Parents' attitudes towards distance learning during the COVID-19 pandemic

 

 

Ante Kolak; Ivan Markić; Zoran Horvat

Department of Pedagogy, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia imarkic@ffzg.hr

 

 

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ABSTRACT

In this article we consider the applicability of distance education on the elementary level from parents' perspectives and present the limitations stemming from the degree of support that students in elementary education need from their parents. The dilemmas regarding the possible levels of students' development of independence and self-orientation, and the parents' roles are highlighted. We believe that due to these limitations, distance learning has some of the characteristics of home-schooling. The subject of the research in the empirical part of this study focused on parents' attitudes. Parental attitudes, based on a previously established multi-factor model, become clear from the parents' experiences (Kolak, Markic & Horvat, 2020) where factors regarding the demands of teaching and the competence of parents as substitute teachers, were separated. Parents' characteristics (e.g., gender, age, educational status and involvement) were found to influence their attitudes. The results of the research indicate the importance of parents in distance learning during the pandemic which adds a new and more significant role in the educational process of their children.

Keywords: COVID-19 pandemic; crisis; distance education; home-schooling; student

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Introduction

At the end of 2019 and during 2020, the whole world was faced with a major threat caused by a new virus, which had not been seen in humans before. Scientists called it SARS-CoV-2 resulting in illness, coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19). The pandemic has had a major effect on the functioning of the entire society on a global, local and micro-local level. In these turbulent times, the influence of health care recommendations and guidelines has had a direct influence on the functioning of many social systems, including education. In most countries of the world, including the Republic of Croatia, education has been conducted as distance learning. The Government of the Republic of Croatia, in order to ensure the exercise of students' rights to education, decided to arrange distance learning within the education system. By the Decision to Suspend Education in Institutions of Higher Education, High and Elementary Schools and the Regular Work of Pre-school Educational Facilities, and to Establish Distance Learning (The Government of the Republic of Croatia [Croatian: Vlada Republike Hrvatske], 2020) the real world was moved to the virtual world. Educational workers became teachers who, from their own homes, taught their students in their own homes, and the parents were given the role of substitute teachers. The paradigm of distance learning suddenly became the only reality. Distance learning takes place in a mutual relationship between the teacher and the students, each in their separate environments, where it is necessary to communicate through the use of technology. However, no special theory of distance education in elementary and high school education which would guide us in response to the challenges of distance learning aimed at elementary and high school students, existed. However, the theory of distance learning, initially developed for higher education and mostly linked to the developmental characteristics of adult students, their independence and self-orientation, was adapted for this purpose.

Literature Review

A key element of the success of distance learning is the student' s independence (Garrison, R 2009; Van Deur & Murray-Harvey, 2005), for which a basic level of digital literacy is needed. If this literacy is insufficient, the inclusion of parents or guardians is unavoidable. The level of the students' independence and digital literacy included in the first four grades of elementary school develop in proportion to the student' s age. The EUROSTAT results (2020) (which are the product of research into the level of digital competence of young people in the European Union) show that young people (16-24 years old) in the Republic of Croatia are highly skilled in terms of digital skills (which indicates the unquestionable contribution of the educational system). However, the level of digital competence of students in the early years of elementary school is still not at a suitable level to completely meet the demands of distance learning. Therefore, the help of parents is needed in performing basic preparatory tasks - before and sometimes during lessons. The results of research conducted on pre-school children show that in the Republic of Croatia more than half the children know how to turn computers on and off, launch and close applications independently, take photographs and view these in the device' s gallery. However, their knowledge and ability to communicate independently at a distance, to review recently used applications, to take screenshots, et cetera, were lacking (Mihaljević, Kučanda & Kotrla Topić, 2019). Furthermore, research conducted in 2015 and 2017 showed that most pre-school children used digital devices to watch cartoon films on television or computer. Also, they watched video clips on YouTube using computers, smart phones or tablets, played simple free games, and used internet search engines to find data they were interested in, but almost exclusively with the help of their parents or older siblings (Kotrla Topić, Perković Kovačević, Šincek & Duvnjak, 2017). However, these activities take place rarely, and in general do not form

part of children's regular interactions. The data are indicative and useful for an insight into the level of the students' ability to follow distance learning independently, and as a result, the need for parental involvement. We can conclude that in pre-school children and in the first years of schooling, there is a visible basic level of digital literacy, but also that the direction of its application is wrongly focused, since children use information technology (IT) more as a means of entertainment, and its use in practical, educational or auto-didactic applications is insufficient (Kolak et al., 2020). Therefore, the inclusion of parents is unavoidable. Parents' involvement in the children' s education is defined as a complex, multi-dimensional concept, which includes many parental activities related to the education of the child (Epstein, 1987, 2001; Henderson & Mapp, 2002; Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 1997). Many studies show that parental involvement has a positive effect on the child' s development (Epstein, 1995; Epstein, Sanders, Sheldon, Simon, Salinas, Jansorn, Van Voorhis, Martin, Thomas, Greenfeld, Hutchins & Williams, 2009; Fuller & Marxen, 1998; Henderson & Berla, 1994; Henderson & Mapp, 2002; Jeynes, 2005; Rosić & Zlokovic, 2003; Sanders & Sheldon, 2009; Vizek-Vidović, Vlahović-Štetić, Rijavec & Miljković, 2003). During the pandemic, parents were like first responders (Kolak et al., 2020) - the primary and sometimes only social contact for their children in situations when they were not able to respond to the requirements of their classes on their own. In addition, in this time, the parents were the closest and best sources of information and assistance (Wang, Zhang, Zhao, Zhang & Jiang, 2020). Taking students' level of digital literacy and the necessity for parental involvement and e-connections with teachers into consideration, a partner relationship between the parents and the teacher is necessary to meet all the requirements of distance learning. The parents' common goal is the welfare of the child, which, during the pandemic, was necessarily aimed at the teaching process itself. Parents needed increasing support from teachers in terms of methodology, the choice and range of teaching content, how to pass on knowledge, and how to arrange situations that enable independent learning, teaching processes aimed at practising and revising, how to use various sources of knowledge, et cetera. In addition to the didactic-methodological role of teachers, it is necessary to emphasise a change in the perception about other teacher roles as well. Teachers' interpersonal role identities emerge in three specific situations: the start of the lesson, reacting to poor student behaviour and reacting to positive student behaviour (Balyer & Ozcan, 2020). Teachers play several roles during teaching ranging from being an interpersonal expert who interacts and builds a relationship with students to an instructor teaching a specific subject (Burke & Stets, 2009). All these roles were mainly transferred to parents during lockdown. Issues related to evaluation, discipline, and the children's peer relationships arose as Topićs of conversation in the cooperative relationship between parents and teachers (Jurić & Males, 1994; Kolak, 2004). During the pandemic, these Topićs were overshadowed by questions relating to the organisation and implementation of classes - in practice a form of parental self-organisation of home-schooling.

Theoretical Framework

The new dilemma was whether this situation was truly a matter of distance learning or a model of home-schooling. The answer to this question is multifaceted and many common aspects need to be considered. From their perspective, parents were not able to choose distance learning in the new situation, but the concept of home-schooling was the parents' decision insofar as it is permitted by law.ⁱ Many definitions of distance learning exist, but the one most frequently used defines distance learning as an approach to learning for those who are physically distant (Guilar & Loring, 2008; King, Young, Drivere-Richmond & Schrader, 2001; Volery & Lord, 2000) or as classes that take place between two participants (the student and the teacher) who are in different places at different times, and it takes place using various learning sources (Moore, MJ, Dickson-Deane & Galyen, 2011). On the other hand, home-schooling can be defined as an alternative form of education, which mainly takes place at home instead of at school (Thomas, 2002). In home-schooling the parents are dedicated to educating their child (that is, at least one parent), and they have no obligations to work outside or from their home. Also, parents who home-school their children choose various pedagogical concepts, curricula and methods to do so, to lead their children through the educational process in the way they believe to be best for the individual child (Thomas, 2002). Home-schooling in its original form is a guided and individual process that offers a balance between a systematised structure and providing freedom for exploration, when and where it is needed (Moore, R & Moore, D 1994). Clery (1998) believes that home-schooling has a positive effect on the child because it enables and encourages the child' s autonomy and awareness of themselves, family socialisation and family relationships of better quality. The same author explains how the support of the mother in learning, in line with the child' s age and abilities, and based on activities and materials that are of interest to the child, leads to better family relationships, and the activities offered and the independence in learning are positively linked with good practice in home-schooling. Recognising the didactic culture of the

school, home-schooling parents have a large amount of independence in the choice of their aims, methods, procedures and sources of knowledge. In distance learning, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic, the classes were led by the teacher. Therefore, parents' choice was limited, and their role was more like that of a teaching assistant. Furthermore, in this situation, parents had less capacity for organising their child' s socialisation due to the restricted possibilities of movement, just as many sources of learning were also restricted (direct learning from a real-life situation, in-field work, etc.). Students with special needs are treated differently in home-schooling (e.g., gifted children - socializing with peers of the same mental age, work with mentors), while in distance learning this possibility does not exist. From the above it is clear that home-schooling and distance learning have many common features but also significant differences. The similarities may be useful and effective guidelines for distance learning in crisis situations, both from the teachers' and from the parents' perspectives. Authors who have dealt with the common features advise parents to have a clearly structured learning schedule, to ensure a stimulating environment without external distractions, to encourage intrinsic motivation and learning in natural, everyday activities, encourage communication with the teacher, and for parents to actively spend time with their children (Car, 2020). Research results (Fuller & Marxen, 1998; Hanhan, 1998; Kušević, 2016) clearly show that the inclusion of parents in teaching and school life is one of the important factors in ensuring the students' academic success. The inclusion of parents during the COVID-19 pandemic was imperative in ensuring the appropriate development of their children. It also raises the question of the success of students in the new situation, with the possible response that success depends exclusively on the student's individual characteRistićs. In turn, these characteRistićs are dependent on various other characteRistićs referred to by Bourdieu (2011), namely, the connection between families' different economic, cultural, social and symbolic resources, the child' s academic progress and the connection between the educational aspirations of children and the socioeconomic status (SES) status of their family (Jokić, Ristić Dedić, Erceg, Košutić, Kuterovac Jagodić, Marušić, Matić Bojić & Šabić, 2019; Wilson Fadiji & Reddy, 2020). Bearing this in mind, we point out that the possible lack of parental involvement during the pandemic (especially in deprived families due to their different characteRistićs) is also a problem that demands a systematic solution which is discussed in the empirical part of this study.

Furthermore, parents' different levels of education are one of the markers of the student' s success. In cases where parents have a lower level of education, less sensitivity to educational involvement is observed, due to the parents' own deficient educational experience (Maričić, Šakić & Franc, 2009). In cases where parents have a higher level of education, their involvement in the child's educational process is greater (De Graaf, De Graaf & Kraaykamp, 2000). Some research results indicate that middle-class parents are more involved than working-class and poor parents, which is interpreted based on their different cultural capital such as education, intellect, style of speech, et cetera (Lareau & Weininger, 2003). Bakker, Denessen and Brus-Laeven (2007) also link parental education levels to the students' academic success. Parents' capacity with regard to economic capacity and time is also an important marker, especially in the pandemic situation. In relation to time, we differentiate between parents who work from home and who, in terms of hierarchy, are at a lower level in a business cooperation, and who are not able to arrange for flexible working hours and adjust them to their child' s needs. On the other hand, some parents, due to the specific nature of their work, are absent from home, are obliged to work overtime or away from their hometown, are unable to return home every day, et cetera. In terms of economic capacity, we primarily imply the spatial and time-consuming aspects of work. Underprivileged families in this category are those families who have less living space due to the size of the family, and who are not able to provide adequate facilities for their child' s education. This category also includes families who do not possess the appropriate technical requirements for work (personal computer, internet connection, et cetera.). Underprivileged also presumes lower income, temporary economic migration, and the inclusion or exclusion of grandparents and other family members. A family' s underprivileged condition is the result of various causes and conditions, which may create situations where the parents' involvement in the child's distance learning is lacking. Results of research into parental involvement indicate that parental involvement is key in promoting students' success from early childhood (Henderson & Berla, 1994; Jeynes, 2007). Parental involvement in the teaching and distance learning process is the subject of this research and the empirical part of this study. The results of many studies indicate that the inclusion of the mother in the child' s education is greater than that of the father (Hennon, Olsen & Palm, 1998; Nazor & Buj, 1990; Walsh, 1996). During the pandemic, the results of studies published in the New York Times (Cain Miller, 2020) and the association, Parents Together Action (2020), that examined parents' experiences of their own involvement in distance learning and the inclusion of their partners show that 78% of mothers stated that they were dominantly involved in working

with their children, while the results from the New York Times' research show that that percentage was as high as 80%. The respective results show that 57% and 45% of fathers stated that they were mainly involved and carried the greatest burden. For the Croatian context it is necessary to recognise the possibility that the parents regard the educational context and the interaction of parents with the school as dominated by females. Earlier research established that mothers, whose marital partners have an active role in raising their children, show greater androgyny, or masculinity in gender roles (Baruch & Barnett, 1986). Apart from gender roles, the mother's employment status is also a significant indicator. The non-traditional gender role of the employed mother is a predictor of the proportion of time that fathers will spend in interaction with their children. Regarding mothers' attitudes about the active involvement of the father in raising their children, the results of previous research state that more than 60% of mothers did not want more involvement from their husbands, while 40% of their spouses were positive about wanting to be more actively involved (Baruch & Barnett, 1986). The fathers' age affects the quality of their parenting in many ways. Research (Fuller & Marxen, 1998) shows that the most positive expressions about their fathers come from children who were born when their fathers were between 30 and 40 years old. Various divisions and terminological definitions exist in relation to parenting and age: minor, young, middle-aged, and late; the term postponed is increasingly being used and refers to people only having children in their late thirties or later (Čudina-Obradović & Obradović, 2006; Kušević, 2013; Males & Kušević, 2011; Pernar, 2010). An advantage of postponed parenthood is greater parental involvement in raising and educating the child, better child-rearing methods, maturity and readiness for the challenges of parenthood, and the enriched environment which people who have postponed parenthood create for their child. The large amount of empirical evidence of the advantages of postponed parenthood (Garrison, MEB, Blalock, Zarski & Merritt, 1997; Kušević, 2013) indicates that the parents' age may be related to the involvement of parents during distance learning as well, which will be reflected in the empirical part of this study.

 

Methodology

The aim of the research was to examine the parents' experiences of and perspectives on distance learning. Data were collected from parents' responses to the research questions which were set in the form of hypotheses.

With the first hypothesis (H1) we examined parents' attitudes towards distance learning at the time of the COVID-19 pandemic, and the assumption was that they were mainly positive.

The second hypothesis (H2) was aimed at establishing differences in parental attitudes in relation to the different characteRistićs of the parents, and it was structured as four sub-hypotheses:

• H2.1: The parents' attitudes differ in relation to the parents' gender

• H2.2: The parents' attitudes differ in relation to the parents' age

• H2.3: The parents' attitudes differ in relation to the parents' educational status

• H2.4: The parents' attitudes differ in relation to the parents' involvement

The dependent variables in the research were the parents' attitudes towards distance learning, and the independent variables were gender, age, educational status, and the degree of parental involvement.

The Research Sample and the Structural CharacteRistićs of the Sample Ten thousand, five hundred and forty-five subjects from the Republic of Croatia took part in the research, and a random convenience sample was used in the sampling on the basis of the availability of parents through an online questionnaire, created for the needs of this research using the Google forms system.

The subjects in the research were parents of children in Grades 1 to 4 in elementary school. The questionnaire was distributed to the parents through the virtual classroom by the class teacher. Ten thousand, five hundred and forty-five parents voluntarily took part in the research.

The total number of participants in the research already indicates the importance of the research subject for the parents who demonstrated willingness to participate in sharing their experiences on the new situation. Table 1 shows that more than 88% of the subjects were mothers. The imbalance between the number of mothers and fathers shows the greater involvement of mothers in distance learning. Many authors (Baruch & Barnett, 1986; Hennon et al., 1998; Ljubetić & Batinica, 2015) have already indicated the lack of fathers' involvement in the education of their children, where they emphasise the need to undertake various measures to provide fathers with assistance and support in their involvement through the appeal Fathers! Where are You? (Brajša, 1995).

 

 

In Table 2 the subjects are divided into four sub-categories according to age. Most of the subjects in the research were in the second and third categories, which covered parents in the fourth and fifth decades of life. More than 90% of the subjects were in these categories. A significantly smaller percentage of subjects were in the category of young parents (up to 30 years of age), and only a tiny number (less than 2%) were parents older than 50 years. The parents' age proved to be a potentially interesting characteRistić in differentiating among them in terms of their involvement in distance learning.

 

 

The parents' educational status proved to be an important marker of parental competence in involvement in distance learning. In the sample shown in Table 3, most of the subjects (52.6%) were parents with a HS education, then parents with further and HE education (more than 30%). There was a significantly lower number of subjects in the other educational categories (ES, master's degree and DSc).

 

 

As shown in Table 4, the largest number of subjects in the research, in their own assessment of their involvement in distance learning, decided to express a maximum and high level of involvement, which is a significant result, to which we devote special attention.

 

 

In the category on their assessment of the degree of involvement of their partner, it may be seen that the largest number of subjects indicated that they had minimal or moderate help from their partner, while more than 30% of the subjects mentioned a high or maximum level of involvement by their partner in distance learning. Data from Table 5 show that some parents took on the role of substitute teacher independently, while in other family situations the role was shared equally by both parents.

 

 

Data Processing Methods

In testing the first hypothesis, descriptive parameters were used on the basis of the previously determined four-factor model, which had a high index of acceptability and reliability (Cronbach Alpha 0.92) of the extracted factors, or components (Kolak et al., 2020). For establishing the differences related to the structural characteRistićs of the subjects, the /-test and Welch's analysis of variance (ANOVA) were used, with the post hoc Games-Howell test, depending on the type of dependent variable.

 

Research Results and Discussion

In this section we interpret the results by answering the hypotheses set earlier.

First Hypothesis (Hi): Parents' Attitudes to Distance Learning are Mainly Positive In the analysis of the results, factor analysis of the main components was conducted first, where the initial questionnaire of 29 items was reduced to a model of 4 factors (components) and 21 items with a high index of acceptability and reliability (Cronbach Alpha 0.92) of the extracted factors. In terms of factor values, the Cronbach Alpha was 0.88 for the factor "complexity of classes", 0.85 for the factor "student's independence", 0.78 for the factor "the virtual teacher" and 0.59 for the factor "the parent as teacher". Principle Component Analysis (PCA) was used to establish dimensionality, with the aim of reducing the number of variables, where as much variance as possible was retained and explained using the established factors (Kolak et al., 2020). The main focus of this study was aimed at two factors: "the complexity of classes" and "the parent as teacher." The first factor relates to the parents' assessment of the complexity of distance learning in the newly arisen situation, while the second factor relates to their qualifications or self-assessment of parental competence for work in distance learning in the role of substitute teacher.

From the results in Table 6 we conclude that the first hypothesis in the first factor was partially proven. Parents expressed least agreement on the statement that the demands of the tasks set by the teachers were too high, while the most agreement related to the quantity and alignment of sources of knowledge. The greatest deviation in the replies was seen in the category of sources of knowledge (too many sources of knowledge SD - 1.42). The most dominant replies indicated the lowest level of agreement with the item offered, which points to the fact that parents believed that the difficulty of tasks was appropriate to the age of their children.

In response to the first research question, in relation to parents' self-assessment of parental competence in distance learning, the subjects expressed a partially neutral and a partially positive attitude. Therefore, the first hypothesis was only partially confirmed.

Table 7 shows that parents expressed a high level of agreement with the question about their knowledge of the content, which was to be expected in view of the educational status of the parents, but the greatest problem for them was methodology (I know all the content of the classes, but I don' t know how to explain it). From these results it is clear that the parents coped successfully in the virtual classroom (M = 4.0), they knew the content and they could easily help their child (M = 4.26). Parents regarded time as a challenge because they expressed a neutral attitude in this category (M = 3.04).

The second hypothesis (H2) aimed at establishing differences in parents' attitudes in relation to their different characteRistićs and is structured as four sub-hypotheses according to the independent variables.

Differences in Relation to Gender

For the variable "gender", the t-test was used for the independent samples, and Levene's test for equality of variances.

According to the results of the t-test shown in Table 8, it was established that fathers assessed the burden of distance learning as much less than the mothers did (p < 0.001), while the mothers felt more prepared to work in distance learning conditions (p < 0.001). These results can be interpreted differently. Some might confirm the research mentioned earlier in this article related to the gender roles of the parents, and the active inclusion of both marital partners in raising the children (Baruch & Barnett, 1986). It might also point out the level of the mothers' involvement in the working world, which was omitted in this research. From the document, Women and Men in Croatia, 2020, published by the Bureau of Statistics of the Republic of Croatia, data on the employment of men and women are available for 2020; 9.3% of women and 7.6% of men were unemployed (Croatian Bureau of Statistics, 2020). Therefore, according to the law of large samples and representation, we presume that the sample of N = 10,545 subjects has approximately the same distribution in relation to our consideration of that variable. We did not consider this to be relevant, nor even possible to cover completely in this research, because at the time of the pandemic many parents were working from home, so all the circumstances of (un)employment and the presence and capacity of parents to help their children with their studies at home were too complex and undefined for us to be able to operationalise them as a clear variable within the framework of the research methodology set, which we also point out as a potential limitation of the empirical part of this study.

Through a more detailed analysis of the factors of the burden of parents and self-assessment in the context of distance learning, by conducting the t-test further for individual items, it was established that mothers were significantly more satisfied with distance learning, they were more involved, but in their assessment of the burden, they assessed it equally to the fathers. The fathers also believed that the classes were not focused on what was important, and that there were too many sources of knowledge and excessive lesson content. The mothers in general assessed themselves as more competent than the fathers, in the context of lesson content and coping in the virtual classroom. These results confirm the wealth of empirical evidence of the lower burden on and involvement of fathers in the upbringing and education of their children (Hennon et al., 1998; Nazor & Buj, 1990; Walsh, 1996), which was also confirmed in the case of distance learning. Accordingly, hypothesis 2.1 was upheld.

Differences According to Age

Before establishing the differences according to the age of the subjects, the general characteRistićs were examined using the factors "the complexity of classes" and "the parent as teacher." Table 9 shows the basic descriptive parameters grouped according to the age of the subjects.

 

 

No significant differences in variance were found in relation to these factors between the samples in relation to the parents' age f = 1.24, p =0.29; f = 1.56, p = 0.11). However, for individual assertions, the Games-Howell test established several significant results. Differences were established in relation to the first factor, in connection with the parents' attitudes regarding the complexity of distance learning, while differences in relation to the second factor, corresponding to the teaching competence of the parents, were not significant. Although differences are visible in the other categories according to the descriptive characteRistićs, due to the size of the sample these did not prove to be significant in terms of the differences between the groups. By more detailed analysis in relation to individual factors it was established that parents older than 40 years were significantly less involved in distance learning than younger parents. The greatest level of involvement of both partners was found in parents aged up to 30 years, which means that the younger parents more often participated equally in distance learning. Parents aged 31 to 40, and 41 to 50 years had the least time to help their children with their classes. In line with the theory of life capital (Hoffman, 2002) parents in these age groups are mainly focused on creating economic capital. Since all forms of capital (economic, social and human) increase over time, we can presume that parents in the other age groups had more time to help their children with their learning. In relation to the different aspects of the distance learning burden on parents, the parents between 41 and 50 years of age stand out, because, in contrast to the other categories, they expressed least of all that there was too much content in the lessons and too many sources of knowledge, and that the number of tasks was too great and the difficulty too demanding.

Given the prominence of the category of parents aged 41 to 50 years, new research interest arose in attempting to establish possible reasons that could be related to the number of children in a family with parents aged between 41 and 50 years, which may indicate the presence of a larger number of children, studying using the helper model, and studying with older siblings helping younger ones. Therefore, descriptive parameter cross-tabulation was conducted on age and the number of children in the family.

Table 10 clearly shows that the proportion of the number of children of parents aged 41 to 50 was almost the same as in all the other age categories; 67% of parents aged 31 to 40 years had one or two children and about 33% had three, four or more children. On the other hand, almost surprisingly often, the youngest parents in our research had larger families; 41.6% had three, four or more children, which is 10% more than parents aged 41 to 50 years. Only 58% of younger parents had one or two children. This indicates a change in the demographic structure of the composition of families in the Republic of Croatia. The category of parents who were 51 years and older stands out from the categories already mentioned in terms of its share, but it is clear that lower levels of coping in remote learning is not the result of having more children than younger parents.

The number of children in the family was not shown to be a mediating factor that explained the differences. Possibilities may be found in other factors that are not covered by this research, such as, for example the responsibility and status of parents in the hierarchy structure at work, the inclusion of grandparents and other older family members, their level of computer literary, et cetera.

In the end, according to the results of the research and the analysis conducted, we may conclude that hypothesis 2.2 was partially upheld.

Differences in Relation to Educational Status

By descriptive analysis of these factors (Table 10), first the mean values and deviations were established in assessment of the parent as teacher, according to educational status.

Examination of the results in Table 11 shows differences in both factors. Significant differences in variance were found between the samples in relation to educational status f = 15.54, p < 0.001). The Games-Howell test showed differences between HE and ES (p < 0.001) where the parents with HE were less burdened, and parents with ES were the most burdened by distance learning. There was a statistically significant difference between parents with further and HE, where those with FE were significantly more burdened by distance learning (p < 0.01). When establishing the differences in the second factor, significant differences in variance were found between the samples in relation to educational status (f = 43.9, p < 0.001). The Games-Howell test showed that the differences were primarily between lower levels of education (ES, HS and FE), which differed statistically significantly from all the other categories in terms of parental educational status, from parents with HE or higher levels of education (p < 0.001). As expected, parents with a higher level of education assessed their skills in distance learning significantly higher, and the differences in attitudes of parents with ES and above changed significantly with the level of education, right up to parents with HE, whose results coincided with subjects who achieved higher levels of education than them. By more detailed analysis (Games-Howell) of individual factors, it was established that parents with HS education were significantly more involved in distance learning than parents with HE or a Master' s degree (p < 0.05), and that parents with HE were more satisfied with distance learning than those with ES, HS or FE (p < 0.01). Parents with ES and HS stated more than the other categories (p < 0.01) that they did not cope so well in the virtual classroom, that the teachers' instructions were not always clear to them, and that they did not know how to help their children, although they assessed that they had more time than other parents. Accordingly, hypothesis 2.3 was completely upheld.

Differences in Relation to Parental Involvement

The level of parents' involvement in distance learning was also separated through self-assessment by parents as an independent variable, in establishing differences between the subjects. The basic descriptive parameters, according to the factors examined in relation to that variable, are shown in Table 12.

The analysis of the results showed significant differences in relation to the first factor, but no statistically significant differences were found between the sub-samples in self-assessment of the qualifications of parents in relation to their level of involvement in distance learning (second factor). Significant differences in variance were found between samples in relation to the parents' level of involvement in distance learning (F = 3.24, p < 0.05). The Games-Howell test showed differences in the burden, graded from minimum upwards, where, as expected, it was found that there was a positive correlation between the level of involvement and the parental burden. On the other hand, no statistically significant differences were found between the samples in self-assessment of their qualifications in relation to the level of their involvement in distance learning.

More detailed analysis according to the factors "complexity of classes" and "the parent as teacher" showed that parents who were more involved in distance learning more often experienced problems when they helped their children with their lessons. Although they assessed that they coped equally well in the virtual classroom as parents who were less involved, they more often assessed that they did not know how to explain the lesson content to their children, that they believed that there was excessive lesson content and sources of knowledge, and that the tasks in the lesson were too difficult. Accordingly, hypothesis 2.4 was partially upheld.

 

Conclusion

The parental perspectives on the issues dealt with in this article show the different experiences of parents in relation to the consequences of the pandemic caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus for the educational system. The direction of opinions of the subjects in the research in relation to the parents' assessment of the complexity of the lessons in distance learning indicates a normal distribution, with a slight tendency towards negative symmetry. Parents showed average attitudes towards the complexity of lessons, as well as their own competence. By establishing differences between the individual characteRistićs of the parents we may conclude that the characteRistićs selected are significant markers of the involvement of parents in distance learning. Mothers showed greater involvement and fathers expressed a smaller burden in the category "the complexity of classes." The parents' age was shown to be a significant marker. The highest level of involvement by both partners was found in parents under the age of 30 years, while parents aged 31 to 50 had the least time to be involved and help their children in completing their school tasks. The category of educational status indicated that parents with a lower level of education found it harder to cope and they were less educationally competent to help their children in distance learning.

Recognising the experiences, beliefs, feelings and behaviour of parents, their ability to adapt was clear, prompted by the desire for the well-being of their child, but also showing difficulties in achieving that goal. Differences were established in relation to the parents' characteRistićs (gender, age, educational status). In preparing parents for their active role in the teaching process, the school as education system in partnership with parents should respect the principle of individualisation in relation to the parents. On the basis of the parents' attitudes, the perception was proven that distance learning required of parents to take on a new function with some elements of home schooling, which was the result of the students' level of independence and ability for self-regulation. Bearing in mind the results of the research, we conclude that, as subjects in the educational process, parents need additional and special support, perhaps precisely the kind of support that prepares parents for home schooling, so that they are able to respond as successfully and competently as possible to the challenges they face.

Although this research was conducted on the population of parents living in the Republic of Croatia, the theoretical and methodological approach to the research can be applied to other cultural and educational systems. The child' s right to education and inclusion transcends boundaries, unfortunately as does the current situation regarding the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. Therefore, we are of the opinion that similar research should be conducted in educational systems in other countries to determine and understand in what ways parents were involved in the education of their children during the pandemic and what could be done to improve such involvement. All of us have the social responsibility to make our own contribution to this struggle so that children/students lose as few educational opportunities as possible and maintain appropriate and healthy relationships. Parents and teachers play a significant role in maintaining and developing these opportunities and relationships, regardless of the country in question.

 

Authors' Contributions

All authors' contributions were equal.

 

Notes

i. Home-schooling is not possible in the Republic of Croatia.

i. Published under a Creative Commons Attribution Licence.

ii. DATES: Received: 28 August 2020; Revised: 3 July 2021; Accepted: 28 October 2021; Published: 31 August 2022.

 

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