Scielo RSS http://www.scielo.org.za/rss.php?pid=1816-795020150001&lang=en vol. 41 num. 1 lang. en http://www.scielo.org.za/img/en/fbpelogp.gif http://www.scielo.org.za http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1816-79502015000100001&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en Decision making for water resources is needed for land-use change due to urbanisation, which impacts hydrological variables such as mean annual runoff (MAR) of catchments. Urbanisation introduces some degree of uncertainty (expressed as entropy) to this specific variable. This study uses Shannon or theoretic entropy as a tool for measuring land use variability/diversity of urbanised areas in South Africa. Positive correlations between entropy and increase in mean annual runoff (MAR) due to urbanisation are derived. Also, relationships between return period/risk of failure (flooding or water supply) and entropy are established. A case of Pieter Wright Dam of the Vaal drainage region is used to demonstrate these relationships. Consequently, the reliability of this dam is shown to be positively correlated with entropy. Data on surface water resources of South Africa 1990 (WR90) compiled by the Water Resource Commission (WRC) were used in this study. http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1816-79502015000100002&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en The degradation of o-cresol using immobilised acclimated biomass in PVA-alginate hydrogel and cryogel beads was investigated. The results show that the PVA-hydrogel-immobilised biomass achieved better o-cresol removal efficiency than the PVA-cryogel-immobilised biomass. However, the cryogel beads showed better bead stability and reusability. Based on o-cresol removal, the optimum dry biomass density in the cryogel beads of 3-4 mm diameter was found to be 0.02 g.cm³. An enhancement in the performance of PVA-cryogel-immobilised biomass for o-cresol removal was observed when 0.5% (w/v) powdered activated carbon (PAC) was added into the polymeric matrix. In the reusability and stability test, the cryogel beads containing biomass augmented by PAC were able to sustain 9 cycles of use with a removal efficiency of over 82% per cycle, when treating 300 mg.ℓ-1 of o-cresol, without much biomass leakage being detected. http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1816-79502015000100003&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en This research addresses the effect of using digital elevation models (DEMs) derived from different sources on the results of a kinematic wave based GIUH model. DEMs from different sources exhibit data-resolution effects on the important derived geomorphological properties of watersheds used in rainfall-runoff modelling. Using DEMs derived from topography maps (TOPO DEM) and the SRTM DEM, it was illustrated that different threshold areas for stream network extraction affect GIUH model performance. The results show that the SRTM DEM gives higher values for sub-basin and channel slope as well as number of streams, than the TOPO DEM, while mean length of overland and channel flow is greater for the latter source. The results also indicate that peak flow and slope of the hydrograph rising limb obtained from the SRTM DEM at different threshold areas (ranging from 0.25% to 3%) are greater than that for the TOPO DEM. Investigating the effects of stream network delineation threshold area on the simulated peak flow shows that the maximum and minimum differences (12% and 1%) occur at the threshold areas of 0.5% and 1%, respectively, while for threshold areas higher than 2% the difference in peak flow of the two sources is limited to 10%. Based on the results of this research, it is deduced that the effects of data resolution and stream network delineation threshold areas on the geomorphological parameter values and the performance of GIUH-based models are significant and should be considered when using SRTM DEMs in ungauged watersheds. http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1816-79502015000100004&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en The purpose of this paper is to investigate whether a simple, spatially-based approach to groundwater sustainability using radius of influence should be used to replace the pervasive, yet deprecated, 'natural recharge water balance' volumetric method. Using South Africa as a case study, the radius of influence methodology was shown to be scientifically practical, to provide plausible results, and to be permissible under the country's water laws. The approach also provides better indicators for institutions involved in groundwater management, and remains conceptually correct at all scales. However, further research is recommended on more robust alternatives to the Cooper-Jacob equation for determining radius of influence. http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1816-79502015000100005&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en This paper describes the dynamics of evapotranspiration (ET) in South Africa using MOD16 ET satellite-derived data, and analyses the inter-dependency of variables used in the ET algorithm of Mu et al. (2011). Annual evapotranspiration is strongly dependent on rainfall and potential evapotranspiration (PET) in 4 climatically different regions of South Africa. Average ET in South Africa (2000-2012) was estimated to be 303 mm-a-1 or 481.4 x 10(9) m³-a¹ (14% of PET and 67% of rainfall), mainly in the form of plant transpiration (T, 53%) and soil evaporation (Soil E, 39%). Evapotranspiration (ET) showed a slight tendency to decrease over the period 2000-2012 in all climatic regions, except in the south of the country (winter rainfall areas), although annual variations in ET resulted in the 13-year trends not being statistically significant. Evapotranspiration (ET) was spatially dependent on PET, T and vapour pressure deficit (VPD), in particular in winter rainfall and arid to semi-arid climatic regions. Assuming an average rainfall of 450 mm-a-1, and considering current best estimates of runoff (9% of rainfall), groundwater recharge (5%) and water withdrawal (2%), MOD16 ET estimates were about 15% short of the water balance closure in South Africa. The ET algorithm can be refined and tested for applications in restricted areas that are spatially heterogeneous and by accounting for soil water supply limiting conditions. http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1816-79502015000100006&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en Among the 155 recorded fish species in the St Lucia estuarine system, Ambassis ambassis is one of the most prominent. After a decade dominated by dry and hypersaline conditions, the St Lucia system has changed dramatically with the onset of a new wet phase in 2011. In response, A. ambassis has expanded its distribution throughout the system. Stable δ15N and δ13C isotope analysis was used in conjunction with gut content analysis to elucidate the diet of this species at 5 representative sampling localities. Zooplankton as well as terrestrial and aquatic insects were prevalent in the diet. Non-metric multidimensional scaling analysis revealed a considerable dietary overlap for the fish collected at the different localities. Seasonally, trophic position differed significantly, with the dry season showing consistently higher isotopic signatures at all sites. A significant relationship was identified between trophic position, salinity and temperature, indicating the potential effect of these variables on the diet. The ability of A. ambassis to link lower trophic level organisms, such as zooplankton, with larger piscivorous predators is thus indicative of the vital role this species occupies in the food webs of the St Lucia system. http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1816-79502015000100007&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en Sensitivity and uncertainty analysis are important tools in the modelling process: they assign confidence to model results, can aid in focusing monitoring and preservation efforts, and can be used in model simplification. A weakness of global sensitivity and uncertainty analysis methodologies is the often subjective definition of prior parameter probability distributions, especially in data-poor areas. We apply Monte Carlo filtering in conjunction with quantitative variance-based global sensitivity and uncertainty analysis techniques to address this weakness and define parameter probability distributions in the absence of measured data. This general methodology is applied to a reservoir model of the Okavango Delta, Botswana. In addition to providing a methodology for setting prior parameter distributions, results show that the use of Monte Carlo filtering reduces model uncertainty and produces simulations that better represent the calibrated ranges. Thus, Monte Carlo filtering increases the accuracy and precision of parametric model uncertainty. Results also show that the most important parameters in our model are the volume thresholds, the reservoir area/volume coefficient, floodplain porosity, and the island extinction coefficient. The reservoir representing the central part of the wetland, where flood waters separate into several independent distributaries, is a keystone area within the model. These results identify critical areas and parameters for monitoring and managing, refine and reduce input/output uncertainty, and present a transferable methodology for developing parameter probability distribution functions, especially when using empirical models in data-scarce areas. http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1816-79502015000100008&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en In the search for alternative and reliable water sources to irrigate vegetables for backyard gardens, an experimental field was set up in the vicinity of the Umtata Dam, north-west of the town of Umtata, to test grey-water quality and its effects on soil nutrient content following 4 successive growing seasons. Samples of grey-water that were generated from informal housing adjacent to the Umtata Dam were collected from kitchen and bath tubs/washing basins. These samples were analysed before being used for irrigating vegetable crops. The results showed that grey-water quality was 'fit for purpose' for irrigating edible vegetable plants. Although the average Na+ (16 mg/ℓ) and Cl- (15 mg/ℓ) ions were significantly higher (p = 0.05) for grey-water than other treatments, both were below the limit of 100 mg/ℓ set in the South African Water Quality Guidelines. The concentrations of nutrients and heavy metals found in the grey-water samples were significantly lower compared to the World Health Organization guidelines for the safe use of grey-water and within the target water quality range (TWQR) prescribed by South African guidelines for irrigation water. However, the study strongly recommends that grey-water be diluted in order to lower the salt content and to improve the irrigation water quality. Results from an analysis of soil samples showed no significant differences in pH as a result of applying grey-water throughout the soil profile of up to 90 cm depth. Na content of the soil irrigated with grey-water was not significantly different than that of plots where diluted grey-water and potable water were used. Therefore, the grey-water used in this study does not appear to cause an accumulation of salts and heavy metals in soil, in the short term. http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1816-79502015000100009&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en In this study, the performance of different aluminium hydroxide-based adsorbents was compared in terms of fluoride adsorption capacity, potential for repetitive regeneration, surface acidity and surface site concentrations. The adsorbents were aluminium hydro(oxide) (AO), activated alumina (AA), and pseudoboehmite (PB). The AO adsorbent was synthesised at different OH:Al ratios to optimise the fluoride adsorption capacity. The AO was pilot tested in a rural community in the Ethiopian Rift Valley where groundwaters are heavily enriched with fluoride. The maximum fluoride uptake was achieved for the AO adsorbent synthesised at OH:Al ratios between 2.5 and 2.7. The fluoride adsorption capacity of the adsorbents determined from mini-column studies was found to be 10.6, 1.9, and 2.4 mg/g for AO, AA, and PB, respectively. This significant difference in fluoride adsorption capacity is strongly related to the surface acidity and surface site concentration. The surface acidity (1.57 meq/g) and surface site concentration (0.74 meq/g) for AO is higher than that for AA and PB. The elemental composition analysis showed that AO has a lower % Al2O3 content than AA and PB, but higher sulphate (19.4%) and iron (2.2%) content. High resolution 27Al Magic Angle Spinning Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (27Al MAS NMR) spectra of AO, AA, and PB were recorded, to analyse the coordination geometry of solid Al species and the results showed that aluminium is coordinated octahedrally and tetrahedrally in all cases. Regeneration experiments showed that AA and PB can be regenerated for more than 3 cycles, whereas the potential for regeneration of AO for more than 3 cycles is limited. The results from a community defluoridation plant showed that fluoride in the feed water (8-10 mg/ℓ) is removed below 0.1 mg/ℓ. The average adsorption capacity was determined to be 2.11 mg/g based on continuous field monitoring results obtained until the fluoride content in the treated water exceeded the breakthrough value of 1.5 mg/ℓ. No major operational problems and complaints from the beneficiaries were experienced during operation. http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1816-79502015000100010&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en Although it is known that environmental chemicals can affect the oestrogenic system, far less attention has been paid to chemicals interacting with the androgen receptor (AR). Pesticides, particularly fungicides, have been shown to competitively bind or affect expression of the AR in an inhibiting manner. Few studies have addressed anti-androgenic effects of agrochemical use in South Africa. The aim of this study was to screen for the ability of commonly-used pesticides (mostly fungicides) in Western Cape agricultural areas to alter the binding of an androgen (DHT) to the human AR (hAR) using a recombinant yeast androgen screen (YAS), and also to test the additivity mixture interaction hypothesis when commonly-used pesticides with similar modes of action (MOAs) are exposed in mixture. Fungicides vinclozolin, folpet, procymidone, dimethomorph, fenarimol, mancozeb, and the insecticide chlorpyrifos, all independently antagonised the binding of the androgen dihydrotestosterone (DHT) to the AR in a dose-dependent manner. The fungicide mancozeb was found to be the most potent anti-androgen in the assay. Binary, equimolar mixtures of the pesticides also antagonised the binding of DHT to the AR, but at lower IC50 concentration potencies relative to their individual counterparts. The mixtures of the majority of the selected pesticides did not conform to the expected additive mixture interaction. Only the mixture between dimethomorph and mancozeb showed an additive mixture response at IC50 concentrations, and, therefore, revealed a more severe AR antagonistic effect compared to their individual counterparts. This study confirmed that pesticides regularly used in agriculture inhibit the binding of androgens to the AR, but when in mixture do not always conform to the predictive addition mixture response model. Also, high relative potencies of individual chemicals in the assay were suppressed when combined with less potent chemicals, showing that the potent chemicals may not be granted access to bind with the AR when exposed in mixture. http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1816-79502015000100011&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en In this study, the practical usefulness and fundamental applicability of a self-potential (SP) method for identifying the hydraulically-active fractures were evaluated by a comparison of SP methods with other geophysical logging methods and hydraulic tests. Potentially permeable fractures intersecting a shallow, 10-m borehole were first identified using conventional geophysical methods such as acoustic borehole televiewer imaging and temperature, electrical conductivity and gamma-gamma logs. These results were then compared to results of analysis using the SP method. Constant pressure injection and recovery tests were conducted for verification of the hydraulic properties of the fractures identified by various logging methods. The acoustic borehole televiewer and gamma-gamma logs detected the openings or weathering zones associated with fractures intersecting the borehole, but they could not prove that groundwater was flowing through the detected fractures. The temperature and fluid-column electrical conductivity logs were unable to detect the fractured zones where groundwater in the borehole flows out to the surrounding rock aquifers. Comparison of results from the different methods tested showed that the most effective correlation between logs and the distribution of hydraulic conductivity was given by the SP signals, and that SP logging can accurately indicate the location of hydraulically-active permeable fractures. Based on these results, the SP method is recommended for determining the location of hydraulically-active fractures rather than other conventional geophysical logs. This self-potential method can be effectively applied in the initial stage of a site investigation to select the optimal site location or to evaluate the hydrogeological properties of fractures in underground exploration studies, such as those related geothermal reservoir evaluation and radioactive waste disposal. http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1816-79502015000100012&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en In recent decades much attention has been paid to optimal operation of water distribution networks (WDNs). In this regard, the system operation costs, including energy and disinfection chemicals, as well as system reliability should be simultaneously considered in system performance optimisation, to provide the minimum required level of performance in failure condition and to manage economic limitations. In this study, multi-objective optimisation of water distribution network performance in 3 different scenarios was considered. In these scenarios the effects of time-dependent chlorine injection and pump speed, as well as different combinations of objective functions for minimising energy and disinfection costs and for maximising hydraulic reliability and quality-based reliability are incorporated. As the optimisation method, a multi-objective ant colony optimisation (ACO) algorithm was used because of its high efficiency. For better managing the hydraulic behaviour and water quality in the WDN, considering temporal variations of demand, it is suggested to use variable speed pumps (VSP) as well as to inject chlorine at a variable rate. Application of VSP and time-dependent chlorine injection results in improvements such as reduction in energy and disinfection costs, and decrease in disinfection costs in application of HDSM (head-driven simulation method). In HDSM simulation of WDN, a decrease in hydraulic reliability because of shortages in water supply can be mitigated through extra chlorine injection and increase in quality-based reliability. To deal with this challenge, it is recommended to satisfy the hydraulic reliability first and then to evaluate the quality reliability. Furthermore it is necessary to modify the hydraulic reliability relationship to incorporate different components of the WDN other than pumps. This will provide more reliable results for evaluation of the system performance. http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1816-79502015000100013&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1816-79502015000100014&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en This study investigated the extent of Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD) activities in the George Municipality in the Western Cape Province, South Africa, and its impact on water consumption. The WSUD approach aims to influence design and planning from the moment rainwater is captured in dams, to when it is treated, and reticulated to consumers, and extending to the point of wastewater re-use, as well as stormwater use. The study identified 8 WSUD sub-activities stemming from 4 main WSUD activities, implemented by the George Local Municipality. Water debtors' data were sourced in order to measure the effect of 3 of the 8 WSUD sub-activities on water consumption in selected areas. The analysis confirmed that the three WSUD sub-activities had a short-term impact on reducing water consumption in the suburbs where they were implemented. It is recommended that the municipality focus on improved planning and implementation of a diverse range of WSUD activities and implementing information and monitoring systems to evaluate the impact of these measures. http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1816-79502015000100015&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en Contaminated land in South Africa is regulated through the National Environmental Management Waste Act (Act 59 of 2008) (NEMWA) and the National Norms and Standards for the Remediation of Contaminated Land and Soil Quality (NSCLA) (GN R.331 of 2014). These standards were obtained from the Framework for the Management of Contaminated Land. A soil screening value (SSV1) for the protection of groundwater resources is proposed which is based on a 2-phase (stage) equilibrium partitioning and dilution model which includes a dilution factor and partitioning coefficient (Kd), converting the water quality guideline to a total soil screening value. The appropriateness of the screening values has been questioned because of the uncertainties surrounding the Kd values used by the Framework. This paper investigates the Kd values of Cu, Pb, and V for selected South African diagnostic soil horizons to evaluate the reliability of the current Kd values used by the Framework during Phase 1 screening. The Kd values of Cu for the 10 horizons ranged between 13 and 19 044 ℓ-kg-1, all exceeding the value of 10 ℓ-kg-1 provided by the Framework. For Pb the values ranged from 25 to >252 294 ℓ-kg-1 as compared to the Framework's 100 ℓ-kg-1. Similarly, the Kd value of 200 ℓ-kg4 for V recommended by the Framework is higher than the measured Kd value of 15 to 173 ℓ-kg4 for all 10 diagnostic horizons. This study demonstrated that the observed wide Kd value ranges for each element were related to the variation in basic soil properties such as soil pH, organic carbon, clay, Fe, and Al content. Therefore, the Kd values for Cu, Pb, and V currently used by the Framework are not representative of typical South African diagnostic soil horizons. Linear regression models were developed for the prediction of Cu, Pb, and V Kd values from measured soil properties, which could be used to generate soil-specific Kd values. http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1816-79502015000100016&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en During drought periods, the razor clam Solen cylindraceus is the dominant bivalve in the St Lucia estuarine system, although restricted to its South Lake region. However, with the recent onset of a wet phase, the mussel Brachidontes virgiliae has become widespread and overwhelmingly dominant throughout the system. The salinity tolerance of B. virgiliae is here determined using both rapid and gradual changes in salinity. Mussels were collected at Esengeni in the Narrows (salinity ≈ 0) and Listerfs Point in False Bay (salinity ≈ 20). Mortalities were recorded for animals exposed to a sudden change in salinity using 8 different treatments, ranging from 0 to 70. Additionally, animals were exposed to a gradual change in salinity, using treatments that exceeded the minimum and maximum salinities mussels were previously able to tolerate. In all four experiments, animals were able to tolerate salinity levels up to 20. However, a wider salinity tolerance, up to 50, was shown by animals collected from Listerfs Point and those gradually acclimated to test conditions. With an increase in flood events predicted for this region, it is imperative to understand how key species may be affected. During wet phases B. virgiliae becomes ubiquitious throughout Lake St Lucia and it is unlikely that the species will disappear from the system, even if floods escalate in the future, as it has an ability to withstand near-freshwater conditions. During dry periods, however, the mussel will be concentrated in the Narrows (oligohaline to limnetic conditions), especially if an inverse salinity gradient with hypersaline conditions prevails within the system. http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1816-79502015000100017&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en The need for monitoring the biological impacts of instream sediments has long been recognised, yet robust and scientifically defensible tools for doing so are still in the early stages of development because of the difficulties experienced by researchers in characterising the complicated mechanisms of biological effect elicited by sediment particles. Biological monitoring is one such tool, and this paper reports on the initial stages of a study to determine the most applicable approach for measuring the effects of instream sediments on aquatic macroinvertebrates in the South African context. In this first instance, the suitability of the rapid macroinvertebrate biomonitoring tool (the South African Scoring System) was investigated by determining the extent of the correlation between concurrently measured SASS metrics and turbidity data collected for the South African River Health Programme. All three SASS metrics - SASS score, number of taxa (NOT), and average score per taxon (ASPT) - were found to be significantly negatively correlated with turbidity, although variation in the data was high. Turbidity was found to be the major driver of change in ASPT. In contrast, electrical conductivity was the major driver of SASS scores and NOT, with turbidity a close second. When combined, electrical conductivity and turbidity accounted for 80% (SASS score) and 75% (NOT) of the variation in the regression model. Consequently, SASS metrics are a crude, but reliable, indicator of the negative biological implications of excessive instream sedimentation as measured by turbidity. A number of other potential biomonitoring approaches for detecting the impacts of fine sediment exposure are identified for further investigation: spatial analyses of macroinvertebrate assemblages; and the use of structural and functional metrics. http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1816-79502015000100018&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en Home gardening is extremely important for resource-poor households that have limited access to production inputs. However, in South Africa attempts to implement home garden programmes often fail to improve food security of the poor due to water scarcity. Rainwater harvesting technology (RWHT) has been used to supplement the conventional water supply systems, but its potential has not been fully exploited. An understanding of the factors influencing the adoption of improved technologies is therefore critical to successful implementation of agricultural development programmes. This study evaluated the determinants of farmers' decisions to adopt rainwater harvesting technology (RWHT) in rural Msinga, KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa, using a binary logistic regression model based on a household survey of 180 rural home gardeners. The result of the logistic regression model showed that gender, age, education, income, social capital, contact with extension agent and perception/attitude towards RWHT are statistically significant in explaining farmers' adoption of RWHT in the study area. Implications for agricultural and rural development policy were discussed. http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1816-79502015000100019&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en An on-site colorimetric probe, based on gold nanoparticles incorporated into electrospun polystyrene nanofibres, for the detection of oestrogenic compounds, as represented by 17β-estradiol, in dairy effluents is presented. The probe exhibited a significant absorption peak at 542 nm, ascribed to surface plasmon resonance of Au nanoparticles (NPs). With increasing 17β-estradiol concentration the surface plasmon resonance (SPR) band shifted to a longer wavelength accompanied by a visual colour change from shades of pink to blue. The visible cut-off concentration was 100 ng/mℓ. Upon exposure to cholesterol and a series of compounds known to induce oestrogenic activity, p,p'-DDE, deltamethrin, 4-tert-octylphenol and nonylphenol, only 17β-estradiol could induce a pink colour observable by the naked eye, which is indicative that the proposed gold nanoparticles-incorporated electrospun polystyrene nanofibres could be employed as highly selective colorimetric strips to detect 17β-estradiol, with minor interference from other endocrine-disrupting compounds usually present in dairy effluents. The facile nature of the colorimetric probe and potential application in monitoring water quality was demonstrated.