engagement.

H5: Authentic leadership has an indirect effect on work engagement through trust in supervisors.

H6: Authentic leadership has an indirect effect on work engagement through psychological safety.

The hypothesised model is illustrated in Figure 1.

 

 

Research design

Research approach

This study was quantitative in nature. A cross-sectional survey design was used as the data were collected at one single point in time.

Research method

Research participants

The sample consisted of 244 employees from a South African coal mining company. An availability sampling technique was used because of its convenience and accessibility. Participation in the project was voluntary, anonymous and participants had the right to refuse to participate without consequence. The majority of the sample consisted of males (86.9%) and 54.5% of the sample was African. The most representative home language was Afrikaans (35.7%), followed by Sesotho (29.1%). Thirty-two per cent of the sample fell in the 26-35 years' age group, with 29.9% falling within the 36-45 years' age group. In addition, 50.4% had a grade 12-certificate as highest qualification, while 16.8% received education up until grade 11. Of the participants, 48.8% were employed in the engineering department and a further 23.8% were employed in the operations department. A total of 73.8% of the participants were employed at the C1-C4 level and 14.8% at the B1-B5 level. Years of experience ranged from 1-5 years (28.7%) to 6-10 years (27.9%).

Measuring instruments

Participants completed a biographical questionnaire as well as four measuring instruments to measure authentic leadership, trust in supervisors, psychological safety and work engagement.

Authentic Leadership Inventory (ALI; Neider & Schriesheim, 2011): The ALI consists of 16 items and uses a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (disagree strongly) to 5 (agree strongly). The scale measures the four dimensions of authentic leadership behaviours, namely, self-awareness (four items), balanced processing (four items), moral perspective (four items) and relational transparency (four items). Examples of items include 'My leader describes accurately the way that others view his/her abilities' (self-awareness), 'My leader asks for ideas that challenge his/her beliefs' (balanced processing), 'My leader uses his/her core beliefs to make decisions' (moral perspective) and 'My leader admits mistakes when they occur' (relational transparency). In this study, the ALI showed a composite reliability coefficient of 0.94, indicating acceptable reliability.

Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES; Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004): The UWES comprises nine items and uses a six-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (never) to 6 (always). It measures the three dimensions of work engagement, namely, vigour (three items), dedication (three items) and absorption (three items). Examples of items include 'At my job, I feel strong and vigorous' (vigour), 'I find the work I do full of meaning and purpose' (dedication) and 'When I am working, I forget everything else around me' (absorption). The UWES showed acceptable reliability in this study with a composite reliability coefficient of 0.92.

Workplace Trust Survey (WTS; Ferres, 2003): The WTS consists of 36 items, but for the purpose of this study only trust in the immediate supervisor was utilised (nine items). It uses a seven-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). An example item is 'I feel that my manager listens to what I have to say'. The trust in the immediate supervisor section of the WTS showed a composite reliability coefficient of 0.94, indicating acceptable reliability.

Psychological Safety Questionnaire (PSQ; Edmondson, 1999): The PSQ contains six items and uses a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Examples items are: 'Members of the team were able to discuss problems and tough issues openly' and 'Members of the team accepted each other's differences'. The internal consistency of the measure has been acceptable, with a composite reliability coefficient of 0.78.

Statistical analysis

Mplus 7.4 (Muthén & Muthén, 1998-2016) was utilised to perform the statistical analysis. Descriptive statistics (e.g. means, standard deviations, skewness and kurtosis) and inferential statistics (e.g. correlations) were used for data analysis. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to test the factorial validity of the measuring instruments. Raykov's rho coefficients were used to assess the composite reliability of the measuring instruments and a cut-off value of 0.70 was used (Raykov, 2009). Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients were used to measure the relationships between the proposed variables. Cohen's effect sizes were used to determine the practical significance of the results, with cut-off values of 0.30 (medium effect) and 0.50 (large effect). A value of 95% (p ≤ 0.05) was set for the confidence interval level for statistical significance.

Structural equation modelling (SEM) was used to test the measurement and structural models. The following fit indices were used: chi-square (χ²), comparative fit index (CFI), standardised root-mean-square residual (SRMR) and root-mean-square error of approximation (RMSEA). Acceptable model fit was indicated by non-significant χ² values, GFI and CFI (≥0.90) and RMSEA (≤0.08) (Byrne, 2012). The Akaike information criterion (AIC) and Bayes information criterion (BIC) were used. The smallest value of the AIC and BIC indicates good model fit (Kline, 2011).

To determine whether common method variance (CMV) influenced the results, Harman's single-factor test, a common method, was used. This technique is a post hoc test conducted to determine whether a single factor is responsible for variance in the data (Tehseen, Ramayah, & Sajilan, 2017). This test thus aims to determine the presence or absence of CMV (Tehseen et al., 2017).

The bootstrapping method was used to test for indirect effects. The method was set at 5000 draws (Hayes, 2012) and the bias-corrected confidence level (BC CI) was set at 95%. When zero is not in the 95% CI, one can conclude that the indirect effect is significantly different from zero at p < 0.05.

 

Ethical consideration

This article adheres to the ethical guidelines for research. Ethical clearance was obtained from the North-West University.

 

Results

Testing the measurement model

Confirmatory factor analysis was used to estimate the factor structure of the variables. Using SEM, a four-factor measurement model and three alternative models were tested to assess possible relationships between the latent variables.

Model 1 consisted of four first-order latent variables, namely, authentic leadership (measured by 13 observed variables), work engagement (measured by eight observed variables), trust in supervisors (measured by eight observed variables) and psychological safety (measured by three observed variables). All the latent variables were allowed to correlate.

Model 2 consisted of three first-order latent variables, namely, authentic leadership (measured by 13 observed variables), trust in supervisors (measured by eight observed variables) and psychological safety (measured by three observed variables) as well as a second-order latent variable consisting of vigour combined with dedication (measured by six observed variables) and absorption (measured by two observed variables).

Model 3 consisted of three first-order latent variables, namely, work engagement (measured by eight observed variables), trust in supervisors (measured by eight observed variables) and psychological safety (measured by three observed variables) as well as a second-order latent variable of authentic leadership, consisting of self-awareness (measured by three observed variables), relational transparency (measured by three observed variables), balance processing (measured by four observed variables) and moral perspective (measured by three observed variables).

Model 4 consisted of seven first-order latent variables, namely, self-awareness (measured by three observed variables), relational transparency (measured by three observed variables), balanced processing (measured by four observed variables), moral perspective (measured by three observed variables), work engagement (measured by eight observed variables), trust in supervisors (measured by eight observed variables) and psychological safety (measured by three observed variables).

Table 1 presents the fit statistics for the four competing measurement models described above.

 

 

Further analyses were conducted in an exploratory mode to improve the fit of the selected model even more. The item errors were allowed to correlate which could improve model fit. According to Byrne (2012), correlated errors could be representative of the respondent's characteristics that reflect bias and social desirability as well as a high degree of overlap in the item content. The revised model (model 1) indicated that the fit improved once the errors were allowed to correlate. A comparison of the AIC and BIC values indicated that model 1 fitted the data the best with a χ² of 636.23. The fit indices for CFI and Tucker-Lewis index (TLI) were acceptable (>0.90), as well as the model fit for the RMSEA (<0.05). The SRMR for model 1 was 0.05; values lower than 0.08 indicate an acceptable fit.

Structural model including descriptive statistics, reliabilities and correlations

Table 2 contains the descriptive statistics which include the descriptive statistics (e.g. means and standard deviations), Raykov's rho reliability coefficients and a correlation matrix.

 

 

As per the results in Table 2, it is evident that the Raykov's rho coefficients of all the measuring instruments were considered acceptable, ranging from 0.70 to 0.94. Raykov's rho coefficients have the same acceptable cut-off points as Cronbach's alpha coefficients, recognising values of ≥0.70 as acceptable (Wang & Wang, 2012).

Table 2 further provides the correlation coefficients of the variables which were all statistically significant at either 0.01 or 0.05. Authentic leadership was practically and significantly related to work engagement (r = 0.49) (medium effect); psychological safety (r = 0.45) (medium effect) and trust in supervisors (r = 0.74) (large effect). Work engagement was practically and significantly related to psychological safety (r = 0.37) (medium effect) and trust in supervisors (r = 0.52) (large effect). Trust in supervisors was practically and significantly related to psychological safety (r = 0.39) (medium effect).

The measurement model formed the basis of the structural model. The hypothesised relationships shown in the model were tested. An acceptable fit of the model to the data was found: χ² = 636.23, df = 455, CFI = 0.95, TLI = 0.95, SRMR = 0.05 and RMSEA = 0.04. Table 3 shows the fit statistics and path coefficients of the three models.

 

 

In the above calculations, the maximum likelihood estimation with robust standard errors (MLR) estimator was utilised, taking into account the skewness and kurtosis of frequencies. The χ² values for MLR cannot be directly compared (Satorra & Bentler, 1999). Chi-square difference testing had to be done to determine how the χ² would change between the different models. Table 4 shows the difference testing for competing structural models. The results in Table 4 indicate that both models 1 and 2 had a significant p -value, which suggests a significantly worse fit than model 3. Therefore, model 3 was the best-fitting model.

 

 

Figure 2 shows the path coefficients estimated by Mplus 7.4 (Muthén & Muthén, 1998-2016) for model 3.

 

 

From Figure 2, it is evident that authentic leadership is a significant predictor of both trust in supervisors (β = 0.74; p < 0.01) and psychological safety (β = 0.36; p < 0.01). Hypotheses 1 and 2 were therefore accepted. Authentic leadership thus explains 54% of the variance in trust in supervisors and 21% of the variance in psychological safety. Hypothesis 4 was rejected as authentic leadership was not a significant predictor of work engagement (β = 0.16). This is apparent in Table 3.

Based on the results from Harman's single-factor test, the fit statistics of loading the model onto one factor were as follows: χ² = 1756.65, df = 464, CFI = 0.66, TLI = 0.63, SRMR = 0.11 and RMSEA = 0.11. The fit statistics show that the model did not fit, which indicates that CMV was not a problem (Tehseen et al., 2017). If there was model fit to the one factor, CMV could have posed a problem to the study.

Testing indirect effects

To determine whether indirect effects were present in this study, the procedure, as explained by Hayes (2012), was used. Bootstrapping was used to construct two-sided bias-corrected 95% CIs to evaluate indirect effects.

Table 5 shows that the indirect effect of authentic leadership on work engagement through trust in supervisors was significant (p < 0.01) and did not include zero. This suggests that authentic leadership did have an indirect effect on work engagement via trust in supervisors. Based on these results, hypothesis 5 was accepted. Trust in supervisors did not have a statistically significant indirect effect on psychological safety; therefore, hypothesis 3 was rejected. Psychological safety did not have a statistically significant indirect effect on work engagement. Therefore, hypothesis 6 was also rejected. All the hypotheses were thus accepted, except for hypotheses 3, 4 and 6.

 

 

Discussion

The objectives of this study were to determine the direct and indirect effects between authentic leadership, trust in supervisors, psychological safety and work engagement. The study was to provide an understanding of how authentic leadership can result in fostering feelings of supervisor trust and psychological safety among employees, resulting in employees being more engaged in their work.

The results indicated that authentic leadership positively influences trust in supervisors. When subordinates perceive authenticity in their leaders, the subordinates will be more inclined to trust those leaders. The results are consistent with previous research which also established that authentic leadership is a positive predictor of supervisor trust (Agote et al., 2015; Coxen et al., 2016; Hassan & Ahmed, 2011). Authentic leaders are regarded by subordinates as transparent, authentic and willing to listen to their ideas (Neider & Schriesheim, 2011). These leaders are also guided by their moral values and are inclined to allow subordinates to take part in decision-making (Walumbwa et al., 2008). Subordinates thus perceive authentic leaders as honest, truthful, reliable and genuine (Avolio & Gardner, 2005; Ilies, Morgeson, & Nahrgang, 2005), which contributes to their experience of trust in their supervisor. Leaders who display authentic behaviours in the form of openness and truthfulness thus result in subordinates more readily trusting their intentions (Ilies et al., 2005). These findings are in line with the Leader-Member Exchange Theory (LMX) (Cho & Park, 2011) which regards leadership as a two-way relationship between leaders and followers. In this regard, if leaders display authenticity and transparency, subordinates will reciprocate by trusting the leaders more. A study done in the mining industry in South Africa found the implementation of authentic leadership to be a challenge faced by mines in South Africa (Bezuidenhout & Schultz, 2013). It was found that an environment of trust and openness among employees in this environment was missing because of the lack of effective authentic leadership (Bezuidenhout & Schultz, 2013). It is therefore imperative that mining companies develop authentic leadership within their supervisors to create a climate of trust. This climate of trust will lead to openness and transparency among all employees.

In terms of the impact of authentic leadership on psychological safety, this study found a positive effect between the two constructs. When supervisors engage in authentic leadership behaviours, it leads to a climate of psychological safety among their subordinates. The results are consistent with previous research which also established that authentic leadership is positively related to psychological safety (Edmondson, 1999; Eggers, 2011). The behaviours displayed by a leader are pivotal in promoting psychological safety. Leaders motivate by inspiration, displaying charisma towards their subordinates as well as by being intellectually stimulating and considerate of individuality (Eggers, 2011). Through this, leaders assist their subordinates in developing leadership skills by helping them become more aware of their own feelings, behaviours and thoughts. Leaders and subordinates must be aware of one another's expectations, needs and wants. This leads to positive change within an organisation by developing psychological safety (Eggers, 2011). A platform which allows for continuous communication and participation was identified as a need by employees in the mining industry. These employees felt that they did not have the freedom to express their own ideas and opinions (Bezuidenhout & Schultz, 2013). Authentic leadership would allow mining companies to establish an environment of psychological safety as well as allow employees to freely participate in the organisation.

The results showed that trust in supervisor did not significantly indirectly affect the relationship between authentic leadership and psychological safety. The results of this outcome were unexpected, as a positive indirect effect of authentic leadership on psychological safety via trust in supervisor was expected. According to Eggers (2011), trust between leaders and subordinates is a requirement for the presence of psychological safety. The relationship between the leader and subordinate must be transparent and vulnerable in order for subordinates to experience psychological safety. Leaders who display transparency will create a climate of psychological safety for their subordinates. This, in turn, will promote increased participation by subordinates in the decision-making process as well as foster increased trust in leaders (Eggers, 2011). The unexpected results can perhaps be explained with due consideration to the context of the study. The mining sector is characterised by stringent procedures, rules and regulations - employees thus operate in a structured environment where there is little opportunity for taking risks (Carvalho, 2017). Employees are aware that taking a risk might often result in disciplinary action or, in extreme cases, accidents. The results thus indicate that although employees may trust their supervisors, this does not indirectly affect their feelings of psychological safety.

The results indicated that authentic leadership is not a significant predictor of work engagement. These results also were unexpected, as in theory a positive effect was expected between authentic leadership and work engagement. Authentic leaders display behaviours that are aligned with their own values as well as attempt to achieve truthfulness and openness in their relationships with subordinates (Avolio & Gardner, 2005). They demonstrate transparent decision-making and lead by example, which illustrates their commitment to their work. This serves as a guideline to subordinates to remain physically and emotionally involved in their work and, in so doing, increase the levels of work engagement (Bamford, Wong, & Laschinger, 2013). The impact of authentic leadership and work engagement is also supported by Schaufeli and Bakker (2004) and is consistent with the authentic leadership theory of Avolio et al. (2004). A possible explanation of the results in this study could be that if the organisation's environment limits ownership, then authentic leadership may potentially not prompt work engagement (Mayhew, Ashkanasy, Bramble, & Gardner, 2007). In a former study, the mining industry in South Africa had experienced difficulty with regard to ownership of tasks (Bezuidenhout & Schultz, 2013). The mentioned study found that mining employees were not provided with the opportunity to participate in decision-making or to take responsibility for tasks (Bezuidenhout & Schultz, 2013). Research suggests that employees experience ownership when they are given the opportunity to take control of their job and the work setting (Alok & Israel, 2012). Thus, having an authentic leader does not necessarily mean that employees will be more engaged if they are not afforded the opportunity to take personal ownership of their work tasks (George, 2015). Another study conducted in the South African context among public healthcare employees also found authentic leadership to not be a predictor of work engagement (Ebrahim, 2017).

The findings of this study indicate that authentic leadership had a significant indirect effect on work engagement via trust in supervisor. Authentic leadership has a positive effect on trust in supervisor which, in turn, results in increased work engagement. The results are consistent with a previous South African study which also established that authentic leadership is positively related to work engagement via trust in supervisor (Ebrahim, 2017). In order for a subordinate to perceive a leader as being authentic, a level of trust must be present between the leader and the subordinate (Hassan & Ahmed, 2011). Furthermore, components of authentic leadership such as authentic action and relational transparency are positively related to a subordinate's trust in a leader. Trust between a leader and subordinate also positively predicts employee work engagement (Bamford et al., 2013; Hassan & Ahmed, 2011). When a subordinate has developed a high level of trust in an organisation and its leaders, the subordinate is more likely to become more engaged in his or her work (Bamford et al., 2013; Hassan & Ahmed, 2011). Supervisors who display authentic leadership and lead by example will foster trust within subordinates and encourage subordinates to be more engaged in their work.

In terms of the indirect effect of authentic leadership on work engagement via psychological safety, the results did not confirm the indirect effect. The results of this outcome were unexpected, as a positive indirect effect of authentic leadership on work engagement via psychological safety was expected in theory. According to Kernis (2003), authenticity is related to high levels of work engagement. Kahn (1990) found that work engagement increases in an environment where leaders promote psychological safety, in other words, an environment that allows subordinates to feel supported and accepted as well as able to participate without fear of negative consequences should they fail. Again, if the organisation's environment limits ownership, then authentic leadership may potentially not prompt psychological safety and work engagement (Mayhew et al., 2007). Also, when the environment limits ownership, the subordinates may have perceived this limitation as unsupportive and may have felt constrained - not feeling open to take risks without a fear of the consequences. Therefore, even though psychological safety was present, it may not have had the anticipated effect on work engagement. Supervisors within the mining industry are among the most disempowered of all levels of management as they are caught up in the demands to deliver production (Bloch, 2012). This disempowerment of supervisors would result in a lack of ownership and leave them feeling constrained in their role, thus not inspiring subordinates to remain engaged in their work.

Limitations and recommendations for future studies

This study had several limitations. The first limitation of the study was the use of a cross-sectional design, which restricts the determination of causal relationships among the study variables. The second limitation of the study was the use of the convenience sampling approach which could influence the generalisability of the results obtained. Thirdly, the research was conducted during a time of uncertainty in the mining industry of South Africa, which may be perceived as a limitation. Finally, the research was conducted on a single operation in the mining industry; as a result, generalisation of the findings to other contexts may not be possible.

The following recommendations can be made for future research. Firstly, future research should use longitudinal research designs or diary studies to determine the causal relationships among the study variables. Secondly, future research should expand the study to other organisations and industries as well as other provinces because of the fact that each of these factors may pose its own unique set of challenges and may yield a different result. Thirdly, future research may improve on this study by gathering data from additional sources within organisations, over and above the supervisors and subordinates. Fourthly, future research may improve on this study by utilising a mixed-method approach which includes both quantitative and qualitative data collection. This would allow the researcher to establish the authentic style of the leader as well as the prevailing variables and employee outcomes such as trust and psychological safety. The researcher would then be able to mitigate the close relation between constructs such as trust and psychological safety. Lastly, future research could also include other related leadership constructs into the data collection. This would allow the researcher to determine if the outcomes were exclusively related to authentic leadership, to exclude potential outcomes from other positive leadership constructs such as ethical, transformational, leader-member exchange and empowering leadership.

Implications for management

It is important for employees, leaders and the human resources department to understand the impact of authentic leadership on outcomes such as supervisor trust, psychological safety and work engagement. The lack of ownership, strict rules and regulations, as well as other challenges in the mining sector such as economic uncertainty, may have a likely effect on the leaders' willingness to display authentic behaviours which may have an impact on the feelings of psychological safety, trust and engagement experienced by subordinates. Feeling psychologically safe is important as it decreases 'barriers to engagement' (Wanless, 2016, p. 6). The benefit of having an engaged workforce is enhanced employee performance (Markos & Sridrevi, 2010), which is an important factor in the mining industry.

Trust is an important component of organisational interventions. Therefore, it is vital that employees and the organisation understand that the only way to remain viable is to support one another. When an organisation builds an environment of trust, its employees will reciprocate by becoming more engaged in their work. Both the organisation and employees should participate in a give-and-take relationship. This will help both parties feel confident as well as foster a positive work environment which enhances work performance, psychological safety and work engagement. Authentic leadership plays a key role in creating this positive work environment. Leadership development programmes could be designed in the mining sector to develop authentic leaders who could have a positive impact on the experience of trust, psychological safety and work engagement.

 

Conclusion

The results of this study emphasise the crucial role of authentic leadership and trust in the supervisor in increasing work engagement. It also highlights the impact that authentic leadership has on psychological safety. Although authentic leadership was not a significant predictor of work engagement, it impacted work engagement indirectly through supervisor trust. These findings indicate that authentic leadership is important for creating trust in supervisors and allowing subordinates to experience psychological safety. It also shows that authentic leadership and trust are important in the development of work engagement.

 

Acknowledgements

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

Author's contributions

N.M. acted as first author (as the article is partially based on her mini-dissertation with M.W.S. as supervisor). M.W.S. and L.C. contributed towards the editing of the article.

 

References

Agote, L., Aramburu, N., & Lines, R. (2015). Authentic leadership perception, trust in the leader, and followers' emotions in organizational change processes. Journal of Applied Behavioural Science, 52(1), 35-63. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021886315617531        [ Links ]

Alok, K., & Israel, D. (2012). Authentic leadership and work engagement. The Indian Journal of Industrial Relations, 47(3), 498-510.         [ Links ]

Avolio, B. J., & Gardner, W. L. (2005). Authentic leadership development: Getting to the root of positive forms of leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 16, 315-338. https://doi.org/10.bakker1016/j.leaqua.2005.03.001        [ Links ]

Avolio, B. J., & Luthans, F. (2006). High impact leader: Moments matter in authentic leadership development. New York: McGraw-Hill.         [ Links ]

Avolio, B. J., Gardner, W. L., Walumbwa, F. O., Luthans, F., & May, D. R. (2004). Unlocking the mask: A look at the process by which authentic leaders impact follower attitudes and behaviors. The Leadership Quarterly, 15, 801-823. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2004.09.003        [ Links ]

Bakker, A. B., & Demerouti, E. (2008). Towards a model of work engagement. Career Development International, 13, 209-223. https://doi.org/10.1108/13620430810870476        [ Links ]

Bakker, A. B., & Schaufeli, W. B., Leiter, M. P., & Taris, T. W. (2008). Work engagement: An emerging concept in occupational health psychology. Work and Stress, 22, 187-200. https://doi.org/10.1080/02678370802393649        [ Links ]

Bamford, M., Wong, C. A., & Laschinger, H. (2013). The influence of authentic leadership and areas of worklife on work engagement of registered nurses. Journal of Nursing Management, 21, 529-540. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2834.2012.01399.x        [ Links ]

Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.         [ Links ]

Bezuidenhout, A., & Schultz, C. (2013). A leadership initiative to enhance employee engagement amongst engineers at a gold mining plant in South Africa. Paper presented at the Picmet Conference, San Jose, CA, July 2013.         [ Links ]

Bloch, L. (2012). The 4th wave: Culture-based behaviour safety. Retrieved from http://www.saimm.co.za/conference/Pt2012//163-176_Bloch.pdf.         [ Links ]

Breevaart, K., Bakker, A. B., Demerouti, E., & Derks, D. (2015). Who takes the lead? A multi-source diary study on leadership, work engagement, and job performance. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 37(3), 309-325. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2041        [ Links ]

Breytenbach, M. (2017, October). Mining leaders stress the need for good leadership. Retrieved from http://www.miningweekly.com/article/mining-leaders-stress-need-for-good-leadership-2017-10-05.         [ Links ]

Byrne, B. M. (2012). Structural equation modeling with Mplus: Basic concepts, applications and programming. New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group.         [ Links ]

Caldwell, C., & Dixon, R. D. (2010). Love, forgiveness, and trust: Critical values of the modern leader. Journal of Business Ethics, 93(4), 497-512. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-009-0184-z        [ Links ]

Carvalho, F. P. (2017). Mining industry and sustainable development: Time for change. Food and Energy Security, 6(2), 61-77. https://doi.org/10.1002/fes3.109        [ Links ]

Cho, Y. J., & Park, H. (2011). Exploring the relationships among trust, employee satisfaction, and organizational commitment. Public Management Review, 13(4), 551-573. https://doi.org/10.1080/14719037.2010.525033        [ Links ]

Clapp-Smith, R., Vogelgesang, G. R., & Avey, J. B. (2009). Authentic leadership and positive psychological capital: The mediating role of trust in the group. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 15, 231-232. https://doi.org/10.1177/1548051808326596        [ Links ]

Coxen, L., Van der Vaart, L., & Stander, M. W. (2016). Authentic leadership and organisational citizenship behaviour in the public health care sector: The role of workplace trust. South African Journal of Industrial Psychology, 42(1), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip/v42i1.1364        [ Links ]

Deloitte. (2014). Tough choices facing South Africa mining industry. Retrieved from http://www.deloitte.com/assets/…southafrica/…/final_mining_tough_choicesLinks ] Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif" size="2">.

Detert, J. R., & Burris, E. R. (2007). Leadership behavior and employee voice: Is the door really open? Academy of Management Journal, 55, 869-884. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2007.26279183        [ Links ]

Dirks, K. T., & Ferrin, D. L. (2002). Trust in leadership: Meta-analytic findings and implications for research and practice. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 611-628. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.87.4.611        [ Links ]

Du Plessis, M., & Boshoff, A. B. (2018). Authentic leadership, followership, and psychological capital as antecedents of work engagement. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 28(1), 26-32. https://doi.org/10.1080/14330237.2018.1438832        [ Links ]

Ebrahim, A. (2017). Authentic leadership, trust and work engagement amongst health care workers (Master's dissertation, North-West University, South Africa). Retrieved from http://repository.nwu.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10394/24948/Ebrahim_AB.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y.         [ Links ]

Edmondson, A. C. (1999). Psychological safety and learning behavior in work teams. Administrative Science Quarterly, 44(2), 350-383. https://doi.org/10.2307/2666999        [ Links ]

Edmondson, A. C., & Lei, Z. (2014). Psychological safety: The history, renaissance, and future of an interpersonal construct. The Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 1, 23-43. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-031413-091305        [ Links ]

Edmondson, A. C., Kramer, R. M., & Cook, K. S. (2004). Psychological safety, trust, and learning in organizations: A group-level lens. Trust and Distrust in Organizations: Dilemmas and Approaches, 12, 239-272.         [ Links ]

Eggers, J. (2011). Psychological safety influences relationship behaviour. Retrieved from http://www.aca.org/research/pdf/researchnotes_fed2011.pdf.         [ Links ]

Ferres, N. (2003). The development and validation of the Workplace Trust Survey (WTS): Combining qualitative and quantitative methodologies. Unpublished master's thesis. University of Newcastle, Australia.         [ Links ]

Gallup. (2012). Gallup poll on homestyle ethics of professional. Retrieved from http://www.gallup.com/poll/1654/honesty-ethics-professions.aspx.         [ Links ]

Gardner, W. L., Avolio, B. J., Luthans, F., May, D. R., & Walumbwa, F. (2005). 'Can you see the real me?' A self-based model of authentic leader and follower development. The Leadership Quarterly, 16, 343-372. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2005.03.003        [ Links ]

George, B., Sims, P., Mclean, A. N., & Mayer, D. (2007). Discovering your authentic leadership. Harvard Business Review, 85, 129-138.         [ Links ]

George, K. (2015). The relationship between psychological ownership, work engagement and happiness Master's dissertation. University of Pretoria, South Africa. Retrieved from https://repository.up.ac.za/bitstream/handle/2263/50907/George_Relationship_2015.pdf;sequence=1.         [ Links ]

Harter, J. K., Schmidt, F. L., & Hayes, T. L. (2002). Business-unit-level relationship between employee satisfaction, employee engagement, and business outcomes: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 268-279. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.87.2.268        [ Links ]

Hassan, A., & Ahmed, F. (2011). Authentic leadership, trust and work engagement. International Journal of Human and Social Sciences, 6(3), 164-170.         [ Links ]

Hayes, A. F. (2012). Introduction to mediation, moderation, conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. New York: The Guilford Press.         [ Links ]

Heyns, M., & Rothmann, S. (2018). Volitional trust, autonomy satisfaction, and engagement at work. Psychological Reports, 121(1), 112-134. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033294117718555        [ Links ]

Hsieh, C.-C., & Wang, D.-S. (2015). Does supervisor-perceived authentic leadership influence employee work engagement through employee-perceived authentic leadership and employee trust? The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 26(18), 2329-2348. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2015.1025234        [ Links ]

Ilies, R., Morgeson, F. P., & Nahrgang, J. D. (2005). Authentic leadership and eudaimonic well-being: Understanding leader-follower outcomes. The Leadership Quarterly, 16, 373-394. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2005.03.005        [ Links ]

Kahn, W. A. (1990). Psychological conditions of personal engagement and disengagement at work. Academy of Management Journal, 33, 692-724.         [ Links ]

Kernis, M. H. (2003). Toward a conceptualization of optimal self-esteem. Psychological Inquiry, 14, 1-26. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1401_01        [ Links ]

Kline, R. B. (2011). Principles and practice of structural equation modelling (3rd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.         [ Links ]

Lee, M. C. C. (2017). Job resources as a mediator between management trust climate and employees' well-being: A cross-sectional multilevel approach. Asian Academy of Management Journal, 22(2), 27-52. https://doi.org/10.21315/aamj2017.22.2.2        [ Links ]

Lyu, X. (2016). Effect of organizational justice on work engagement with psychological safety as a mediator: Evidence from China. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 44(8), 1359-1370. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2016.44.8.1359        [ Links ]

Markos, S., & Sridrevi, M. S. (2010). Employee engagement: The key to improving performance. International Journal of Business and Management, 5(12), 89-96.         [ Links ]

May, D. R., Gilson, R. L., & Harter, L. M. (2004). The psychological conditions of meaningfulness, safety and availability and engagement of the human spirit at work. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 77, 11-37. https://doi.org/10.1348/096317904322915892        [ Links ]

Mayhew, M. G., Ashkanasy, N. M., Bramble, T., & Gardner, J. (2007). A study of the antecedents and consequences of psychological ownership in organizational settings. Journal of Social Psychology, 147(5), 477-500. https://doi.org/10.3200/SOCP.147.5.477-500        [ Links ]

Miniotaite, A. (2012). The impact of authentic leadership on follower self-actualization. Unpublished doctoral thesis. University of Management and Economics, Vilnius, Lithuania.         [ Links ]

Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998-2016). Mplus user's guide (7th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.         [ Links ]

Neider, L., & Schriesheim, B. O. (2011). The Authentic Leadership Inventory (ALI): Development and empirical test. The Leadership Quarterly, 22, 1146-1164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2011.09.008        [ Links ]

Newman, A., Donohue, R., & Eva, N. (2017). Psychological safety: A systematic review of the literature. Human Resource Management Review, 27(3), 521-535. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hrmr.2017.01.001        [ Links ]

Ning Li, A., & Hoon Tan, H. (2012). What happens when you trust your supervisor? Mediators of individual performance in trust relationships. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 34, 407-425. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.1812        [ Links ]

Raykov, T. (2009). Interval estimation of revision effect on scale reliability via covariance structure modeling. Structural Equation Modeling, 16, 539-555. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705510903008337        [ Links ]

Roussin, C. J. (2008). Increasing trust, psychological safety and team performance through dyadic leadership discovery. Small Research Group, 39, 224-248. https://doi.org/10.1177/106496408315988        [ Links ]

Roussin, C. J., & Webber, S. S. (2011). Impact of organizational identification and psychological safety on initial perceptions of co-worker trustworthiness. Journal of Business Psychology, 27, 317-329. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-011-9245-2        [ Links ]

Sarros, J. C., & Cooper, B. K. (2006). Building character: A leadership essential. Journal of Business and Psychology, 21(1), 1-22. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-005-9020-3        [ Links ]

Satorra, A., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). A scaled difference chi-square test statistic for moment structure analysis. Retrieved from http://escholarship.org/uc/item/23c604tb.         [ Links ]

Schaufeli, W. B., & Bakker, A. B. (2004). Job demands, job resources, and their relationship with burnout and engagement: A multi-sample study. Journal of Organisational Behaviour, 25, 293-315. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.248        [ Links ]

Schaufeli, W. B., Salanova, M., Gonzalez-Roma, V., & Bakker, A. B. (2002). The measurement of engagement and burnout: A two-sample confirmatory factor analytic approach. Journal of Happiness Studies, 3, 71-92. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015630930326        [ Links ]

Shamir, B., & Eilam-Shamir, G. (2018). 'What's your story?' A life-stories approach to authentic leadership development. In I. Katz, G. Eilam-Shamir, R. Kark, & Y. Berson (Eds.), Leadership now: Reflections on the legacy of Boas Shamir, Monographs in leadership and management (vol. 9, pp. 51-76). London: Emerald Publishing Limited.         [ Links ]

Stander, M. W., & Coxen, L. (2017). A review of the relationship between positive leadership styles and psychological ownership. In C. Olckers, L. Van Zyl, & L. Van der Vaart (Eds.), Theoretical orientations and practical applications of psychological ownership (pp. 37-52). Cham: Springer International Publishing.         [ Links ]

Tehseen, S., Ramayah, T., & Sajilan, S. (2017). Testing and controlling for common method variance: A review of available methods. Journal of Management Sciences, 4(2), 142-168. https://doi.org/10.20547/jms.2014.1704202        [ Links ]

Walumbwa, F., Avolio, B. J., Gardner, W. L., Wernsing, T. S., & Peterson, S. J. (2008). Authentic leadership: Development and validation of a theory-based measure. Journal of Management, 34, 89-126. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206307308913        [ Links ]

Walumbwa, F., Wang, P., Wang, H., Schaubroeck, J., & Avolio, B. J. (2010). Psychological processes linking authentic leadership to follower behaviours. The Leadership Quarterly, 21, 901-914. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2010.07.015        [ Links ]

Wang, D., & Hsieh, C. (2013). The effect of authentic leadership on employee trust and employee engagement. Social Behavior and Personality, 41(4), 613-624. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2013.41.4.613        [ Links ]

Wang, J., & Wang, X. (2012). Structural equation modeling: Applications using Mplus. Chichester: Wiley & Sons Inc.         [ Links ]

Wanless, S. B. (2016). The role of psychological safety in human development. Research in Human Development, 13, 6-14. https://doi.org/10.1080/15427609.2016.1141283        [ Links ]

Williams, M. (2007). Building genuine trust through interpersonal emotion management: A threat regulation model of trust and collaboration across boundaries. Academy of Management Review, 32, 595-621. https://doi.org/10.2307/20159317        [ Links ]

Wong, C., & Cummings, G. (2009). Authentic leadership: A new theory for nursing or back to basics. Journal of Health Organization and Management, 23(5), 522-538. https://doi.org/10.1108/14777260910984014        [ Links ]

 

 

Correspondence:
Lynelle Coxen
lynelle.coxen@nwu.ac.za

Received: 13 Nov. 2018
Accepted: 19 Feb. 2019
Published: 23 May 2019

 

 

Note: This article is partially based on the author's dissertation for the degree Magister of Commerce in Industrial Psychology in the School of Behavioural Sciences at the North-West University (Vaal Triangle Campus), South Africa, with supervisor Prof. Marius Stander, received October 2015, available here: https://dspace.nwu.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10394/16533/Maximo_N.pdf?isAllowed=y&sequence=1