ARTICLES

 

The Deity in the Definite Article: lassaw' and related terms for Ba'al in Jeremiah

 

 

C. Wynand Retief

University of the Free State, South Africa

 

 

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ABSTRACT

The general consensus is that the abstract noun saw ' (ו א )in the HB/OT, with the basic meaning of worthlessness, inefficacy, deceit, emptiness, falsehood, lie, could refer either to these qualities in general (typically translated in the English as "in vain"), or could refer to anti-Yahweh idolatry. The choice has been rather arbitrary and inconsistent, relying on the reader's view of what the text would want to convey. This study builds on the assumption that the definiteness of the noun determines its semantic value, and should be a major factor in determining the general versus polemic meaning of saw' (שׁו), although this grammatico-semantic distinction is unaccounted for in standard lexicons and most commentaries. The study limits itself to the book of Jeremiah, where saw ' only appears in its definite form, as lassãw'. Remarkably three other similarly defined nouns are located in the same text blocks in Jeremiah, namely hasseqer, habboset and hahebel (mostly with prefixed prepositions). Thefact that they all have indefinite counterparts in Jeremiah, strengthens the argument that the presence or absence of the definite article is not arbitrary, but noteworthy and meaningful. The fact that these four determined nouns (hassãw ', hasseqer, habboset and hahebel) all function in the same broader text in Jeremiah, with the deity Ba'al also mentioned consistently and exclusively in the definite form (mostly singular habba'al, rarely plural habbe 'alïm) leads to the hypothesis that the defined nouns under discussion are all references to Ba'al, with a suggested rhetorical function of disparagement of the deity. The plausibility of the hypothesis is tested in this particular study by means of an exegetical exercise which zooms in on the interface of the nouns under discussion in a selected range of texts. The exegetical approach is obviously launched from the mentioned theoretical stance, seeking to discover features of the text that support interpretation in line with the hypothesis.

Keywords: Jeremiah; Baal; exegesis.

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A INTRODUCTION: RATIONALE AND BACKGROUND

This study originates from two curiosities: firstly the well-known wording of the third commandment as "You shall not take the Name of the LORD in vain'", while it is literally a prohibition to "lift up (the name of yhwh) to the vanity", lassaw' (the definite article merged with the preposition ל־ preceding saw'), consequently begging the question what or whom "the vanity" might be. The second curiosity following from this observation is the fourfold appearance of lassaw' in Jeremiah, once (18:15) for sure in the form of an idol, maybe Ba'al himself. The reading of lassaw' in the Jeremiah text with the consideration that the Masoretic orthographic signs transformed saw' into the definite form by design, is confirmed by the discovery of three similar nouns in the surrounding text, namely hasseqer, habboset, and hahebel (mostly with prefixed prepositions) who are all intentionally written in their definite forms, as is evident from the fact that all of them happen to have indefinite counterparts in MT Jeremiah.

The grammatical possibility that nouns in the definite form can be classified as proper nouns¹ (names), the insight that לַשָּׁוְא² in at least Jeremiah 18:5 refers to an idol³, and the multiple occurrences of the name of the deity Ba'al in the definite form habba'al (הַבַעַל)⁴in MT Jeremiah, beg the question whether all these references or allusions are not pointing to the same subject, namely Ba'al. In the light of the shared semantic fields of these nouns, the rhetorical function of these allusions seems to be 'naming and shaming,' disparaging the named candidate (and by implication his associates), typically in the vernacular of our day a 'disgraced fake'⁵.

In this regard a quick glance at different translations and commentaries shows signs of recognition to unspecified deities. One example should suffice: Traditionally translations rendered לַשָׁוא with "in vain" or words to that effect in all five occurrences of the word in Jeremiah (2:30, 4:30, 6:29, 18:15 and 46:11). Its occurrence in Jeremiah 18:15, however, opened up the insight that it may refer to idols. Although most translations of this verse, up to the beginning of the 20^th century, maintained forms of "in vain,"⁶ for לַשָׁוא , since the end of the 19^thcentury it became apparent that translators have been working with the premise that the proposition ל in לַשָׁוא in the combination קטר ל־ indicates the object of worship to which the incense offerings are offered, with the implication that לַשָׁוא cannot simply be describing the futility of the religious ceremony. In other words, is acknowledged to be the recipient of sacrifices, therefore a deity other than yhwh. In other words, a vain, worthless, idol⁷. It should be noted that long before the modern era, already by 1534, the translators of the Lutheran Bible showed this insight⁸. Although some interpreters of Jeremiah 18:15 connect the idol(s) to Ba'al⁹, it does not seem to be grounded in the rhetorical implications of the grammatical definiteness of the noun¹⁰. Even in recent translations the noun is still rendered as indefinite¹¹.

As for the other occurrences of לַשָׁוא in Jeremiah (2:30, 4:30, 6:29, 46:11), only a few commentators¹², but no translations, have considered the possibility that they might be of the same order as Jeremiah 18:15. The obvious rationale is that some form of "in vain" makes translational sense in all the texts apart from 18:15. The latent semantic difference between the definite and indefinite forms of the word is apparently not considered, or the assumption is that the definiteness of the word bears no real semantic value. All or at least most of the lexicons and semantic and theological dictionaries reflect this stance by not distinguishing the indefinite from the definite forms of these nouns. The dictionary entry in Koehler and Baumgartner (KAHAL) of ¹³שוא contains examples of the lexeme with the definite article haphazardly inserted in between the indefinite form¹⁴. The possibility that there may be a (collective) variation of meaning of the same noun in the definite form, is not perceived. The same applies to the entries of the aforementioned related nouns¹⁵. At the time of this research the online Semantic Dictionary of Biblical Hebrew only has the name , ¹⁶שְוָׁא which is not helpful. The theological dictionary series at my disposal¹⁷ is likewise of little avail regarding שָׁוְא saw' ¹⁸, שֶׁקֶׁר; seqer^19,הֶׁבֶׁל hebel²⁰and בֹּשֶׁׁ böset²¹.

 

B BA'AL AS CANDIDATE FOR NAMING AND SHAMING

Within the book of Jeremiah, the proper name Ba'al (in the singular) occurs eleven times²², plus twice in the plural²³. In all instances, as with the other occurrences of the name for the deity, it is written in the definite form, either as הַבַעַל or in the construct form, as a combination name²⁴. Remarkably שוא likewise it occurs in Jeremiah only in the preposition-prefixed definite form לַשָׁוְא (Jeremiah 2:30, 4:30, 6:29, 18:15 and 46:11).

A quick reading of the same text blocks reveals three other abstract nouns in the same formal and semantic category as לַשָּׁוא, namely seqer, שֶׁׁקֶׁר hebel and בֹּשֶׁׁת bõset. All of them occur both with and without the article. In their definite forms שֶׁׁקֶׁר occurs 12 times²⁵, הַהֶׁבֶׁל only in 2:5²⁶, and הַבֹּשֶׁת twice, in 3:24 and as לַבֹּשֶׁׁת in 11:13²⁷.

Of significance is that all four these abstract nouns in their definite forms are possible allusions to Ba'al. The indefinite forms of seqer, שֶׁׁקֶׁר hebel and הֶׁבֶׁל bõset are mostly adjectives describing other nouns, and therefore not specifically references to Ba'al, but possibly to an idol or idols: שֶׁׁקֶׁר seqer appears 23 times²⁸, הֶׁ בֶׁ ל hebel five times²⁹ and 10:8 in the plural, and בֹּ שֶׁ ת boset four times³⁰.

 

 

Hypothesis

The above-mentioned observations and preliminary investigation suggest the following hypothesis:

1. The Masoretic punctuation and vocalisation system serves as an indicator of the Masoretes' interpretation of the unvocalized, unmarked Proto-Masoretic text³¹. It seems that one such indication in MT Jeremiah is an identification marker for the deity in opposition to the God of Israel, specifically by the vocalisation of לשׁוא. The MT vocalisation of לשׁוא as לשׁוא and not לשׁוא marks it as a definite noun, formally in line with the definite nouns הַשֶׁקֶׁר , הַהֶׁבֶׁל , הַבֹּשֶׁׁת (and their preposition-prefixed forms). This formally coincides with הַבַעַל (and its preposition-prefixed forms) in MT Jeremiah. The interpretational implication of the Masoretic vocalisation of לשׁוא brings it into the orbit of the deity Ba'al, while at the same time distinguishing it from the indefinite forms of הַשֶׁקֶׁר ,הַהֶׁבֶׁל and הַבֹּשֶׁׁת which are numerously presented in MT Jeremiah as descriptions of falseness and disgrace in general (without excluding the possibility that the indefinite forms might also function as indicators of idol worship).

2. The deity in opposition to yhwh mostly referred to in Jeremiah, is הַבַ על habba'al (twice in the plural הַבְעַלִׁים habb^e'alïm). The name of this deity is always written in MT Jeremiah with the article, formally on par with the definite nouns under discussion (שָּׁׁוְא , שֶׁׁקֶׁר , הֶׁבֶׁל , בֹּשֶׁׁת). Quantitively the occurrence of הַבַעַל together with multiple occurrences of one or more of the aforementioned terms (or the certainty that the term refers to an idol, e.g. habboset in Jeremiah 11:13) in the co-text is a good indication that - apart from the formal similarities - these terms, understood as proper nouns, are references to the deity.

3. The shared rhetorical value of these nouns in terms of their overlapping semantic fields resorts to the category of denigration. If understood as proper nouns referring or alluding to the deity, they could serve the function of demeaning, derogatory, disparaging names for Ba'al, emphasizing the deity's lack of status, integrity, power, and reliability.

4. A small number of abstract nouns in this group is not grammatically determined by the definite article but by a pronominal suffix or in status constructus bound to a definite noun³². Formally they are not classified as proper nouns and can strictly speaking not function as pejorative nicknames (of the deity). If, however, they appear in tandem with their article defined counterparts, two possible functions could be ascribed to them: (1) referring or alluding to a deity or deities; (2) signifying the generally accepted lexical meaning of the noun. This assumption is based on the phenomenon within MT Jeremiah that seqer, boset and hebel occur in both their definite and indefinite forms. These two referential functions do not necessarily exclude each other. Boset בֹּשֶׁׁת in בָּׁשְׁתֵנוּ ] in Jeremiah 3:25 comes to mind as an example³³.

 

C TESTING AND DEMONSTRATING THE PLAUSIBILITY OF THE HYPOTHESIS EXEGETICALLY

The plausibility of the hypothesis is to be tested by means of an exegetical exercise which zooms in on the interface of the nouns under discussion, while at the same time demonstrating new interpretational possibilities of the text. The semantic connectivity of the relevant terms is to be established in text blocks where the interface of these terms is significant. For practical reasons this study has to be limited to a brief discussion of Jeremiah 2:4-13, 3:21-25, 5:30-31, 7:49, 11:9-13 and 18:13-17. The demarcations are partly determined by the logic of literary context. If perceived historical background, origin and use of the text is mentioned, it is simply meant as background information. The discussion starts out with Jeremiah 1:16 as basis, followed by the first part (v 4-9) of the temple sermon in Jeremiah 7, and then the rest of the passages in chapter order.

1 Introduction

The reason for God's judgement by word of Jeremiah (1:16) is the worship of "other gods", אלהים אחרים:

לְמַעֲשֵי יְדֵיהֶׁם ׃וְדִבַרְתִי מִשְפָׁטַי אֹּותָׁם עַל כָׁל־רָׁעָׁתָׁם אֲשֶׁר עֲזָׁבוּנִי וַיְקַטְרוּ לֵאלֹהִים אֲחֵרִים וַיִשְתַחֲווּ

And I will utter my judgements against them, for all their wickedness: they abandoned me and made incense offerings to other gods, and worshipped the works of their own hands.

"Other gods", אלהים אחרי, is a key term in Jeremiah occurring throughout the book³⁴ as object of Israel's idolatrous worship³⁵, and noteworthy for our study, as it appears to be one of many allusions to the (non-Israelite) deities. The introduction of this term in 1:16 is explicated in the so-called temple sermon in Jeremiah 7 (in verses 6 and 9).

2 Jeremiah 7:4-9 (within 7:1-15)

The condition is set for Israel to be allowed by YHWH to remain in the land: they have to reform their ways, act justly with one another, and stop following "other gods" (7:6). The rhetorical question (in verse 9 and 10) makes it clear that Israel is indeed guilty of immorality, and did "follow other gods", אֲחֵרִיםהָׁלֹךְ אַחֲרֵי אֱלֹהִים^36--and then feel safe in the house of yhwh! The reason and source for the self-deception is already repudiated in Jeremiah 7:4 (אַל־תִבְטְחוּ לָׁכֶׁם אֶׁל־דִבְרֵי הַשֶׁקֶׁר), now stated in verse 8³⁷ as follows:

הִנֵֵּ֤ה אַתֶׁם֙ בֹּטְחִִ֣ים לָׁכֶֶׁ֔ם עַל־דִבְרֵֵ֖י הַשָָּׁׁ֑קֶׁר לְבִלְתִֵ֖י הֹּועִִֽיל׃

The standard translation of this phrase is:

"Look, you trusted in deceptive words which are of no avail"

However, grammatically הַשֶׁקֶׁר does not qualify as an attributive adjective to הַשֶׁקֶׁר. Deceptive words = דברים שקרים³⁸, while הַשֶׁקֶׁר is a definite noun, one of the nouns possibly understood by the MT as a derogatory or disparaging name for Ba'al. In fact, the people's unwarranted trust is in "the words of הַשֶׁקֶׁר, The Deceptive One". Instead of listening to and trusting in the Word(s) of Yahweh, they put their trust "in the words of The Lie"^39, as John A. Thompson renders the expression, with the following remark: "One wonders whether Jeremiah may not have been making use here of the expression The Lie to describe some pagan deity like Ba'al... "⁴⁰

It is noteworthy that הַשֶׁקֶׁר is repeated in the fourth of six charges against Israel, as the guarantor and (divine) witness of an oath (הִשָׁבֵעַ לַשֶׁקֶׁר). If this charge is understood as swearing by "The Deceptive One" (instead of by Yahweh), and not as perjury per se⁴¹, it appears that the legal charges consist of two categories of three charges each: In the first category three sins against fellow-human beings are mentioned, namely stealing, murder and adultery. The second category is that of idolatrous practices, of whom three are mentioned: swearing by "The Deceptive One" (instead of by Yahweh), in the second instance קַטֵר לַבַעַ ל (offering incense to Ba'al) and finally הָׁלֹךְ אַחֲרֵי אֱלֹהִים אֲחֵרִים (following other gods, cf. 1:16).

The explicit mentioning of (The) Ba'al, הַבַעַל, directly after a repetitive הַשֶׁקֶׁר is noteworthy. Is this not a confirmation that "the other gods" are indeed understood to be הַבְעַלִׁים (Jeremiah 2:23 and 9:13), with special reference (in most other places) to (The) Ba'al of Jerusalem, according to Jeremiah הַשֶׁקֶׁר "The Deception/Lie"?

If הַשֶׁקֶׁר is an allusion to Ba'al, as assumed, the adjectival phrase לְבִלְתִיהוֹעִׁיל after דִבְרֵי הַשֶׁקֶׁר in Jeremiah 7:8 is a helpful link in the chain of Ba'al references. Indeed [ הֹּועִיל + negator ] already appeared in Jeremiah 2:8 in the plural form within the phrase וְהַנְבִיאִים נִבְאוּ בַבַעַל וְאַחֲרֵי לאֹ־יוֹעִלוּ הָׁלָׁכוּ (to be discussed below).

3 Jeremiah 2:4-13

Studies with diachronic interest tended to perceive this chapter as a collection of early prophecies of Jeremiah (2:4 - 4:2/4)⁴² against Northern Israel from 627609 b.c.e., re-applied to pre-exilic, and post-exilic Judah⁴³. Recent (synchronically based) research on metaphors in the Jeremiah text, however, convincingly demarcates this passage as the second section of a unit that spans the whole of chapter two⁴⁴. Israel, portrayed in the double images of family relationships (yhwh's faithful bride) and horticulture (yhwh's choicest fruit)⁴⁵, is rebuked for her religious disloyalty, trusting foreign deities. This triggers yhwh's lawsuit (rib) against his covenant breaching people who are turning from a symbol of blessing into a symbol of curse, by metaphorically returning to the Egypt they were taken from (2:6, 36)⁴⁶. Within this symbolically charged passage the divine name (The) Ba'al הַבַעַל occurs for the first time in Jeremiah (2:8) in the phrase הַנְבִיאִים נִבְאוּ בַבַעַל. Ba'al is the divine inspiration of the prophetic visions or words of the (false) prophets. The latter are mentioned in the same grouping as "the priests" and "shepherds" (kings, leaders) who broke their allegiance to yhwh by "going after" a new overlord that is of no avail, אַחֲרֵילאֹּ־יֹּועִׁלוּ הָּׁלָּׁכוּ. Actually "the fathers" (ancestors, v 5-6) are early examples of those that "went after 'the vanity' (הַהֶׁבֶׁל)" resulting in becoming a copy of the same (וַיֶׁהְבָּׁלוּ). The semantic affinity between הבל / הֶׁבֶׁל and לאֹּ־יֹּועִׁלוּ is of significance: both denote a state or action that result in failure⁴⁷. Both subjects are pursuing (hlk הלך) this object that is bound to fail them. הַהֶׁבֶׁל(in the definite form) is literally "The worthless One" and refers to an idol (singular of הבלים "false gods", in Deuteronomy 32:21 // לאֹּ־אֵל)⁴⁸. The expectation that לאֹּ־יֹּועִׁל and הַהֶׁבֶׁל are referring to the same object of futile invocation is not unrealistic. Lundbom renders the phrase lö'-yö'ïlu לאֹּ־יֹּועִׁלוּ rather literally with "After No Profits they went"^49, with the following remark relevant to this study⁵⁰

lõ'-yô'ílü, lit. "they do not profit," is a common summary judgement of idols (16:19; 1 Sam 12:21; in Isa 44:9 bal-yo'ïliï). For the singular, see v 11. The term here is a disparagement of Ba'al or the Ba'als, repeating "The Nothing" of v 5 (cf. T). It also plays on the name ta'al ('ayin and lamed).

Note that לאֹּ־יֹּועִלוּ (plural) is followed up in v 11 in the singular, ⁵¹לו It is clear that these are allusions to the Ba'al/Ba'alim, assumedly another form of derogatory name for the deity. It is explicitly mentioned in the plural in Jeremiah 2:23 and 9:13, most probably defining "the other gods" ⁵²אלהים אחרים The formula הלךְ אחרי / אחרי הלךְ + object (of new allegiance)⁵³, remains the same, with a nominal but not substantive change of object of allegiance.

The apparently concealed references to the deity in Jeremiah 2(ההב in 2:5 // לא־יועלו in 2:8) seem to be revealed in the temple sermon of Jeremiah 7 (אלהים אחרים in 7:9). The Jeremiah text progressively makes it clearer that Israel has renounced her allegiance to her Overlord, Yahweh, and started serving a new master who has decidedly shown himself to be "The Worthless", הַהֶׁבֶׁל, the "No-Profit", ⁵⁴לאֹּ־יֹּועִלוּ.

It should therefore come as no surprise that the last colon of Jeremiah 2:5 (MT) וַיֵלְכוּ אַחֲרֵי הַהֶׁבֶׁל וַיֶׁהְבָּׁלוּ is rendered in Targum Jonathan⁵⁵ as וּטְעוֹ בָׁתַר טָׁעֲוְתָׁאוַהֲווֹ לְלָׁמָׁא"and (they) went astray after the idols and became worthless"⁵⁶Bright⁵⁷ followed by Thompson^58, suggests that hahebel is a pun on hatta'al. Once again Lundbom describes it as a disparaging name for Ba'al, as it occurs with the article⁵⁹. Since the formula of new allegiance⁶⁰ appears here, as in other places referring to the ta'al (or b^e'alim) as the object of reverence, it is reasonable to assume הַהֶׁבֶׁל to be a substitute for הַבַעַל. In fact, Jeremiah 23:27 states that the fathers, אבותם, forgot the Name of Yahweh "through (the) Ba'al", בַבַעַל - which logically identifies הַהֶׁבֶׁל in 2:5 explicitly with הַבַעַל (in 23:27).

It is clear that in this passage (2:4-13) the object of Ba'al worship is masked in names that ironically and unmistakably reveal the real identity and character of the deity as "The Nothing" הַהֶׁבֶׁל (v 5), "The No-Profit" לוא יועל (v 11), as well as in plural terms as the b^e 'alim, "the other gods"אלהים אחרים, "No-Profits" IMAGEMAQUI (v 8) and "No-gods" לא־יועל(v 11). Eventually (in verse 13) they are depicted by the prophet as broken, leaking cisterns, hewn out by those who have left Yahweh, their original Source, good for nothing but to be ridiculed by disparaging names, all pointing to hatta'al.

4 Jeremiah 3:21-25

In Jeremiah 3:24 הַבֹּשֶׁת occurs as the next definite noun that may form part of the name and shame arsenal against Ba'al. According to Jeremiah 3:24 "The Shame"⁶¹ (הַבֹּשֶׁת), readily recognised as a name for Ba'al⁶², is devouring "the product of the labour of your fathers from our youth, their flocks and their cattle, together with (אֶׁת) their sons and their daughters"⁶³. In verse 25 a the same noun, בֹּשֶׁת, resumes with a pronominal suffix (first person plural), which likewise marks it as definite⁶⁴. Therefore it could be argued that if not naming the deity due to its definiteness, בָׁשְתֵנוּ at least indicates the reality of הַבֹּשֶׁת, and thus indirectly refers to the deity. The cohortative נִשְכְבָׁה "Let us lie down" probably carries a sexual connotation in parallel with its (only other) occurrence in Genesis 19:32⁶⁵. While the preposition beth before בָׁשְתֵנוּ is usually assumed to be a beth locale, "Let us lie down in our shame" (as an admission of guilt), the preposition could (also?) be a beth comitantiae⁶⁶: "Let us lie down in the company of our shame". In this case בָׁשְתֵנוּ recalls or reiterates הַבֹּשֶׁת, in other words Ba'al. It could then further be argued that כְּלִמָׁה in the next colon (וּתְכַסֵנוּ כְלִמָׁתֵנוּ "and let our scandal cover us") in its textual format is grammatically determined in the very same way as בָׁשְתֵנוּ and thus qualifies as another derogatory name for Ba'al, functioning as a metaphor of overt adultery.

This, however, might not be the case, for on the surface level בָׁשְתֵנוּ and כְלִמָׁתֵנוּ do not look like determined nouns, and the meaning would then be that of shame and scandal in the general sense of the word. In other words this line would be Israel's sincere, unadultared confession of their religious adultery⁶⁷. Surely, does the subsequent admission of guilt not strongly support a penitential reading of verse 24a' as part and parcel of at least Jeremiah 3:21-25?⁶⁸

For against Yahweh our God we have sinned,

we and our fathers, from our youth unto this day.

We have not obeyed the voice of Yahweh our God.

On the other hand, not even deliberated by traditional interpreters, the rhetoric of allusion to Ba'al worship is constantly at work in Jeremiah. The name-term הַבֹּשֶׁת is not to be separated from בָׁשְתֵנוּ and כְלִמָׁתֵנוּ. In either case, whether the latter two are understood as determined or undetermined nouns, colon 1 and 2 of verse 25a are read as synonymous or complementary parallelisms. This means that in the reading of all these terms as determined nouns (alluding to Ba'al), the first colon

Let us lie down in the company of Our Shame (i.e. Ba'al)

is complemented by the second colon

Let Our Scandal (i.e. Ba'al) cover us.

A tentative conclusion seems in order at this point: What is on surface level assumed as a genuine confession of guilt verbalised through undetermined nouns denoting inherent and public shame, is actually a cover for a refusal to confess persistent idolatry, strategically marked as such by references to the scandalous Ba'al and an ongoing relationship with him, and that from the mouth of the adulteress-idolatress.

A brief exposition of the surrounding text, however, is necessary for a more nuanced understanding: This verse (25) is situated within the passage Jeremiah 3:21-25, where, according to our reading, another derogatory term for

Ba'al occurs, namely הַשֶׁקֶׁר in the first colon of the previous verse (23a): אָׁכֵן לַשֶׁקֶׁרמִגְּבָׁעֹּות הָׁמֹּון הָׁרִים. The interpretation of these words has been problematic, for three reasons: (1) אָׁכֵן is "surely" when occurring once in a clause. But here the term already occurred in verse 20⁶⁹, and is repeated in verse 23, with the function of overruling and correcting the previous statement⁷⁰. When functioning in a repetitive sequence it could be translated as "however"⁷¹, or even better "no"⁷², rather than "surely"⁷³ or "truly"⁷⁴. (2) ל in לַשֶׁקֶׁר is ignored, (3) and/or not correctly interpreted as defining seqer, and as such referring to Ba'al.

The first two problem areas are correctly handled by Holladay⁷⁵ who translates the initial words of each phrase as "no", and realises that the preposition ("ל־) before "הַשֶׁקֶׁר is the very same preposition in the previous line: "Look, we are coming to you'" (לָׁךְ), for you are yhwh our God". The response is therefore a retort from (the mouth of) yhwh: "No, to the Lie (you are coming)...".

Contrary to the vocalisation of "המון in the MT, multiple manuscripts take המוןהרים to be a genitive construct, so that the logical literal translation would be "from the hills is the noise of the mountains"⁷⁶ Therefore, on the surface this whole passage looks like Israel's confession of guilt, but there are enough indications that yhwh is still in dispute with his people who are actually refusing heartfelt penitence, using subversive language to convey their addiction to Ba'al.

Jeremiah 3:21-25 has been identified by Claus Westermann as a liturgy of penitence, on the form critical ground that verse 21, 22b-25 represents the people's voice, as "a confession of sins and an expression of trust," prompted by the call to repentance in verse 22a (God's response is in 4:1-2/4)⁷⁷. The liturgical setting is an acceptable theory, but to label the entire passage as a liturgy of penitence does not do justice to the intention of the passage. Verse 22-25 rather seems to be an alternating dispute between yhwh and his people, a rib within a liturgical setting. The call to repentance in 22a is not the last word from yhwh: verse 23 a is his retort, taken up by a counter-retort from his people (v 23b), who are now reflecting on their dismal state, with an apparent willingness to finally repent (in terms of the theme: to turn to Yahweh, not Ba'al) and confess their sins (v 24-25) [as reflected on the surface level of the text]. On a sublime level, however, the confession is that of religious apostasy, a love for Ba'al - over against the facts that he has taken his high toll, "the fruit (product) of our fathers, from our youth, their sheep and their cattle, their sons and their daughters" (v 24).

My translation proposal of verses 22-25 takes the dialogue and poetic terseness into account, by its layout and slight paraphrasing of the text:

V 22 (Yahweh): Return, o sons that are turning around; let me heal your turning-around.

(Israel): Here we are, we have come to you, for you are YHWH our God!

V 23 (Yahweh): No, to The Lie [you have come]! [listen!]: From the hills [sounds] "The Loud Noise of the Mountains "⁷⁸

(Israel): No, in YHWH our God is the salvation of Israel.

V 24 However (we have to confess): The Shame has devoured the fruit (product) of our fathers, from our youth, their sheep and their cattle, their sons and their daughters. V 25 (Therefore):

[surface level:] Let us lie down in our shame; let our scandal cover us.

[sublime level:] Let us lie down in the company of Our Shame; let Our Scandal⁷⁹ cover us.

Indeed against Yahweh our God we have sinned, we and our fathers, from our youth, until today; and we did not listen to the voice of Yahweh our God.

The theme of the dispute-cum-penitence is the return/turning of Israel either to yhwh or הַשֶׁקֶׁר / הַבֹּשֶׁת. Israel is turning this way and that, circling around, without reaching a decision. From verse 23b-25 reality starts dawning: in yhwh is salvation, while habboset (=Ba'al) has claimed their livestock and children (by means of animal and child sacrifice). The gruesome reality is that generations have sinned against yhwh. At this point in the text confession of sin seems to be apparent on the surface. Language specifics prompt a deeper level reading, however, revealing Israel's ambiguity, her ongoing, subversive turning to Ba'al when pretending in liturgically correct language of penitence to turn to yhwh. The confession of sin against yhwh and realisation of harm done by Ba'al, is subverted by a confession of addicted adherence to Ba'al. What is obvious, is that the allusions to and derogatory naming of the ba'al / b^e'alïm is most ironically placed in the mouth of the confessor, who confirms as truthful witness that Ba'al is "Our Shame" and "Our (Public) Scandal". Although this constitutes experiential truth, it does not constitute true repentance to Yahweh. Therefore, the subsequent response of Yahweh (Jeremiah 4:1ff) is not a word of forgiveness or promise, but a conditional sentence: "If you return, O Israel ... return to Me".

5 Jeremiah 5:30-31

Verse 30 reads as follows (MT):

וּמַה־תַעֲשוּ לְאַחֲרִיתָׁ הוְעַמִי אָׁהֲבוּ כֵןהַנְבִיאִים נִבְאוּ־בַשֶׁקֶׁר וְהַכֹּהֲנִים יִרְדוּ עַל־יְדֵיהֶׁ םשַמָׁה וְשַ עֲרוּרָׁה נִהְיְתָׁה בָׁאָׁרֶׁץ׃

A horror, an outrage⁸⁰ happened in the land

The prophets prophesy by The Lie, and the priests reject their consecration⁸¹

and my people love it that way.

But what will you do when she⁸² comes to her end?⁸³

Our study has to focus on the event of הַנְבִיאִים נִבְאוּ־בַשֶׁקֶׁר (line 2a above). This event with its sequel is identified as, and takes place within the setting of שַמָׁה וְשַעֲרוּרָׁה נִהְיְתָׁה בָׁאָׁרֶׁץ. The ultimate (added?) question at the end of the prophetic utterance, "What will you do לאַחֲרִיתִָֽׁה?" (v 31), is linked to the introduction, in that it refers to a single feminine entity or person. Bothשׁערורה and שׁמה as well as the pronominal suffix of אַחֲרִית are in the feminine forms. All of them seem to refer to the same entity. In the HB/OT the habitat, the land and cities, are feminine forms and metaphorically expressed in feminine persona. It seems evident that two metaphors are here at play, and that שׁערורה and שׁמה, and probably also אחריתהּ, are describing a state of curse of both the people and land of Israel⁸⁴. The effects of the curse have their origin in the wrongful actions of the prophets and priests.

Most translators render הַנְבִׁיאִׁים נִׁבְאוּ־בַשֶׁקֶׁר in Jeremiah 5:31a as "the prophets prophesy falsely"⁸⁵or "... falsehood"⁸⁶or "... lies"⁸⁷or ".... by a lie"⁸⁸.

Some commentators believe to detect an allusion to Ba'al in בַשֶׁקֶׁר "by The Lie"⁸⁹. The same sentiment is reflected in a cautious way by some translations, for example "Prophets give their messages in the name of a false god" (Cev). The notion that hasseqer refers to an idol, another deity contrary to yhwh, is confirmed by a similar phrase earlier on: הַנְבִׁיאִׁים נִׁבְאוּ בַבַעַל (Jeremiah 2:8c). In Jeremiah 5:30 בַבַעַל (tattaal) is simply replaced by בַשֶׁקֶׁר (basseqer). Both nouns are in the definite form. The text gives no indications that two different deities are intended; to the contrary. It can therefore be concluded that in the lectio continua of the MT, הַשֶׁקֶׁר is indeed הַבַעַל - here most probably a derogatory name for the deity.

6 Jeremiah 11:9-13

In 11:13 הַבֹּשֶׁת occurs in the phrase שַמְתֶׁם מִזְבְחוֹת לַבֹּשֶׁת מִזְבְחוֹת לְקַטֵר לַבַעַל. The LXX omits מִזְבְחוֹת לְקַטֵר לַבַעַל and translates with ἐτάξατε βωμοὺς θυμιᾶν τῇ Βααλ, a variant of מִזְבְחוֹת לְקַטֵר לַבַעַל. A comparison of the MT and LXX versions of this text with that of Jeremiah 2:28 highlights the complication of the problem, which can be approached with a different a priori and outcomes⁹⁰. The immediate context (verse 9-13) seems to support the occurrence of מִזְבְחוֹת לַבֹּשֶׁת in the MT (with the specific Masoretic vocalisation of בשת) as a reference to idol worship. Verse 10a" speaks of subservience to other gods (לְכוּ אַחֲרֵי אֱלֹהִים אֲחֵרִים) and verse 12 "the gods to whom they burn incense offerings," הָׁאֱלֹהִים אֲשֶׁר הֵם מְקַטְרִים לָׁהֶׁם.

Apart from these indicators in the text, מִזְבְחוֹת לְקַטֵר לַבַעַל can best be interpreted as an explanatory phrase of מִ זְבְחוֹת לַבֹּשֶׁת. "The Shameful Thing"⁹¹ is nothing but Ba'al. This fact, explicitly expressed in many translations,⁹² seems to be irrefutable.

7 Jeremiah 18:13-17

The obvious reason for choosing this passage is that it contains the term לַשָׁוְא as its centrepiece (v 15) which is interpreted by a vast majority not as the futile act of sacrificing (saw' = in vain), but hassaw' as the futile recipient of sacrifices, a worthless idol⁹³. Even some commentators who maintain a translation like "they burn incense in vain" have to admit that לַשָׁוְא refers to idols⁹⁴. There are also those who connect the idol(s) to Ba'al⁹⁵, "the Fraud"⁹⁶. The exegetical tradition has already paved the way for the conviction that לַשָׁוְא in 18:15 refers to anti-Yahweh deities (as collective) or the anti-Yahweh deity par excellence. Our hypothesis provides a grammatical basis for this understanding. The reason for the people of Yahweh forgetting Him, is first and foremost (as syntactically foregrounded) הַשָּׁוְ, "The Worthless One" (Fraud), i.e. Ba'al, to whom they sacrificed incense. Additional textual support is given by the key word שׁכ ח that links this utterance to yhwh's judgement in the same vein in 14:25, 'שָּׁׁכַחַתְ אֹּותִׁיוַתִׁבְטְחִׁי בַשָָּּֽׁׁקֶׁר, "You forgot Me and trusted hasseqer" - another perceived reference to Ba'al.

8 Conclusions

1. The inter-textual exegesis as a test of the semantic connectivity of the relevant terms from a network of texts where these terms occur, confirms that the working hypothesis is plausible. Numerous cross-references to Ba'al by means of the defined nouns saw' (lassaw'), seqer (hasseqer, lasseqer, hasseqer), boset (habboset) and hebel (hahebel) could be detected throughout the text in the chosen text blocks. The reading of the text from this perspective revealed text-immanent support in some cases, previously overlooked.

2. An observation on the sideline is that the texts under discussion also contain other references to Ba'al which could likewise be understood as derogatory names for the deity in the plural form הבעלים. These are לאֹּ־יוֹעִלוּ in 2:8 (also 12:13), לא אלהים in 2:11 (also 5:7, 16:20), and probably אלהיםאחרים in 1:16, 7:6, 9 ⁹⁷.

3. The case of nouns of which the definiteness is grammatically formed by pronominal suffixes or construct states bound to a definite noun, was practically illustrated in the discussion of Jeremiah 3:21-25. It seems that בָׁשְתֵנוּ and כְלִמָׁתֵנוּ in verse 25, as grammatically typified definites, but formally not recognised as such (without definite articles), can be read on two levels: either as a non-coded reference to shame in general (in the passage a sign of Israel's repentance), or as coded language, alluding to (Israel's ongoing worship of) Ba'al. In this particular instance the rhetorical function of this double reading supports Israel's ethical ambiguity regarding repentance, the main theme in Jeremiah 2-3.

9 Suggested further studies in MT Jeremiah

1. The sampled texts, good indicators as they are, need to be supplemented by further exegetical study. The remaining texts where lassaw' and lasseqer/basseqer appear as well as excerpts from Jeremiah 23:9-40 should either strengthen the hypothesis, or show up its problematic side.

2. Of interest would be the discovery of additional examples of allusions or references to the deities/deity in the plural, as well as examples of nouns defined through pronominal suffixes or construct states bound to definite nouns, enabling references to idols apart from their general meaning.

3. The assumption that the terms under discussion that appear in Jeremiah in their indefinite forms (namely boset, hebel and particularly seqer) always denote shame/nothingness/deceit in general, should be revisited. If they (also) have a connotation of idolatry, i.e. alluding to the anti-YHWH deities, the perceived rhetorical function of their definite counterparts as disparagement in particular may have to be adjusted.

4. This study (and its sequel) could probably be one element of the phenomenon of coded language in Jeremiah⁹⁸.

 

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

Bible Translations

Asv American Standard Version 1901

Cev Contemporary English Version 2001, 2016

Jps17 Jewish Publication Society, Tanakh Translation 1917

Jps85 Jewish Publication Society, Tanakh Translation 1985

Nasb New American Standard Bible 1971

Nbv De Nieuwe Bijbelvertaling 2004 (Dutch)

Niv New International Version 2011

Reference Works

HELOT Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament KAHAL Konzise und actualisierte Ausgabe des Hebräischen und Aramäischen Lexicons des Alten Testament

NIDOTTE New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis

TDOT Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament

THAT Theologisches Handwörterbuch zum Alten Testament

TLOT Theological Lexicon of the Old Testament

TWOT Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament

Monographs

HSMP/HSM Harvard Semitic Museum Publications / Harvard Semitic Monographs

JSOT Suppl Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series STB Studies in Biblical Theology

 

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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* Submitted: 28/11/2019; peer-reviewed: 09/03/2020; accepted: 10/03/2020. C. Wynand Retief. "The Deity in the Definite Article: lassãw' and related terms for Ba'al in Jeremiah," Old Testament Essays 33 no. 2 (2020): 323 - 347. DOI: https://doi.org/10.17159/2312-3621/2020/v33n2a10.
C. Wynand Retief, University of the Free State. Email: cwretief@gmail.com, ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6872-314X.
1 Christo H. J. Van der Merwe, Jackie A. Naudé and Jan H. Kroeze, A Biblical Hebrew Reference Grammar, Second Edition (Reprint. London: T&T Clark / Bloomsbury Publishing, 2018), 219; Bill T. Arnold & John H. Choi, A Guide to Biblical Hebrew Syntax (8th print. Cambridge University Press, 2009), 30.
2 In Jeremiah 2:30, 4:30, 6:29, 18:15 and 46:11.
3 Modern commentators are generally in agreement with this, for example John A. Thompson, Jeremiah (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1980), 438; Peter C. Craigie, Page H. Kelly & Joel F. Drinkard (jr.), Word Biblical Commentary, volume 26: Jeremiah 1-25 (Dallas: Word Books, 1991), 249; Jack R. Lundbom, Jeremiah 1-20: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (Anchor Bible, volume 21. New York: Doubleday, 1999), 822; William L. Holladay, Jeremiah 1: A Commentary on the Book of the Prophet Jeremiah Chapters 1-25 (edited by Paul D. Hanson. Hermeneia. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1986), 524.
4 Jeremiah 2:8, 7:9, 11:13, 17, 12:16, 19:5 (twice), 23:13, 27; 32:29, 35. See Gerhard Lisowsky, Konkordanz, 271.
5 The semantic fields of saw ', seqer and hebel are overlapping in the notion of fallacy/deceit. See Friedrich V. Reiterer, saw'שָׁוְא," in volume 14 of Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament (edited by G. Johannes Botterweck, Helmer Ringgren, and Heinz-Josef Fabry, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004), 447. J. Shepherd, saw'שָׁוְא (#8736)," in volume 4 of New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis (edited by Willem VanGemeren. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1997), 53. Horst Seebass, Stefan Beyerle & Klaus Grünwaldt, "שקר sqr; שֶׁקֶׁר seqer." in volume 15 of Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament (edited by G. Johannes Botterweck, Helmer Ringgren, and Heinz-Josef Fabry. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2006), 470. E. Carpenter & M.A. Grisame, "שקר sqr (#9213)," in volume 4 of New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis (edited by Willem VanGemeren. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1997), 247. M. A. Klopfenstein, שֶׁקֶׁר' sqr Täuschen," in Theologisches Handwörterbuch zum Alten Testament, Band II (edited by Ernst Jenni and Claus Westermann. München: Chr. Kaiser Verlag / Zürich: Theologischer Verlag, 1976), 1010. D. C. Fredericks, "הֶׁבֶׁל hebel (#2039)," in volume 1 of New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis (edited by Willem VanGemeren. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1997), 1005. Klaus Seybold, "הֶׁבֶׁל hebhel; הַבָׁל häbhal," in volume 3 of Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament (edited by G. Johannes Botterweck and Helmer Ringgren. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1978), 314. Böset "expresses the idea that someone (..) underwent an experience in which his (or its) former respected position and importance were overthrown." See Horst Seebass, "בוֹשׁ bósh, בוּשָּׁׁה bushäh, בֹּשֶׁׁת bösheth, מְבוּשִׁׁים mbhüshïm," in volume 2 of Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament (edited by G. Johannes Botterweck and Helmer Ringgren. Translated by John T. Willis. Revised and reprinted. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999), 52.
6 LXX: εἰς κενὸν ἐθυμίασαν, see https://www.academic-bible.com/en/online-bibles/septuagint-lxx/read-the-bible-text; Targum Jonathan: אֲרֵי שְׁבָּׁקוּ פּוּלְחַנִׁי עַמִׁי לָּׁא לַהֲנָּׁאָּׁה, see Targum Jonathan on Jeremiah - Sefaria, https://www.sefaria.org/Targum_Jonathan_on_Jeremiah.18.15-16?lang=bi. Targum translation: "For my people have forsaken my worship: they have offered up incense for what cannot profit", see Robert Hayward, The Aramaic Bible, volume 12, The Targum of Jeremiah, Translation with a Critical Introduction, Apparatus and Notes, Collegeville, Minnesota: The Liturgical Press, 1987, 101. Vulgata: "frustra libantes"; Geneva Bible 1599 "they... have burnt incense to vanity"; Douay-Rheims 1610 (1749): "they sacrificed in vain"; Kjv 1611 "they have burned incense to vanity"; Statenvertaling 1750 (1637): "zij roken der ijdelheid"; Jewish Publication Society Tanakh 1917 "They offer unto vanity".
7 Translations in this range: Afrikaans 1933 "hulle laat rook opgaan vir die nietige afgode"; Afrikaans 1983 "hulle bring reukoffers vir gode wat nie bestaan nie"; Herziene Statenvertaling 2010 "Zij brengen reukoffers aan nutteloze afgoden"; Asv 1901 "For my people have forgotten me, they have burned incense to false [gods]". Esv 2001 "they make offerings to false gods". Modern commentators are generally in agreement with this, for example John A. Thompson, Jeremiah (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1980), 438; Peter C. Craigie, Page H. Kelly & Joel F. Drinkard (jr.), Word Biblical Commentary, volume 26: Jeremiah 1-25 (Dallas: Word Books, 1991), 249; Jack R. Lundbom, Jeremiah 1-20: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (Anchor Bible, volume 21. New York: Doubleday, 1999), 822; William L. Holladay, Jeremiah 1: A Commentary on the Book of the Prophet Jeremiah Chapters 1-25 (edited by Paul D. Hanson. Hermeneia. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1986), 524. Robert P. Carroll, Jeremiah: A Commentary (Old Testament Library. London: SCM Press, 1986), 376 renders "in vain", but leave it open as a possible reference to the idols.
8 Luther 1545 (1534) "Sie räuchern den Göttern".
9 For example, John A. Thompson, Jeremiah, 438; William L. Holladay, Jeremiah 1, 524.
10 Curiously, Jack Lundbom, with a keen eye for what he calls "a disparaging name for Ba'al", translates Jeremiah 18:15 with "they burn incense in vain", with the note that the reference here would be to the idols. See Jack Lundbom, Jeremiah 1-20, 822.
11 For example, The Jewish Publication Society Tanakh 1985 "They sacrifice to a delusion".
12 John A. Thompson, Jeremiah, and Jack R. Lundbom, Jeremiah 1-20.
13 Ludwig Koehler and Walter Baumgartner, "שָׁוְא" in Konzise und actualisierte Ausgabe des Hebräischen und Aramäischen Lexicons des Alten Testament (Leiden/Boston: Brill, 2013), 589.
14 At inception, b. לַשָׁוא vergeblich, ohne Erfolg; later as group b: Trug/trügerisch, חַלֹמוֹת הַשָׁוְא and חַבְלֵי הַשָׁוְא together with indefinites חַזוֹן שַוְא מַחַזֵה־שַוְא and קֶׁסֶׁם שַוְא.
15 See the entries in Ludwig Koehler and Walter Baumgartner, KAHAL, of בֹּשֶׁת (page 85), הֶׁבֶׁל (page 123), שֶׁקֶׁר (page 640). הַהֶׁבֶׁל is mentioned in combination with הלך אחר י as "Götzen" (idols), as well as הַבְלֵי הַגּוֹיִם (Jeremiah 14:22), a definite plural genitive construct.
16 Reinier de Blois and Enio R. Mueller, eds., Semantic Dictionary of Biblical Hebrew: Working Project of United Bible Societies 2020. No Pages. Cited 4 May 2020. Online: http://www.sdbh.org/vocabula/index.html.
17 NIDOTTE, TDOT, THAT (English: TLOT) and TWOT.
18 John F. A. Sawyer, "שָׁוְא saw' Trug," in THAT II, 882-884. J. Shepherd, "שָׁוְאsaw' (#8736)," in NIDOTTE volume 4, 53-55. Friedrich V. Reiterer, "שָׁוְא säw'," in TDOT volume 14, 447-460. In none of these works the difference between שָׁוְא and הַשָׁוא is considered.
19 M. A. Klopfenstein, "שֶׁקֶׁר sqr Täuschen," in THAT II, 1010-1019. E. Carpenter & M.A. Grisame, "שֶׁקֶׁר sqr (#9213)," in NIDOTTE volume 4, 247-249. Horst Seebass, Stefan Beyerle & Klaus Grünwaldt, "שֶׁקֶׁר sqr; שֶׁקֶׁר seqer." in TDOT volume 15, 470477. None of these articles, when discussing the connotation of seqer to the idols or false prophecy, consider the grammatical form of the word in terms of its definiteness.
20 Rainer Albertz, "הֶׁבֶׁל hobol Hauch," in Theologisches Handwörterbuch zum Alten Testament, Band I (edited by Ernst Jenni and Claus Westermann. München: Chr. Kaiser Verlag / Zürich: Theologischer Verlag, 1978), 467-469. Klaus Seybold, "הֶׁבֶׁל hebhel; הֶׁבֶׁל häbhal," in TDOT volume 3, 313-320. G H. Johnston, "הֶׁבֶׁל hbl (#2038)" and D. C. Fredericks, "הֶׁבֶׁל hebel (#2039)," in NIDOTTE volume 1, 1003-1006. None of these works show an explicit awareness that the definite article per se changes the connotation of the lexeme.
21 Philip J. Nel, "בוש bôs (#1017)," in volume 1 of New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis (edited by Willem VanGemeren. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1997), 621-627. Horst Seebass, "בוֹש bósh, בוּשָׁה búshah, בֹּשֶׁת bõsheth, מְבוּשִים mbhüshïm," in TDOT volume 2, 50-60. Fritz Stolz, "בוש bös zuschanden werden", in Theologisches Handwörterbuch zum Alten Testament, Band I (edited by Ernst Jenni and Claus Westermann. München: Chr. Kaiser Verlag / Zürich: Theologischer Verlag, 1978), 269-272, and its English translation by Mark E. Biddle: "bôs to be ashamed," in volume 1 of Theological Lexicon of The Old Testament (Hendrickson Publishers, 2004), 204-207. Philip J. Nel ("בוש bôs #1017," in NIDOTTE volume I, 626) notes that "böset is also substituted as a name for Ba'al (Jer 3:24, 11:13)." Horst Seebass (TDOT vol 2) in his discussion on Jeremiah (p 54-56) ignores the determined form of these terms. Fritz Stolz (according to the English translation "bôs to be ashamed," in volume 1 of Theological Lexicon of the Old Testament, 2067) draws a logical line to this specific name-giving of the deities, but gives no attention to the definite form of the word in the naming of the god (in Jeremiah).
22 Jeremiah 2:8, 7:9, 11:13, 17, 12:16, 19:5 (twice), 23:13, 27; 32:29, 35. See Gerhard Lisowsky, Konkordanz, 271.
23 Jeremiah 2:23 and 9:13. In Jeremiah 37:13 בַעַל פְקִדֻת refers to Irijah son of Shelemiah son of Hananiah, the sentinel or head of the guard that arrested Jeremiah. See Gerhard Lisowsky, Konkordanz, 270-271.
24 בעל פעור (Numbers 25:3,5, Deuteronomy 4:3 (2x), Hosea 9:10, Psalm 106:28), בעלברית (Judges 8:33, 9:4), בעל זבו ב (in 2 Kings 1:2,3,6,16). See Gerhard Lisowsky, Konkordanz, 270-271.
25 In 7:4, 8 and 23:26 it occurs as הַשֶׁקֶׁר without preposition, in 3:23, 5:2, 7:9; 8:8, and 27:15 as לַשֶׁקֶׁ an in 5:31, 13:25,20:6 and 23:14 as בַשֶׁקֶׁר
26 Also, as הַבְלֵי נֵכָׁר in 8:19 and הַבְלֵי הַגּוֹיִ ם in 14:22 where they are recognised as idols.
27 בֹּשֶׁׁת in בְ[בָּׁשְׁתֵנוּ ] in Jeremiah 3:25 is defined by the pronominal suffix and בֹּשֶׁת in Jeremiah 7:19 by the construct state בֹּשֶׁת פְנֵיהֶׁ These are syntactic and not morphologic indicators, presenting an ambiguity. See exegetical discussion on Jeremiah 3:21-25.
28 In 3:10, 6:13, 8:8, 10; 9:2, 4; 10:14, 14:14 (2x), 16:19, 23:25, 32; 27:10,14,16; 28:15, 29:9, 23, 31; 37:14, 40:16, 43:2 and 51:17.
29 In 10:3, 8, 15; 16:19, 51:18.
30 In 2:26, 3:25, 7:19 and 20:18.
31 Page H. Kelly, Daniel S. Mynatt & Timothy G. Crawford, The Masorah of Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia, Introduction and Annotated Glossary (Grand Rapids / Cambridge, U.K.: Eerdmans, 1998), 31.
32 Christo H. J. van der Merwe, Jackie A. Naudé & Jan Kroeze, Reference Grammar, 215-216; Bill T. Arnold & John H. Choi, Biblical Hebrew Syntax, 28.
33 See exegetical discussion on Jeremiah 3:21-25.
34 Jeremiah 1:16, 7:6, 9, 18, 11:10, 13:10, 16:11, 13, 19:4, 13, 22:9, 25:6, 32:29, 35:15, 44:3, 5, 8, 15.
35 As object of קטר (burning incense to) in Jeremiah 1:16, 19:4, 44:3, 5, 8, 15; as object of נסךְ (outpouring of libation offerings to) in 7:18, 19:13, 32:29; as object of עב ד (service to) in 16:13, 44:3; as object of worship (יִשְתַחְַווּ) in 22:9.
36 The phrase הלך אחרי אלהים אחרים in different forms of the verb, occurs in Jeremiah 7:9, 11:10, 13:10, 16:11, 25:6, 35:15. The combination [הָׁלַֹּךְ אַחְַרֵי + object=idol/s)] also occurs in Jeremiah 2:5 (וילכו אחרי הַהֶׁבֶׁל). It appears to be an identification marker for the subject under discussion. John A. Thompson, Jeremiah, 167 makes the remark "that in the secular treaties of the day a rebel vassal who 'went after' some other ruler was understood to have renounced allegiance to his overlord. Indeed, the expression 'go after' meant 'serve as a vassal'." (with reference to W. L. Moran, "The Ancient Near Eastern Background of the Love of God in Deuteronomy," CBQ 25 (1963), 77-87, for examples.).
37 William L. Holladay, Jeremiah 1, 238, allocates it to the end of section two, verse 5-8 (his divisions 3-4, 5-8, 9-11 and 12). According to John A. Thompson, Jeremiah, 274, the opening of the description of the nation's apostasy, verse 8-12. Peter C. Craigie et al, Word Biblical Commentary, 119, divides the text after the introduction (v 1) according to the elements of the so-called torah of entrance, namely proclamation of YHWH's word v 2-7, declaration of apostasy v 8-12, judgement v 13-15. Jack R. Lundbom, Jeremiah 1-20, 455-7, marks three oracles by inclusio, v 3-7, 8-11, 12-14.
38 See Christo H. J. van der Merwe, Jackie A. Naudé & Jan H. Kroeze, Reference Grammar, 266-269; Bill T. Arnold & John H. Choi, Biblical Hebrew Syntax, Bill T. Arnold & John H. Choi, Biblical Hebrew Syntax, 25.
39 John A. Thompson, Jeremiah, 277, 280.
40 John A. Thompson, Jeremiah, 277. In footnote 21: for possible parallels see 5:31, 13:25.
41 Niv translates with "perjury", with the footnote "swear by false gods". Jack R. Lundbom, Jeremiah 1-20 translates "swear to The Lie" (page 22 , footnote 453) with the comment "I.e. swear to Ba'al instead of to Yahweh. It also means swearing falsely" (page 465). He refers to his comment on Jeremiah 3:23 "Because lasseqer has the definite article, it is better translated as 'The Lie,' i.e. Ba'al. The term occurs with the definite article in 5:2, 31; 7:9; 8:8; 13:25; and 20:6, where in each case the meaning is probably the same. The confession then is a sober re-evaluation of the pious supplications to Ba'al in v21a..." (page 322).
42 Jeremiah 2:1-3 connects the introductory speeches in chapter 1 with this collection, while 4:3-4 serves the same function. The division is therefore made from 2:1 or 2:3 to 4:2 or 4:4. As Jeremiah 2:4-4:2 e.g. Joel S. Burnett, "Changing Gods: an Exposition of Jeremiah 2," Review and Expositor 101/2 (2004), 290. As Jeremiah 2:1-4:4 e.g. William L. Holladay, Jeremiah 1, 47ff. and Jack R. Lundbom, Jeremiah 1-20, 221ff - with the heading "People of a forgotten covenant", taking into account that thematically this collection stands in tension with the promise of "the new covenant" (Jeremiah 31:3134) within the so-called Book of Consolation (Jeremiah 30-31). See Joel S. Burnett, "Changing Gods", 289.
43 The elusiveness of "Israel" in the rhetoric of Jeremiah, directly links up with the question of text application later in Jeremiah's own life and the Jeremiah tradition after his time. The origin of at least this chapter is built on the assumption that Assyria refers to the former empire which conquered the Northern Kingdom, Israel. See Mary E. Shields, Circumscribing the Prostitute: The Rhetorics of Intertextuality, Metaphor and Gender in Jeremiah 3.1-4.4 (JSOT Suppl 387. London/New York: T&T Clark International, 2004), 8, with reference to J. G. McConville, Judgment and Promise: An Interpretation of the Book of Jeremiah (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1993), 31.
44 Mary E. Shields, Circumscribing the Prostitute, 7; Job Y. Jindo, Biblical Metaphor Reconsidered: A Cognitive Approach to Poetic Prophecy in Jeremiah 1-24 (HSMP/HSM 64. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns, 2010), 179.
45 Job Y. Jindo, Biblical Metaphor Reconsidered, 181.
46 As illustrated by the cyclical structure of the chapter, see Job Y. Jindo, Biblical Metaphor Reconsidered, 181-2.
47 De Blois & Mueller, "Semantic Dictionary of Biblical Hebrew," n.p. Cited 20 April 2020._Online: http://www.sdbh.org/vocabula/index.html הֶׁבֶׁל = action whereby humans are engaged in activities that do not serve any purpose, הֶׁבֶׁל = associated with something without substance, that quickly passes away;
48 Francis Brown, S.R. Driver & C.A. Briggs, A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament (7 ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), 211. Ludwig Koehler and Walter Baumgartner, KAHAL, 123 הַהֶׁבֶׁל in combination with הלך אחר = "Götzen" (idols), De Blois and Mueller, "Semantic Dictionary of Biblical Hebrew," n.p. Cited 20 April 2020._Online: http://www.sdbh.org/vocabula/index.html הֶׁבֶׁל = b. worthless idol
49 Translation of Jack R. Lundbom, Jeremiah 1-20, 256.
50 Jack R. Lundbom, Jeremiah 1-20, 262.
51 In form similar to names like לא דבר in 2 Sam 17:27, Amos 6:13), 'לא עמי(Hosea 1:9, 2:25), לא רחמה (Hosea 1:6, 8). See Francis Brown, S.R. Driver and C.A. Briggs, A Hebrew and English Lexicon, 520.
52 Jeremiah 1:16; 7:6, 9, 18; 11:10; 13:10; 16:11, 13; 19:4, 13; 22:9; 25:6; 32:29; 35:15; 44:3, 5, 8, 15. See Gerhard Lisowsky, Konkordanz, 49.
53 According to John A. Thompson, Jeremiah, 167, "in the secular treaties of the day a rebel vassal who 'went after' some other ruler was understood to have renounced allegiance to his overlord. Indeed, the expression 'go after' meant 'serve as a vassal'." See footnote 28.
54 Note the close resemblance to הבלים // לא־אֵל in Deuteronomy 32:21.
55 Sefaria Library, "Targum Jonathan on Jeremiah." n.p. Cited 23 September 2019. Online: https://www.sefaria.org/Targum_Jonathan_on_Jeremiah?lang=bi.
56 Robert Hayward, The Aramaic Bible, 49.
57 John Bright, Jeremiah, a New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (Anchor Bible volume 21, Second edition, 13th print. Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1978), 15.
58 John A. Thompson, Jeremiah, 167.
59 Jack R. Lundbom, Jeremiah 1-20, 259.
60 הלךְ אחרי / אחרי הלךְ + object (of new allegiance). See footnote 36.
61 Jack R. Lundbom, Jeremiah 1-20, 322. William L. Holladay, Jeremiah 1, 61 renders "Shame"; John A. Thompson, The Book of Jeremiah, 204 and The Jewish Study Bible: Jewish Publication Society, TANAKH Translation (ed. Adele Berlin & Marc Zvi Brettler, Oxford: University Press, 2004), 929: "Shameful Thing".
62 Lundblom, Jeremiah 1-20, 322, 625; Jewish Study Bible, 929; Niv, Afr83,
63 Lundbom, Jeremiah 1-20, 322 mentions two interpretation possibilities: if the verse is taken from 5:17 it could mean that Ba'al worship is punished by YHWH by an enemy that has now consumed the labour of many generations. Otherwise it could refer to both animal and child sacrifices, the latter practised by Ahaz and Manasseh, and after them flourishing in the Ben Hinnom Valley (7:31, 9:5). The second possibility is preferred, since no agents of YHWH's wrath are involved, as in Jeremiah 5:17.
64 See Bill T. Arnold and John H. Choi, Biblical Hebrew Syntax, 28. See Christo H. J. van der Merwe, Jackie A. Naudé and Jan Kroeze, Reference Grammar, 215-216.
65 William L. Holladay, Jeremiah 1, 126.
66 Cf. Christo H. J. van der Merwe, Jackie A. Naudé & Jan Kroeze, Reference Grammar, 342 (e). Bill T. Arnold and John H. Choi, Biblical Hebrew Syntax, 105 (g).
67 This confession, apparently of sin, is verbalised in Psalm 109:29, where the Psalmist prays that his accusers "be clothed in public shame / dishonour / scandal (כְלִמָׁה), wrapped in their shame (בָׁשְתָׁם) like a robe."
68 Cf. Jack R. Lundbom, Jeremiah 1-20, 320: "Gunkel (1967:14) identified the 'we' portion as a community lament, which he said Jeremiah was imitating in anticipation of the day when Israel would see her waywardness and repent (similarly Rashi; Gordis 1949:176; Blank 1970:2-3; and others)."
69 According to Garr, W Randall, "אָׁכֵן" Journal of Northwest Semitic Languages 33/2 (2007), 68, the term connects antithetical halves within an adversative context, and "signals that the following, contrasting member overrides what came prior." Mary Shields points out that this is the turning point in the narrative report where the negative female metaphor (up to verse 20a) turns into (the ultimately positive) male imagery (20b-25). See Mary E Shields, Circumscribing the Prostitute: The Rhetorics of Intertextuality, Metaphor and Gender in Jeremiah 3.1-4.4 (JSOT Suppl 387, London/New York: T&T Clark International, 2004), 123-124. Interestingly, this metaphorical "turning" from the idolatrous woman to the faithful son, corresponds to the theme of "turning" in verse 21-25, where the other two instances of אָׁכֵן follow one another (verse 23 a, b). It therefore seems that אָׁכֵן is time and again the word around which the narrative report is turning.
70 Christo H. J. van der Merwe, Jackie A. Naudé and Jan Kroeze, Biblical Hebrew Reference Grammar, 390, note this as "the most typical use of אָׁכֵ ( ) to affirm the truth of the content of a statement that overrules implications to the contrary that were invoked by a previous statement." See W. Randall Garr, "אָׁכֵן" Journal of Northwest Semitic Languages 33/2 (2007), 65-78 for numerous illustrations.
71 Christo H. J. van der Merwe, Jackie A. Naudé and Jan Kroeze, Biblical Hebrew Reference Grammar, 390.
72 William L. Holladay, Jeremiah 1, 124.
73 Cf. Mary E. Shields, Circumscribing the Prostitute, 125; Jack R. Lundbom, Jeremiah 1-20, 11, 316.
74 John A. Thompson, Jeremiah, 204.
75 William L. Holladay, Jeremiah 1, 124-5.
76 Jack R. Lundbom, Jeremiah 1-20, 322 writes the last two words in capital letters: Noise of the Mountains, noting that this is "(p)erhaps another disparaging name for Ba'al. The name given to Pharaoh in 46:17 is sa'on he'ëbtr hammo'ëd, 'Loud Noise Who Lets the Deadline Pass'."
77 Mary E. Shields, Circumscribing the Prostitute, 126 (with reference to Claus Westermann, Praise and Lament in the Psalms. Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1981, 62).
78 See footnote 76.
79 Depending on whether these forms of definite nouns (without explicit article) should be identified as names for Ba'al. This argument must still be settled. The ambiguity might be intentional.
80 De Blois and Mueller, "Semantic Dictionary of Biblical Hebrew," n.p. Cited 21 April 2020. Online: http://www.sdbh.org/vocabula/index.html עֲרוּר adj שׁער Wrong = state in which an event is so unacceptable that it inspires horror and outrage and calls for punishment -- horrible thing; outrage (also in Jeremiah 23:14). The second meaning of שַׁמָּׁה in HELOT (p 1031) "appalment, horror" suits best in combination with שַׁעֲרוּר as translated.
81 Taking the second meaning of רדה = scrape, and following the argument of Holladay, Jeremiah I, 201.
82 Note the feminine singular formations שמה ,שׁערורה and אחריתה, as imagery of the land as well as Israel in feminine terms. See Job Y. Jindo, Biblical Metaphor Reconsidered, 138. This imagery can hardly by represented in a translation. Translations like "But what will you do at the end?" (Niv), "But what will you do when the end comes?" (Rsv) are not reflecting the thrust of the hidden metaphors, of land and people.
83 Alternative translation: "What will you do to her posterity?" אחרית has both meanings, of which the positive outcome is attested in Jeremiah 29:11 (//תקוה hope). See HALOT (p 31).
84 See Job Y. Jindo, Biblical Metaphor Reconsidered, 138.
85 So Robert P. Carroll, Jeremiah, 189; Peter C. Craigie et al, Jeremiah 1-25, 94; Esv, Kjv
86 John A. Thompson, Jeremiah, 247.
87 Niv.
88 William L. Holladay, Jeremiah 1, 200.
89 Jack R. Lundbom, Jeremiah 1-20, 410 with reference to Ehrlich 1912: 255, Rudolph, and Bright. According to Bright, Jeremiah, 41, followed by Holladay, Jeremiah 1, 201 the phrase may either be rendered "prophesy falsely" or refer to Ba'al.
90 For a summary of the arguments, see Jack R. Lundbom, Jeremiah 1-20, 625.
91 John A. Thompson, Jeremiah, 340.
92 Afrikaans (1933, 1983), Cev, Jsb, Niv, Nbv.
93 Translations in this range: Luther 1545 (1534) "Sie räuchern den Göttern"; Afrikaans 1933 "hulle laat rook opgaan vir die nietige afgode"; Afrikaans 1983 "hulle bring reukoffers vir gode wat nie bestaan nie"; Herziene Statenvertaling 2010 "Zij brengen reukoffers aan nutteloze afgoden"; Asv 1901 "... they have burned incense to false [gods]". Esv 2001 "they make offerings to false gods". See also John A. Thompson, Jeremiah, 438; Peter C. Craigie, Page H. Kelly & Joel F. Drinkard (jr.), Word Biblical Commentary, 249; William L. Holladay, Jeremiah I, 524.
94 So Robert P. Carroll, Jeremiah, 376; Jack Lundbom, Jeremiah 1-20, 822.
95 For example, John A. Thompson, Jeremiah, 438; William L. Holladay, Jeremiah 1, 524.
96 Bright, Jeremiah, 124. According to Thompson (438), Bright connects lassaw ' to Ba'al.
97 References outside of this study are Jeremiah 7:18; 11:10; 13:10; 16:11, 13; 19:4, 13; 22:9; 25:6; 32:29; 35:15; 44:3, 5, 8, 15.
98 Coded language by means of 'atbash' in Jeremiah is a well-known phenomenon. See Scott B. Noegel, "Atbash in Jeremiah and its Literary Significance: Part 1-3". Jewish Biblical Quarterly 24/2 (1996): 82-89; JBQ 24/3 (1996): 160-166; JBQ 24/4 (1996): 247-250.