ARTICLES

Building on a global movement: Violence against women in the African context

Fareda Banda

Reader in the Laws of Africa, School of Oriental and African Studies, London, United Kingdom

SUMMARY

This article celebrates the gains that have been made by women in the field of human rights as they pertain to issues of violence. It provides an overview of international and regional initiatives illustrated with reference to case law. The focus of the article is on provisions in the African Protocol on Women's Rights tackling violence. While acknowledging that normative recognition of rights is not by itself the panacea for the pervasive discrimination that affects women, the article argues that the almost universal recognition of violence against women as constituting a violation of their fundamental rights is cause for celebration, not least because it provides the framework for dealing with the problem and provides states with concrete goals.

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* BL LLB (Zimbabwe), DPhil (Oxon); fb9@soas.ac.uk
1 Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights on the Rights of Women, 2003 http://www.africa-union.org (accessed 31 January 2008).
2 Sixteen Days of Violence Against Women is an international campaign lasting from 25 November to 10 December (International Human Rights Day). http://www.cwgl.rutgers.edu/16days/about.html (accessed 31 January 2008).
3 R Kapur 'Feminist critiques of human rights' in R Smith & C van den Anker (eds) The essentials of human rights (2005) 132 133.         [ Links ] See also R Kapur 'The tragedy of victimisation rhetoric: Resurrecting the 'native' subject in international post-colonial feminist legal rhetoric' (2002) 15 Harvard Human Rights Journal 1;         [ Links ] S Engle Merry Human rights and gender violence (2006) 101-2.         [ Links ]
4 Engle Merry (n 3 above) 81.
5 Kapur 'Feminist critiques of human rights' (n 3 above) 133.
6 D Kennedy 'The international human rights movement: Part of the problem?' (2002) 15 Harvard Human Rights Journal 101.         [ Links ]
7 M Robinson 'Foreword' in D Buss & A Manji (eds) International law: Modern feminist approaches (2005);         [ Links ] C Chinkin et al 'Feminist approaches to international law: Reflections from another century' in Buss & Manji 17 26 28.         [ Links ]
8 Millennium Development Goals http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/ (accessed 31 January 2008);         [ Links ] CESCR General Comment No 16, art 3: The equal rights of men and women to the enjoyment of all economic, social and cultural rights (34th session, 2005) UN Doc E/C.12/2005/3 (2005). P Valley 'From dawn to dusk, the daily struggle of Africa's women' The Independent, London, 21 September 2006.         [ Links ]
9 Chinkin et al (n 7 above) 44.
10 Universal Declaration on Human Rights, 1948 GA Res 217A (III) of 10 December 1948;         [ Links ] International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 1966 999 UNTS 171; International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 1966 999 UNTS 3.
11 See CEDAW General Recommendation No 12 on Violence Against Women, UN Doc A/44/38; CEDAW General Recommendation No 19 on Violence Against Women, UN Doc A/47/38.
12 Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women, GA Res 48/104, 20 December 1993.
13 World Conference on Human Rights, Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, 25 June 1993, UN Doc A/CONF. 157/23.
14 International Conference on Population and Development, Cairo, UN Doc A/CONF 171/13, 18 October 1994.
15 Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, 1995 reproduced in United Nations Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action with the Beijing + 5 Political Declaration and Outcome Document (2001).
16 African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights (1981) 21 International Legal Materials 59;         [ Links ] C Heyns & M Killander (eds) Compendium of key human rights documents of the African Union (2007) 29.         [ Links ]
17 The Prevention and Eradication of Violence Against Women and Children, an Addendum to the 1997 Declaration on Gender and Development by SADC Heads of State and Government. reproduced in (1999) 1 SADC Gender Monitor 37. SADC is in the process of finalising a draft Protocol on Gender and Development as amended by senior officials responsible for gender and women affairs, in Livingstone, Zambia, 13 December 2007. See in particular part 6 (arts 23-28) (on file with author).
18 Arts 2 & 7 Universal Declaration; arts 2(1), 3 & 26 CCPR; arts 2(2) & 3 CESCR.
19 Art 5 Universal Declaration; art 7 CCPR. See also Convention against Torture and other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, 1984, 1465 UNTS 85 and the Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women who has noted that VAW can constitute torture. Report of the Special Rapporteur on Violence against Women, Ms R Coomeraswamy, submitted in accordance with Commission on Human Rights Resolution 1995/85, E/CN 4/1996/53, 6 February 1996. See also C Mackinnon 'On torture: A feminist perspective on human rights' in K Mahoney & P Mahoney (eds) Human rights in the 21st century: A global perspective (1993) 21.         [ Links ]
20 Art 3 Universal Declaration; art 6(1) CCPR.
21 Art 11(1) CESCR. See also CESCR General Comment No 12 on the Right to Adequate Food E/C12/1999/5;         [ Links ] C Chinkin & S Wright 'The hunger trap: Women, food and self-determination' (1993) 4 Michigan Journal of International Law 262;         [ Links ] D Brand 'The right to food' in D Brand & C Heyns (eds) Socio-economic rights in South Africa (2005) 153.         [ Links ]
22 Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989 GA Res 44/25 of 20 November 1989.         [ Links ]
23 African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child, 1990 OAU Doc CAB/LEG/24.9/49.         [ Links ]
24 Art 19 CRC; art 16 African Children's Charter.
25 Art 6 CRC; art 5(1) African Children's Charter.
26 Art 2 CRC, art 3 African Children's Charter.
27 H Charlesworth & C Chinkin 'Violence against women: A global issue' in J Stubbs (ed) Women, male violence and the law Institute of Criminology Monograph (1994) 13.         [ Links ] It is worth noting that Nairobi did consider the issue in more detail than at previous conferences which had only touched on domestic violence.
28 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, 1979 1249 UNTS 13.         [ Links ]
29 However, see art 2(g) on states' obligation to 'repeal all national penal provisions which constitute discrimination against women', which arguably would include rape laws requiring the complainant to corroborate her testimony.
30 Starting with General Recommendation No 12 on violence against women UN Doc A/44/38 (1990).
31 General Recommendation No 19 para 6.
32 n 31 above, para 7.
33Velasquez Rodriguez v Honduras 4 Inter Am Ct HR Ser C No 4 1988, reproduced in R Emerton et al (eds) International women's rights cases (2005) 91.         [ Links ] See also the Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment and Eradication of Violence against Women, 9 June 1994 (1994) 33 International Legal Materials 960 (Convention of Belem do Para).         [ Links ]
34 CEDAW General Recommendation No 19 para 9.
35 n 34 above, paras 10-23.
36 n 34 above, para 24.
37 States are obliged to send the first post-ratification report a year after depositing instruments of ratification and thereafter every four years. See arts 18(1)(a) & (b) CEDAW.
38 Although general recommendations are non-binding, it is worth noting that the Indian Supreme Court has adopted the provisions of CEDAW General Recommendation No 19 in its decision in the case of Vishaka v State of Rajasthan 1997 (6) SCC 241, in which it noted that sexual harassment was a manifestation of violence against women and urged the government of Rajasthan to adopt CEDAW General Recommendation No 19 in drawing up guidelines to deal with violence against women; V Chaudhuri 'Sexual harassment' (1998) (5) Indian Journal of Gender Studies 115.         [ Links ]
39 Engle Merry (n 3 above) 76.
40 H Charlesworth & C Chinkin The boundaries of international law (2000) 12-14.         [ Links ]
41 Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women GA Res 48/104 of 20 December 1993.
42 n 41 above, Preamble para 7.
43 n 41 above, art 2. This is anticipated in CEDAW General Recommendation No 19 para 3.
44 Art 4 DEVAW.
45 Arts 4(e) & 5(h) DEVAW.
46 Art 5 DEVAW.
47 United Nations Commission on Human Rights Resolution 1994/45 on the question of integrating the rights of women into human rights mechanisms of the UN and the elimination of violence against women, adopted on 4 March 1994.
48 As above.
49 Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women in the Family E/CN 4/1996/53 and E/CN 4/1999/68.
50 Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women Violence against women perpetrated or condoned by the state during times of armed conflict (1997-2000) E/CN 4/2001/73.
51 Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women Cultural practices in the family that are violence towards women E/CN 4/2002/83.
52 See http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/women/rapporteur/visits.htm (accessed 31 January 2008).         [ Links ]
53 See also World Health Organisation (WHO) World Report on Violence and Health (2002).         [ Links ]
54 ICPD 1994 Principle 4.
55 A Carbert et al A handbook for advocacy in the African human rights system Advancing reproductive and sexual health (2002).         [ Links ]
56 Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action para 112.
57 n 56 above, para 44.
58 n 56 above, Strategic Objective D1.
59 n 56 above, Strategic Objective D2.
60 Beijing + 5 Outcome Document Reproduced in United Nations Beijing to Beijing + 5: Review and appraisal of the implementation of the Beijing Platform for Action (2001) 195.         [ Links ] See section D para 13. However, para 14 identifies some of the obstacles that remain to be overcome.
61 Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women, 1999 GA Res 54/4, 6 October 1999.         [ Links ] B Sokhi-Bulley 'The Optional Protocol to CEDAW: First steps' (2006) 6 Human Rights Law Review 143.         [ Links ]
62 AT v Hungary Communication 2/2003, views adopted on 26 January 2005, 32nd session.
63 Compare the South African case of S v Baloyi 2000 2 SA 425 which dealt, amongst other things, with the tension between an accused person's right under criminal law to be presumed innocent until conviction (proof beyond all reasonable doubt) and the right of a woman alleging violence to have an interdict preventing the continuation of violence granted to her under civil law (proof on a balance of probabilities).
64AT v Hungary (n 62 above) paras II(v) & 11(vi).
65 CEDAW Committee 'Report on Mexico Produced by the Committee on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women under article 8 of the Optional Protocol to the Convention and Reply from the Government of Mexico' UN Doc CEDAW/C/2005/OP.8/MEXICO, 27 January 2005.
66 Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action Strategic Objective D3 (on trafficking and prostitution).
67 Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, Supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organised Crime, 2000 UN Doc GA Res 55/383, 15 November 2000.
68 UNHCHR Recommended Principles and Guidelines on Human Rights and Human Trafficking, 2002 UN Doc E/2002/68/Add 1.         [ Links ]
69 Art 5 African Charter.
70 Art 4 African Charter.
71 Art 16 African Charter.
72 Art 2 African Charter.
73 Solemn Declaration on Gender Equality in Africa, Assembly/AU/Decl 12 & 13 (III), Assembly of Heads of State and Government 3rd ordinary session 6-8 July 2004, Addis Ababa.         [ Links ]
74 Addendum (n 17 above). The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) has a Declaration on the Fight against Trafficking in Persons, A/DC/12/12/01 25th ordinary session of the Authority of Heads of State and Government, Dakar, 20-21 December 2001. See also Annexe a la Recommendation 03/99/CM/UEMOA. Plan d'action communitaire pour le renforcement du role de la femme dans l'UEMOA, 1.1 Santé, http:/www.uemoa.int/actes/dec99/anex1_REC_03_99.htm (accessed 30 April 2008).         [ Links ]
75 See also 'Gender and development: A declaration of the Southern African Development Community, 1997' reproduced in (1999) 1 SADC Gender Monitor 34, art H(ix).         [ Links ]
76 See also Engle Merry (n 3 above) 77.
77 Addendum to the SADC Declaration art 5.
78 n 77 above, arts 5(a)-(c).
79 As above.
80 CEDAW General Recommendation No 12.
81 Namibia Combating of Rape Act 8 of 2000, Combating of Domestic Violence Act 4 of 2003.         [ Links ] However, little seems to have been done by the government by way of educating the population about the existence of the 2003 statute. See Namibia Economist 'Combating of Domestic Violence Act enforced' http://www.economist.com.na/2004/6aug/08-06-18.htm; South Africa Domestic Violence Act 116 of 1998.         [ Links ]
82 H v H 1999 (2) ZLR 358.
83 See also Namibia Combating of Rape Act 2000 (n 81 above), sec 2(3).
84 n 77 above, art 14. See also art 20 on the training of officials and service providers.
85 n 77 above, art 15.
86 n 77 above, art 13.
87 n 77 above, art 25.
88 n 77 above, art 26.
89 CEDAW General Recommendation No 19 para 11.
90 Art 2(2) African Women's Protocol. See also arts 4(2)(d), (f) & 5(a). See also CEDAW General Recommendation No 19 para 11.
91 Art 3(4) African Women's Protocol.
92 As above.
93 Art 4(2)(a) African Women's Protocol.
94 See discussion in F Banda Women, law and human rights: An African perspective (2005) 172-176.         [ Links ]
95 International Conference on the Great Lakes Region Protocol on the Prevention and Suppression of Sexual Violence against Women and Children, 30 November 2006 http://www.icglr.org/common/docs/docs_repository/protsexualviolence.pdf (accessed 31 January 2008).         [ Links ]
96MC v Bulgaria ECHR (Application 39272/98) Judgment, Strasbourg, 4 December 2003, para 166.
97 Art 4(2)(b) African Women's Protocol.
98 Art 4(2)(e) African Women's Protocol.
99 Art 4(2)(f) African Women's Protocol.
100 South African courts have set an admirable precedent in dealing with cases of gender-based violence. See S v Baloyi (Minister of Justice & Another Intervening) 2000 2 SA 425 (CC); 2000 1 BCLR 86 (CC); Carmichele v Minister of Safety & Another (Centre for Applied Legal Studies Intervening) 2001 4 SA 938 (CC); Omar v Government of the Republic of South Africa & Others CCT 47/04; Kern v Minister of Safety and Security CCT 52/04.
101 Art 4(2)(i) African Women's Protocol.
102 Art 10(3) African Women's Protocol.
103 See eg R Masika Gender, trafficking and slavery (2002).
104 Compare art 13(g) African Women's Protocol.
105 Human Rights Watch Borderline slavery: Child trafficking in Togo (2003);         [ Links ] 'Nigeria: Domestic workers or modern day slaves?' http://www.pambazuka.org/en/category/wgender/37175 (accessed 18 September 2006).         [ Links ]
106 International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of their Families GA Res 45/158 of 18 December 1990.         [ Links ] See Chinkin et al (n 7 above) 30-31; B Ehrenreich & A Hochschild Global woman: Nannies, maids and sex workers in the new economy (2003).         [ Links ]
107 UNHCHR Recommended Principles and Guidelines on Human Rights and Human Trafficking, 2002, UN Doc E/2002/68/Add 1.         [ Links ]
108 See Preamble, arts 2(1)(b) & 2(2) African Women's Protocol.
109 Preamble, art 1(g) African Women's Protocol.
110 CEDAW General Recommendation No 19 para 11.
111 Art 5 African Women's Protocol.
112 The term 'female genital mutilation' is used in the Protocol. A Rahman & N Toubia Female genital mutilation: A guide to laws and practices (2000);         [ Links ] Centre for Reproductive Rights Female genital mutilation: A matter of human rights ( 2003). See also Cairo Declaration for the Elimination of Female Genital Mutilation, 2003 http://www.stopfgm.org/stopfgm.doc/EN/216.rtf (accessed 31 January 2008).         [ Links ]
113 C Momoh 'FGM and issues of gender and human rights of women' in C Momoh (ed) Female genital mutilation (2005) 13.         [ Links ]
114 CEDAW General Recommendation No 14 on Female Circumcision, UN Doc A/45/38 (1990); CEDAW General Recommendation No 19 on Violence against Women; CEDAW General Recommendation No 24 on Health, UN Doc A/54/38 (2003). See also art 24(3) CRC and art 21(1)(b) African Children's Charter.
115 United Nations General Assembly Traditional or Customary Practices Affecting the Health of Women and Girls, Report of the Secretary-General A/58/169, 18 July 2003.         [ Links ]
116 L Mcloskey et al 'Gender inequality and intimate partner violence among women in Moshi, Tanzania' (2005) 31 International Family Planning Perspectives 124.         [ Links ]
117 See eg Sachs J in S v Baloyi 2000 2 SA 425 paras 11 & 12. See also CEDAW General Recommendation No 19 para 23.
118 CEDAW General Recommendation No 21 para 40.
119 L Tibatemwa-Ekirikubinza 'Family relations and the law in Uganda: Insights into current issues?' in A Bainham (ed) International survey of family law 2002 (2002) 437.         [ Links ]
120 F Kaganas & C Murray 'Law, women and the family in the new South Africa' (1991 ) Acta juridica 116.         [ Links ]
121 W Wabwile Child support rights in Kenya and the United Nations (2001) 267 fn 2.         [ Links ]
122 Art 6(c) African Women's Protocol.
123 Arts 6(a) & (b) African Women's Protocol.
124 Art 20(a) African Women's Protocol.
125 U Ewelukwa 'Post-colonialism, gender, customary injustice: Widows in African societies' (2002) 24 Human Rights Quarterly 424.         [ Links ] There are other 'traditions' which constitute degrading treatment. See also the Nigerian case of Muojekwo & Others v Ejikeme & Others [2000] 5 NWLR 402.
126 M Owen A world of widows (1996).
127 Art 20(c) African Women's Protocol.
128 See also E Durojaye 'Advancing gender equity in access to HIV treatment through the Protocol on the Rights of Women in Africa' (2006) 6 African Human Rights Law Journal 188.         [ Links ]
129 See eg Centre for Reproductive Rights ICPD + 5 gains for women despite opposition (2000).         [ Links ]
130 Banda (n 94 above) 186.
131 See eg the South African report to CEDAW Initial Report of States Parties: South Africa (1998) CEDAW/C/ZAF/1 119;         [ Links ] World Bank Education and HIV/AIDS: A window of hope (2002) 22 23.         [ Links ]
132 R Jewkes et al 'Rape of girls in South Africa' (2002) 359 The Lancet 319.         [ Links ]
133 Provided for in art 12(1)(c).
134 Art 12(1)(d) African Women's Protocol.
135 Art 12(2)(c) African Women's Protocol. See also art 10(f) CEDAW.
136 Art 13(c) African Women's Protocol. The Indian Supreme Court has ruled that sexual harassment constitutes a violation of the right to equality and also the right to life because a woman who is harassed may not be able to continue to work to earn a livelihood. Apparel Export Promotion Council v Chopra 1999 (1) SCC 759.
137 CEDAW General Recommendation No 19 para 18.
138 Art 13(m) African Women's Protocol.
139 See CEDAW Reporting Guidelines in United Nations, IWRAW, Commonwealth Secretariat Assessing the status of women: A guide to reporting under the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (2000).         [ Links ] See questions to art 5, questions 5 and 21.
140 C de Than 'Violence against women in war time' in Smith & Van den Anker (n 3 above) 360 362. See also J Gardham & H Charlesworth 'Protection of women in armed conflict' (2000) 22 Human Rights Quarterly 148.         [ Links ]
141 Human Rights Watch Genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity: Topical digest of the case law of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda and the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (2004).         [ Links ] Chinkin et al (n 7 above) 23; Emerton et al (n 33 above) xlii. However, see V Nikolic-Ristanovic 'Sexual violence, international law and restorative justice' in Buss & Manji (n 7 above) 273.
142 Art 11 African Women's Protocol.
143 N Dyani 'Protocol on the Rights of Women in Africa: Protection of women from sexual violence during armed conflict' (2006) 6 African Human Rights Law Journal 166.         [ Links ]
144 Arts 3 & 4 ICTR Statute.
145 Art 5 ICTY Statute.
146 Rome Statute for the International Criminal Court, 1998 UN Doc A/CONF 183/9 (17 July 1998) arts 7 & 8.
147 In the Case of Akayesu ICTR-96-4-T.
148 Art 11(3) African Women's Protocol.
149 Human Rights Watch 'Struggling to survive: Barriers to justice for rape victims in Rwanda' (2004) 16 Human Rights Watch;         [ Links ] Human Rights Watch 'Seeking justice: The prosecution of sexual violence in the Congo war' (2005) 17 Human Rights Watch.         [ Links ]
150 Optional Protocol to the Children's Rights Convention on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict GA Res A/RES/54/263 of 25 May 2000; art 38 CRC. See also art 22 of the African Children's Charter; Amnesty International 'Sierra Leone: Childhood a casualty of conflict' AI Index AFR 5/069/2000; Children and Armed Conflict, Report of the Secretary-General, 10 November 2003 UN Doc A/58/546-S/2003/1053. See also 'Coalition to stop the use of child soldiers' http://www.child-soldiers.org (accessed 31 January 2008).         [ Links ]
151 De Than (n 140 above) 362. See also Great Lakes Protocol (n 95 above).
152 Security Council Resolution 1325 on Women, Peace and Security (31 October 2000). See Message of the Secretary-General of the United Nations on International Women's Day 8 March 2006 http://www.un.org/events/women/iwd/2006/mes-sage.html (accessed 31 January 2008).         [ Links ] See also Report of the Secretary-General on Equal Participation of Women and Men in Decision-Making Processes at All Levels, December 2005 E/CN.6/2006/13.         [ Links ]
153 See also Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination General Comment No 25 on Gender-Related Dimensions of Racial Discrimination (20 March 2000) UN Doc A/55/18 Annex V 152 (2000).         [ Links ]
154 Art 22(b) African Women's Protocol.
155 Art 23(b) African Women's Protocol. 'Sexual abuse of women with disabilities' Disability Update 28 August to 5 September 2006 http://www.kubatana.net (accessed 31 January 2008).         [ Links ]
156 Art 24 African Women's Protocol.