EMPIRICAL RESEARCH

 

A conceptual framework of integrity

 

 

Antoni Barnard^I; Willem Schurink^II; Mariè De Beer^I

^IDepartment of Industrial and Organisational Psychology, UNISA, South Africa
^IIDepartment of Human Resource Management, University of Johannesburg, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

---

ABSTRACT

This article reports on the findings of a qualitative study in which the construction of integrity of some business leaders was explored. Data were gathered through ten in-depth interviews with six South African business leaders commended to be champions of integrity. A grounded-theory approach to the data analysis elicited five themes. These themes and their interrelatedness are discussed in this article and a conceptual framework of integrity is proposed. Integrity is conceptualised as a multifaceted and dynamic construct based on a moral foundation and inner drive that is managed by cognitive and affective processes manifesting various integrity-related behaviours.

Keywords: integrity, integrity assessment, qualitative research, grounded theory, business ethics

---

 

 

“Full text available only in PDF format”

 

 

REFERENCES

Barrett, P. (2003). Beyond psychometrics: Measurement, non-quantitative structure, and applied numerics. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 18(5), 421-439.         [ Links ]

Becker, T.E. (1998). Integrity in organisations: Beyond honesty and conscientiousness. Academy of Management Review, 23(1), 154-161.         [ Links ]

Beebe, J. (1992). Integrity in depth. Houston, TX: Texas A&M University Press.         [ Links ]

Bryman, A & Burgess, R.G. (1999). Qualitative research, volume 1. London: Sage.         [ Links ]

Burleson, B. (2001). Pathways to integrity: Ethics and psychological type. Gainesville, FL: Centre for Applications of Psychological Type.         [ Links ]

Camara, W.J. & Schneider, D.L. (1994). Integrity tests: Facts and unresolved issues. American Psychologist, 49(2), 112-119.         [ Links ]

Cameron, K.S. (2003). Organisational virtuousness and performance. In J.E. Dutton & R.E. Quinn (Eds.), Positive organisational scholarship: Foundations of a new discipline. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler.         [ Links ]

Camic, P.M., Rhodes, J.E. & Yardley, L. (2003). Naming the stars: Integrating qualitative methods into psychological research. In P.M. Camic, J.E. Rhodes & L. Yardley (Eds.), Qualitative research in psychology: Expanding perspectives in methodology and design. Washington: APA.         [ Links ]

Carter, S.L. (1996). Integrity. New York, NY: HarperPerennial.         [ Links ]

Charmaz, K. (2000). Grounded theory: Objectivist and constructivist methods. In N. Denzin & Y. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (2nd Ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.         [ Links ]

Charmaz, K. (2003). Qualitative interviewing and grounded theory analysis. In J.A. Holstein & J.F. Gubrium (Eds.), Inside interviewing, new lenses, new concerns. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.         [ Links ]

Coffey, A., Holbrook, B. & Atkinson, P. (1999). Qualitative data analysis: Technologies and representations. In A. Bryman & R.G. Burgess (Eds.), Qualitative research, volume 3. London: Sage.         [ Links ]

Cox, D., Lacaze, M. & Levine, M.P. (1999). Should we strive for integrity? The Journal of Value Inquiry, 33(4), 519-530.         [ Links ]

Craig, S.B. & Gustafson, S.B. (1998). Perceived leader integrity scale: An instrument for assessing employee perceptions of integrity. Leadership Quarterly, 9(2), 127-145.         [ Links ]

Crotty, M. (2005). The foundations of social research: Meaning and perspective in the research process. London: Sage.         [ Links ]

Cullen, M.J. & Sackett, P. (2004). Integrity testing in the workplace. In J.C. Thomace (Ed.), The comprehensive handbook of psychological testing, volume 4. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.         [ Links ]

Dean, B. (2004). Integrity. Authentic happiness coaching e-newsletter, 2(23). Retrieved October 21, 2004, from the World Wide Web: http://www.authentichappinesscoaching.com        [ Links ]

Denzin, N.K. & Lincoln, Y.S. (Eds.) (1994). Handbook of qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.         [ Links ]

Denzin, N.K. & Lincoln, Y.S. (Eds.) (2000). Handbook of qualitative research (2nd Ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.         [ Links ]

Dey, I. (1999). Grounding grounded theory: Guidelines for qualitative inquiry. Boston, MA: Academic Press.         [ Links ]

Durrheim, K. (2004). Research design. In M. Terre Blanche & K. Durrheim (Eds.), Research in practice: Applied methods for the social sciences. Cape Town: UCT Press.         [ Links ]

Easton, L., McComish, J.F. & Greenberg, R. (2000). Avoiding pitfalls in qualitative data collection and transcription. Qualitative Health Research, 10(5), 703-707.         [ Links ]

Fontana, A. & Frey, J.H. (1994). Interviewing: The art of science. In N.K. Denzin & Y.S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.         [ Links ]

Furnham, A. & Taylor, J. (2004). The dark side of behaviour at work: Understanding and avoiding employees leaving, thieving and deceiving. New York: Palgrave MacMillan.         [ Links ]

Glaser, B. & Strauss, A. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory. Chicago: Aldine.         [ Links ]

Guba, E.G. & Lincoln, Y.S. (1999). Competing paradigms in qualitative research. In N.K. Denzin & Y.S. Lincoln (Eds.), The landscape of qualitative research, theories and issues. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.         [ Links ]

Harkess, S.H. & Warren, C.B. (1993). The social relations of intensive interviewing, constellations of strangeness and science. Sociological Methods and Research, 21(3), 317-339.         [ Links ]

Harter, S. (2002). Authenticity. In C.R. Snyder & S.J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology. New York: Oxford.         [ Links ]

Henning, E., Van Rensburg, W. & Smit, B. (2004). Finding your way in qualitative research. Pretoria: Van Schaik.         [ Links ]

Hertz, R. & Imber, J.B. (1995). Studying elites using qualitative methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.         [ Links ]

Hogan, J. & Ones, D. (1997). Conscientiousness and integrity at work. In R. Hogan & J. Johnson (Eds.), Handbook of personality psychology. San Diego: Academic Press.         [ Links ]

Josselson, R. (2000). Relationship as a path to integrity, wisdom and meaning. In P. Young-Eisendrath & M.E. Miller (Eds.), The psychology of mature spirituality: Integrity, wisdom, transcendence. London: Routledge.         [ Links ]

Kelly, K. (2004). Hermeneutics in action: Empathy and interpretation in qualitative research. In M. Terre Blanche & K. Durrheim (Eds.), Research in practice: Applied methods for the social sciences. Cape Town: UCT Press.         [ Links ]

Kvale, S. (1996). Interviews: An introduction to qualitative research interviewing. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.         [ Links ]

Lapadat, J.C. & Lindsay, A.C. (1999). Transcription in research and practice: From standardisation of technique to interpretive positionings. Qualitative Inquiry, 5(1), 64-86.         [ Links ]

Leininger, M. (1994). Evaluation criteria and critique of qualitative research studies. In J.M. Morse (Ed.), Critical issues in qualitative research methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.         [ Links ]

Lennick, D. & Kiel, F. (2005). Moral intelligence. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Wharton School.         [ Links ]

Lickona, T. (2001). What is good character? [26 paragraphs]. Reclaiming children and youth, 9(4). Retrieved May 2, 2003, from the World Wide Web: http://www.proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?index

Locke, E.A. & Becker, T.E. (1998). Rebuttal to a subjectivist critique of and objectivist approach to integrity in organisations. Academy of Management Review, 23(1), 170-175.         [ Links ]

Locke, K. (2001). Grounded theory in management research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.         [ Links ]

Maree, A., Joubert, S.J. & Prinsloo, J.H. (1996). Die begrondingsteorie as navorsingsmetode. Acta Criminologica, 9(2), 47-54.         [ Links ]

Marshall, C. & Rossman, G.B. (1995). Designing qualitative research (2nd Ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.         [ Links ]

Mason, M. (2000). Values in multicultural education: Who's ethics? In M. Leicester, C. Modgil & S. Modgil (Eds.), Education, culture and values (Vol. VI: Moral education and pluralism). London: Falmer Press.         [ Links ]

Mason, M. (2001). The ethics of integrity: Educational values beyond postmodern ethics. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 53(1), 47-69.         [ Links ]

McFall, L. (1987). Integrity. Ethics, 98(1), 5-20.         [ Links ]

Mertens, D.M. & McLaughlin, J.A. (2004). Research and evaluation methods in special education. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.         [ Links ]

Miles, M.B. & Huberman, A.M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis (2nd Ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.         [ Links ]

Mills, J., Bonner, A. & Francis, K. (2006). The development of constructivist grounded theory. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 5(1).         [ Links ]

Mouton, J. (2002). Understanding social research. Pretoria: Van Schaik.         [ Links ]

Mouton, J. & Marais, H.C. (1996). Basic concepts in the methodology of the social sciences. Pretoria: HSRC.         [ Links ]

Muhr, T. (1997). ATLAS.ti - Visual qualitative data analysis management model building in education, research and business: Short user's manual. Berlin: Scientific Software Development.         [ Links ]

Murphy, K.R. (2000). What constructs underlie measures of honesty or integrity? In D.N. Jackson, R.D. Goffin & E. Helmes (Eds.), Problems and solutions in human assessment. London: Kluwer.         [ Links ]

Olsen, L.M. (2002). The relationship between moral integrity, psychological well-being and anxiety. Retrieved August 23, 2006, from the World Wide Web: http://www.charis.wlc.edu/publications/charis-spring02/olson.pdf        [ Links ]

Ones, D.S. (1993). The construct validity of integrity tests. Unpublished D dissertation, Iowa: University of Iowa City.         [ Links ]

Ones, D.S. & Viswesvaran, C. (2001). Integrity tests and other criterion-focussed occupational personality scales (COPS) used in personnel selection. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 9, 31-39.         [ Links ]

Ones, D.S., Viswesvaran, C. & Schmidt, F.L. (1993). Comprehensive meta-analysis of integrity test validities: Findings and implications for personnel selection and theories of job performance. Journal of Applied Psychology. 78(4), 679-703.         [ Links ]

Ostrander, S.A. (1995). Surely you're not in this just to be helpful: Access, rapport, and interviews in three studies of elites. In R. Hertz & J.B. Imber (Eds.), Studying elites using qualitative methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.         [ Links ]

Park, N. & Peterson, C.M. (2003). Virtues and organisations. In J.E. Dutton & R.E. Quinn (Eds.), Positive organisational scholarship: Foundations of a new discipline. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler.         [ Links ]

Peterson, C. & Seligman, M.E.P. (2004). Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification. New York. Oxford.         [ Links ]

Petrick, J.A. & Quinn, J.F. (1997). Management ethics: Integrity at work. London: Sage.         [ Links ]

Pidgeon, N. & Henwood, K. (1997). Using grounded theory in psychological research. In N. Hayes (Ed.), Doing qualitative analysis in psychology. Sussex: Psychology Press.         [ Links ]

Plummer, K. (2001). Documents of life 2: An invitation to critical humanism. London: Sage.         [ Links ]

Potter, J. & Hepburn, A. (2005). Qualitative interviews in psychology: Problems and possibilities. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 2(4), 281-307.         [ Links ]

Putman, D. (1996, June). Integrity and moral development. The Journal of Value Inquiry, 30, 237-246.         [ Links ]

Rieke, M.L. & Guastello, S.J. (1995). Unresolved issues in honesty and integrity testing. American Psychologist, 50, 458-459.         [ Links ]

Rosen, D.H. & Crouse, E.M. (2000). The Tao of wisdom. In P. Young-Eisendrath & M.E. Miller (Eds.), The psychology of mature spirituality. Integrity, wisdom, transcendence. London: Routledge.         [ Links ]

Rubin, H.J. & Rubin, I.S. (1995). Qualitative interviewing: The art of hearing data. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.         [ Links ]

Rust, J. (1999). The validity of the Giotto integrity test. Personality and Individual Differences, 27, 755-768.         [ Links ]

Schabracq, M.J. (2003). Everyday well-being and stress in work and organisations. In M.J. Schabracq, J.A.M. Winnubst & C.L. Cooper (Eds.), The handbook of work and health psychology. Chichester: Wiley.         [ Links ]

Schauber, N. (1996). Integrity, commitment and the concept of a person. American Philosophical Quarterly, 33(1), 119-129.         [ Links ]

Schofield, J.W. (2002). Increasing the generalisability of qualitative research. In A.M. Huberman & M.B. Miles (Eds.), The qualitative researcher's companion. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.         [ Links ]

Silverman, D. (2000). Doing qualitative research: A practical handbook. London: Sage.         [ Links ]

Simons, T. (2002). Behavioural integrity: The perceived alignment between managers' words and deeds as a research focus. Organization Science, 13(1), 18-37        [ Links ]

Smit, B. (2005). Computer assisted qualitative data software: Friend or foe. South African Computer Journal, 214(35), 107-111.         [ Links ]

Snape, D. & Spencer, L. (2004). The foundations of qualitative research. In J. Ritchie & J. Lewis (Eds.), Qualitative research practice: A guide for social science students and researchers. London: Sage.         [ Links ]

Strauss, A. & Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and techniques. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.         [ Links ]

Suddaby, R. (2006). From the editors: What grounded theory is not. Academy of Management Journal, 49(4), 633-642.         [ Links ]

Terre Blanche, M. & Kelly, K. (2004). Interpretive methods. In M. Terre Blanche & K. Durrheim (Eds.), Research in practice: Applied methods for the social sciences. Cape Town: UCT Press.         [ Links ]

Thomas, R.J. (1995). Interviewing important people in big companies. In R. Hertz & J.B. Imber (Eds.), Studying elites using qualitative methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.         [ Links ]

Warren, R. (2002). The purpose driven life. Michigan: Zondervan.         [ Links ]

Wolfinger, N.H. (2002). On writing fieldnotes: Collection strategies and background expectancies. Qualitative Research, 2(1), 85-95.         [ Links ]

Yin, R.K. (2003). Applications of case study research (2nd Ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.         [ Links ]

Young-Eisendrath, P. & Miller, M.E. (Eds.) (2000). The psychology of mature spirituality: Integrity, wisdom, transcendence. London: Routledge.         [ Links ]

 

 

Correspondence:
Antoni Barnard
E-mail: barnaha@unisa.ac.za