ARTICLES

Discipline in Nigerian schools within a human rights framework

Susanna Coetzee

Senior lecturer, Department of Teacher Education, University of South Africa

SUMMARY

Educators are agents of change and they have a mandate to change schools and classrooms into places where human rights are respected and taken into consideration when discretionary powers are exercised. Nigerian educators have a mandate to observe and promote human rights, not only because such rights are guaranteed in the Nigerian Constitution as the supreme law of the country, but also because the Nigerian government has committed itself to upholding human rights by ratifying and domesticating various international and regional human rights instruments. In this article the author argues for the suitability of a positive discipline approach as a way in which educators could fulfil their mandate to observe and foster children's rights. The author identifies human rights (with specific emphasis on children's rights) as found in international and regional human rights instruments as well as in domestic law that Nigerian educators must observe when establishing a disciplined classroom. Factors which hamper the implementation of human rights instruments such as the misinterpretation of the Constitution in the domestication of treaties and the respective legislative powers of the federal and state legislatures, the conflict between customary law and statutory law, the rejection of the supremacy of the Constitution by some religious groups, and the rejection of human rights instruments on the grounds of cultural and religious practices and customs, for example the traditional view of children as lesser beings and the view that corporal punishment is in the best interests of the child, are identified.

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* BA Ed (RAU), BEd MEd (Potchefstroom), DEd LLB (UNISA); Coetzsa1@unisa.ac.za
¹ P Newell 'Legal framework to end all violence against children' speech delivered at the Council of Europe Launch of Platform for Children's Rights, Strasbourg 2 June 2009 http://www.crin.org/resources/infoDetail.asp?ID=20444 (accessed 15 March 2010).         [ Links ]
2 C Carter & A Osler 'Human rights, identities and conflict management: A study of school culture as experienced through classroom relationships' (2000) 30 Cambridge Journal of Education 350; UNICEF A human right-based approach to education for all (2007) 22-25 http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0015/001548/154861e.pdf (accessed 19 March 2010).
³ P Newell 'Briefing from global initiative to end all corporal punishment of children' (2006) http://www.endcorporalpunishment.org/pages/pdfs/briefings/African%20 Commission%20briefing%20Nov%202006.pdf (accessed 10 February 2010).         [ Links ]
4 A Knott-Craig 'Positive about discipline' (2007) http://capetown.quaker.org/ posdispubs.htm (accessed 12 June 2007).         [ Links ]
5 Save the Children Sweden 'UN study on the violence against children: Ending physical and humiliating punishment of children. Making it happen' Part 1 (2005) 17.
6 Positive Discipline Association 'What is positive discipline?' (2009) http://www.positivediscipline.com/what-is-positive-discipline.html (accessed 27 July 2010).
7 Because these principles are repeated in the referenced sources and are interrelated, the author opted to include them in one reference. See Save the Children Sweden (n 5 above) 17; K Harper et al Ending physical and humiliating punishment of children: Manual for action (2005); UNESCO Embracing diversity: Toolkit for creating inclusive, learning-friendly environments. Specialised Booklet 1: Positive discipline in the inclusive, learning-friendly classroom. A guide for teachers and teacher educators (2006) http://www2.unescobkk.org/elib/publications/086/ (accessed 16 July 2010); DE Lee 'Cheating in the classroom: Beyond policing' (2009) 1 The Clearing House 173 http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-195083341.html (accessed 20 August 2009); G Pienaar 'A different approach to classroom discipline problems' (2003) 68 Koers 469; M Siers 'RAPCAN's positive discipline programme in schools: An overview' (2007) 3 Article 19 3; MC Yaroson & CE Zaria 'Strategies for curbing indiscipline in Nigerian secondary schools' paper delivered at national workshop on developing education: Issues of standard and sustainability in secondary schools in Nigeria 9-11 August 2004; R Rubin 'Building a comprehensive discipline system and strengthening school climate' (2004) 13 Reclaiming Children and Youth 168.
8 End All Corporal Punishment 'Interview with the author: Joan E Durrant' http://www.endcorporalpunishment.org/pages/pdfs/PositiveDisciplineManual-Interview.pdf (accessed 28 July 2010).
9 R Murray Human rights in Africa: From the OAU to the African Union (2004) 38-39.         [ Links ]
10 T Buergenthal et al International human rights in a nutshell (2004) 34. Nigeria ratified the Covenants in 1993; http://www.bayefsky.com/pdf/ccpr_ratif_table.pdf (accessed 16 February 2010).         [ Links ]
11 Buergenthal et al (n 10 above) 41-43. A discussion of these arguments falls outside the scope of this article. Please see the referenced source for an explanation of these arguments.
12 See fn 35 in N O'Neal 'Corporal punishment in schools: A call for legal reform' (2008) 8 African Human Rights Law journal 66 for references to proponents of this theory; E Egede 'Bringing human rights home: An examination of the domestication of human rights treaties in Nigeria' (2007) 51 journal of African Law 276. Also see Buergenthal et al (n 10 above) 42.
13 Federal Republic of Nigeria National Action Plan for the promotion and protection of human rights in Nigeria: 2009-2013 (2006) 18 92 http://www2.ohchr.org/english/ issues/plan_actions/index.htm (accessed 27 July 2010) (National Action Plan).
14 Art 1 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, GA Res 217 (III) UN Doc A/810 (10 December 1948).
15 Art 2 Universal Declaration.
16 Art 5 Universal Declaration.
17 Human Rights Committee General Comment 20 UN Doc HRI/GEN/1/Rev 1 30 (1994) http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/gencomm/hrcom20.htm (accessed 17 February 2010). International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights GA Res 2200A (XXI), UN Doc A/6316 (16 December 1966) art 7. Also see O'Neal (n 12 above) for references to proponents of this theory.
18 United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, 28 International Legal Materials 1448, 1577 UNTS 3 (20 November 1989). Nigeria ratified CRC in 1991.
19 Carter & Osler (n 2 above) 336.
20 G van Bueren 'Autonomy and the child: The international educational rights of the child' (1992) 56 Social Education 215.
21 Art 19 CRC. Also see Van Bueren (n 20 above) 215; S Bennett et al 'The need for a General Comment for article 19 of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child toward enlightenment and progress of child protection' (2009) 33 Child Abuse and Neglect 783-790.
22 CRC Committee General Comment 8 UN Doc CRC/C/GC/8 (2006).
23 Report of the Committee on the Rights of the Child to the General Assembly 64th session UN Doc A/63/41 (2008) 24; EEO Alemika et al 'Rights of the Child in Nigeria: Report on the implementation of the Convention on the Rights of the Child prepared for 38th session of the Committee on the Rights of the Child' January 2005 (2004) 15.
24 Art 3 CRC.
25 UNICEF 'The Convention on the Rights of the Child. Guiding principles: General requirements for all rights' http://www.unicef.org/crc/files/Guideing_Principles.pdf (accessed 18 February 2010).
26 Art 12 CRC.
27 UNICEF 'The Convention on the Rights of the Child. Survival and development rights: The basic rights to life, survival and development of one's full potential' http://www.unicef.org/crc/files/Survival_Development.pdf (accessed 18 February 2010).
28 L Lundy '"Voice" is not enough: Conceptualising article 12 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child' (2007) 33 British Educational Research Journal 930.
29 Lundy (n 28 above) 933.
30 Lundy (n 28 above) 934.
31 Lundy (n 28 above) 935.
32 Lundy (n 28 above) 936.
33 Lundy (n 28 above) 937 938; Positive Discipline Association (n 6 above).
34 UNICEF (n 27 above).
35 CRC Committee General Comment 1 UN Doc CRC/GC/2001/1 (2001).
36 Art 24(3) CRC.
37 T Kaime 'The Convention on the Rights of the Child and the cultural legitimacy of children's rights in Africa: Some reflections' (2005) 5 African Human Rights Law Journal 227.         [ Links ]
38 Nigeria ratified CAT in 2001.
39 See O'Neal (n 12 above) 68.
40 Art 1 United Nations Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, GA Res 39/46, 39 UN GAOR Supp (No 16) (1984).
41 See O'Neal (n 12 above) 68; E Chianu 'Two deaths, one blind eye, one imprisonment: Child abuse in the guise of corporal punishment in Nigerian schools' (2000) 24 Child abuse and neglect 1005-1009; Ekeogu v Aliri (1991) 3 NWLR (Pt 179).
42NAN 'Gov's wife faults corporal punishment in schools' Daily Trust 7 May 2009 http://allafrica.com/stories/200905070909.html (accessed 24 July 2010).
43 Chianu (n 41 above) 1005-1009; D Akhilomen 'Addressing child abuse in Southern Nigeria: The role of the church' (2006) 12 Studies in World Christianity 239.
44 Chianu (n 41 above) 1006.
45 Chianu (n 41 above) 1007.
46 UN Human Rights Committee Res 1998/38, ESCOR Supp (No 3) UN Doc E/ CN.4/1998/38 (1998) 134; Alemika et al (n 23 above) compiled the report on Rights of the child in Nigeria for the 38th session held in Geneva in January 2005 under the auspices of CLEEN and the OMCT. CLEEN is a non-governmental organisation with the mission of 'promoting public safety, security and accessible justice through the strategies of empirical research, legislative advocacy, demonstration programmes and publications, in partnership with government and civil society See http://www. cleen.org/about.html. OMCT is an 'international coalition of NGOs fighting against torture, summary executions, forced disappearances and all other forms of cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment'. See http://www.omct.org/. Inter-American Court of Human Rights Caesar v Trinidad & Tobago para 73 http://www.corteidh.or.cr/docs/casos/articulos/seriec_123_ing.pdf (accessed 27 July 2010).
47 Art 5 African Charter.
48 Art 18 African Charter.
49 BD Mezmur 'The African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child and corporal punishment: Spare the rod, spare the child' (2006) 2 Article 19 8.
50 African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child, OAU Doc CAB/LEG/24.9/49 (1990).
51 Mezmur (n 49 above) 9.
52 As above.
53 Art 3 African Children's Charter.
54 Art 4 African Children's Charter.
55 Art 11 African Children's Charter.
56 Art 16 African Children's Charter.
57 O'Neal (n 12 above) 70.
58 (2003) AHRLR 153 (ACHPR 2003) para 42; O'Neal (n 12 above) 71.
59 (2000) AHRLR 273 (ACHPR 2000) para 40.
60 S Waterhouse et al 'Ending corporal and other forms of humiliating punishment of children' presentation to the African Committee of Experts on the Rights and Welfare of the Child, 3 November 2008. http://www.rapcan.org.za/sanchpc/documents/Presentation_to_the_ACERWC.pdf (accessed 28 July 2010).         [ Links ]
61 Kaime (n 37 above) 227.
62 The African Youth Charter was adopted by the 7th ordinary session of the Assembly held in Banjul, The Gambia on 2 July 2006. The Charter is described as creating 'a legally binding framework for governments to develop supportive policies and programmes for young people ... It also provides a platform for youth to assert their rights and fulfil their responsibility of contributing to the continent's development.' See HSRC 'African Youth Charter' (2006) 4 HSRC Review http://www.hsrc.ac.za/ HSRC_Review_Article-34.phtml (accessed 18 March 2010). For more information on the history of the African Youth Charter, see D Mac-Ikemenjima 'Beyond Banjul: It's time to implement the African Youth Charter' (2009) AfriMAP http://www.afrimap. org/english/images/paper/AfriMAP-AYC-MacIkemenjima-EN.pdf (accessed 16 July 2010). African Union 'List of countries which have signed, ratified/acceded to the Youth Charter' as on 3 February 2010 http://www.africa-union.org/root/au/Documents/Treaties/list/Youth%20Charter.pdf (accessed 18 March 2010). For a definition of 'youth', see the section on definitions in the Youth Charter (2006).
63 Preamble African Youth Charter.
64 Federal Republic of Nigeria (n 13 above).
65 Arts 13(3)(b) & (c) African Youth Charter.
66 Federal Republic of Nigeria (n 13 above)
67 Although federal law should take precedence, state law still prevails in many states. See the discussion below. Alemika et al (n 23 above) 19. Also see Committee on the Rights of the Child 'Analysis of progress reports' (2008) http://www.Endcorporalpunishment.org/pages/progress/reports/Nigeria.html (accessed 23 February 2010).
68 Florence Olusa v Commissioner of Education, Ondo State and Marian Olaniyan High Court of Nigeria Law Report 1985 (1133); Chianu (n 41 above) 1006.
69 Egede (n 12 above) 268.
70 Committee on the Rights of the Child (n 68 above).
71 Egede (n 12 above) 270.
72 African Network for the Prevention and Protection against Child Abuse and Neglect 'Shadow report on the implementation of the African Union Charter on the Rights and Welfare of Children (AUCRWC) in Nigeria' (2010) http://www.crin.org/ resources/infoDetails.asp? ID=21769&flag=legal (accessed 15 March 2010).
73 Cap 10, commencement date 17 March 1983.
74 [2000] 6 NWLR (Part 660) 228; Egede (n 12 above) 251 254 261; Abacha & Others v Fawehinmi (2001) AHRLR 172 (NgSC 2000) per Ogundare JSC.
75 Federal Republic of Nigeria (n 13 above).
76 J Sloth-Nielsen & BN Mezmur 'Surveying the research landscape to promote children's legal rights in an African context' (2007) 7 African Human Rights Law journal 332.         [ Links ] Also see N Pillay 'Are human rights universal?' (2008) 2/3 UN Chronicle; L Lindholt Questioning the universality of human rights (1997) 102.
77 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 24 of 1999.
78 C Heyns Human rights law in Africa (2004) 1389.
79 T Oyesina 'Child Rights Act and problems of implementation' Nigerian Tribune 8 March 2010 http://www.tribune.com.ng/index.php/tribune-law/2242-child-rights-act-and-problem-of-implementation (accessed 28 July 2010);UNICEF 'Nigerian country programme: Information sheet: The Child Rights Act (2007) http://www.Unicef.org/wcaro/WCARO-Nigeria-Factsheets-CRA.pdf (accessed 11 February 2010).
80 UN Integrated Regional Information Networks 'Nigeria: Cross river passes Child Rights Act' (2009) http://allafrica.com/stories/printable/200905270587.html (accessed 11 February 2010); Egede (n 12 above) 271.
81 Egede (n 12 above) 271.
82 Secs 1 & 3 1999 Nigerian Constitution.
83 Sec 12(1) 1999 Nigerian Constitution.
84 Egede (n 12 above) 250-251.
85 Egede (n 12 above) 272.
86 Sec 4(5) 1999 Nigerian Constitution; Egede (n 12 above) 272.
87 UNICEF (n 79 above). Also see N Imoukhuende 'Right to protection, stop violence against children' paper presented to mark the 2006 Day of the African Child organised by the Edo state Ministry of Women Affairs on 26 June 2006 http://www. rufarm.kabissa.org/pressrelease/legalaid-day%20of%2african%20child.htm (accessed 10 March 2008).
88 UNICEF (n 79 above).
89 E Alaneme 'Nigeria: UNICEF kicks against non-passage of Child Rights Act' Daily Champion 24 November 2009. However, there are also those indicating that already 23 states have adopted the Act. See 'Global initiative to end all corporal punishment of children' Newsletter 8 June 2009 http://www.endcorporalpunishment.org/pages/pdfs/newsletters/Issue08-June2009.pdf (accessed 11 February 2010); W Ogbebo 'Any hope for the right of a child?' Leadership Nigeria 19 November 2009 http://www.leadershipnigeria.com/index.php/columns/views/features/ 8644-any-hope-for-the-right-of-a-child (accessed 11 February 2010).
90 Sloth-Nielsen & Mezmur (n 76 above) 349.
91 Sec 3 1999 Nigerian Constitution.
92 ES Nwauche 'Law, religion and human rights in Nigeria' (2008) 8 African Human Rights Law Journal 592.
93 See footnotes 99 and 100 in Nwauche (n 92 above) 592.
94 Nwauche (n 92 above) 592.
95 Sloth-Nielsen & Mezmur (n 76 above) 349; Nwauche (n 92 above) 575.
96 Sloth-Nielsen & Mezmur (n 76 above) 349; Egede (n 12 above) 281.
97 Pillay (n 76 above) 5.
98 T Bankole 'Africa's charter on children's rights: A normative break with cultural traditionalism' (1992) 41 International and Comparative Law Quarterly 432, A Pollis & P Schwab 'Human rights: A Western construct with limited applicability' in C Heyns & K Stefiszyn (eds) Human rights, peace and justice in Africa. A reader (2006) 93-94. For a detailed exposition of this argument, see Lindholt (n 76 above).
99 Sloth-Nielsen & Mezmur (n 76 above) 331.
100 Kaime (n 37 above) 224.
101 Lindholt (n 76 above) 52-53 250. See J Donnelly 'Cultural relativism and universal human rights' in Heyns & Stefiszyn (n 99 above) 96-106 for a discussion of the levels of cultural relativism.
102 Pillay (n 76 above) 4.
103 Pillay (n 76 above) 5.
104 Federal Republic of Nigeria (n 13 above).
105 As above.
106 Kaime (n 37 above) 221.
107 Egede (n 12 above) 272 282.
108 Akhilomen (n 43 above) 241; Oyesina (n 79 above).
109 See discussion above. Kaime (n 37 above) 231.
110 Kaime (n 37 above) 231.
111 G van Bueren International law on the rights of the child (1995) 47.
112 Global initiative to end all corporal punishment of children 'The Committee on the Rights of the Child' http://www.endcorporalpunishment.org/pages/hrlaw/crc_session.html (accessed 27 August 2009).
113 M Rishmawi 'The revised Arab Charter on Human Rights: A step forward?' (2005) 5 Human Rights Law Review 366-367.         [ Links ]
114 Rishmawi (n 113 above) 367.
115 AU Iwobi 'Tiptoeing through a constitutional minefield: The great Shari'a controversy in Nigeria' (2004) 48 Journal of African Law 137-138.
116 I Shuaibu 'Nigeria: Child Rights Act's anti-north, says Kano speaker' 10 February 2008 This Day http://allafrica.com/stories/200802111065.html (accessed 15 March 2010).         [ Links ]
117 Iwobi (n 115 above) 140.
118 Iwobi (n 115 above) 127. See H Bielefeldt 'Muslim voices in the human rights debate' in Heyns & Stefiszyn (n 99 above) 133-136 for a different view.