Water SA

Input variable selection for interpolating high-resolution climate surfaces for the Western Cape

Accurate climate surfaces are vital for applications relating to groundwater recharge modelling, evapotranspiration estimation, sediment yield, stream flow prediction and flood risk mapping. Interpolated climate surface accuracy is determined by the interpolation algorithm employed, the resolution of the generated surfaces, and the quality and density of the input data used. Although the primary input data of climate interpolations are usually meteorological data, other related (independent) variables are frequently incorporated in the interpolation process. One such variable is elevation, which is known to have a strong influence on climate. This research investigates the potential of 4 additional variables for inclusion in the interpolation process. Three of the variables, namely, slope gradient, slope aspect and hillshade, are related to topography, while the fourth is related to large water bodies (i.e. distance to oceans). Correlation analyses were used to determine the suitability of each of the 4 variables for interpolating climate surfaces in the Western Cape Province, South Africa. Although moderate correlations were identified between climate records and distance to oceans, no significant correlation was found for slope gradient, slope aspect and most variations of hillshade. However, a moderate correlation was identified between rainfall records and hillshade with a 180º azimuth. This variable was consequently used in various combinations with distance to oceans and elevation to generate 8 sets of high-resolution (i.e. 3 arc second) climate surfaces of the Western Cape. According to an accuracy assessment of the resulting surfaces, distance to oceans reduced the mean error of monthly mean maximum daily temperature interpolations by 27%. Distance to oceans also improved the accuracy of monthly mean minimum daily temperature interpolations for October through April. Although hillshade (180º azimuth) did not improve accuracies for temperature interpolations, it did improve the accuracy of monthly rainfall surfaces for 4 months of the year. The combinations of input variables that produced the lowest monthly mean errors were used to generate a new set of surfaces using all available meteorological data. A pair-wise comparison of the new interpolated surfaces with existing climate surfaces revealed that the surfaces created using our methodology are, in general, more accurate than any existing interpolations.

The effect of air supply on nitrogen removal using a biological filter proposed for ventilated pit latrines

Pit latrines are the most commonly used sanitation systems in many developing countries. Various researchers have reported elevated nitrate concentrations in groundwater in the vicinity of pit latrines and this could pose a serious health risk to the users of the water source. Faecal sludge from pit latrines contains high concentrations of nitrogen and organic matter (3-5 g·ℓ-1 N and 20-50 g·ℓ-1 COD); however, it is produced at a very low rate (1.5 ℓ·capita-1·d-1) relative to that of waterborne sewage systems. A pit latrine basically only confines the waste and no real treatment takes place. In this research the nitrogen was removed in a biological filter using a combination of nitrification and denitrification processes. The aim of this investigation was to determine the effect of air supplied at different rates, namely, 0, 0.3, 1.0 and 2.0 m³·h-1 N, on the biological filtration process. The application rate was 0.04 m³·m-2·d-1. More than 90% removal of nitrogen was observed at an air supply rate of 1.0 m³·h-1 N. At lower air supply rates nitrification was not complete. At an air supply rate of 2.0 m³·h-1 nitrogen removal was also approx. 90%, but the biological filter only became stable after about 2 months of operation, possibly due to desiccation of the biomass.

Influence of the feeding regime on the start-up and operation of the autotrophic nitrogen removal process

The autotrophic nitrogen removal process (partial nitritation combined with the Anammox process) is a sustainable nitrogen removal technique for nitrogen-rich streams. A modelling and experimental study was performed to define optimal process conditions for the autotrophic nitrogen removal process. Special attention was given to the influence of feeding characteristics on the performance of both the partial nitritation reactor and the Anammox reactor. It was revealed that the feeding regime is an important factor in the successful start-up of the Anammox process. Nitrite concentration peaks at the beginning of a feeding period will lead to an unsuccessful start-up, while a slow input of nitrogen speeds up the process. Feeding regimes are less important in partial nitritation reactors since laboratory results show that slow or fast supply of influent does not influence the growth of ammonium oxidisers.

Characterisation and applications of synthesised cation exchanger guar gum sulphonic acid (GSA) resin for removal and recovery of toxic metal ions from industrial wastewater

The chemically modified guar gum sulphonic acid (GSA) resin was used for removal and pre-concentration of Zn2+, Cd2+, Fe2+, Pb2+ and Cu2+ ions in aqueous solutions and steel industry effluent from Jodhpur, India. This type of ion exchange resin represents a new class of hybrid ion exchangers with higher stability, reproducibility and selectivity for toxic metal ions. The characterisation of the resin was carried out by determining the ion exchange capacity, elemental analysis, FT-IR spectra and thermal analysis (TGA). The distribution coefficients (Kd) of toxic metal ions were determined for different pH values. The adsorption of different metal ions on GSA resin follows the order: Cu2+ > Fe2+ > Zn2+ > Cd2+ > Pb2+. The adsorbency of different metal ions on the GSA resin was studied for up to 10 cycles.

**Biosorptive removal of Pb²⁺, Cd²⁺ and Zn²⁺ ions from water by Lagenaria vulgaris shell**

Lagenaria vulgaris (LV) shell was used as a biosorbent for the removal of heavy metal ions, Pb2+, Cd2+ and Zn2+, from aqueous solutions. Experiments were carried out under batch conditions. The effects of contact time, initial pH, temperature and stirring speed on removal efficiency are presented. Sorption of the investigated metals was fast, reaching equilibrium after about 5 to 10 min, depending on the metal. Biosorption was highly pH-dependent, and the optimal pH for investigated metals was in the range of 4.5 to 6.0. The effects of temperature demonstrated that biosorption of the metals is a chemical process. SEM analysis revealed interesting morphological changes after acid refinement of the raw biosorbent and metal uptake that is related to the chemical nature of the biosorption process. EDX analysis of Lagenaria vulgaris biosorbent (LVB) before and after metal sorption revealed that the ion exchange mechanism was the principal sorption process. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis has shown that major functional groups (carboxyl and hydroxyl) on the biosorbent surface took part in the metal ion uptake process as active sites. The results obtained showed that Lagenaria vulgaris based biosorbent could be used as an effective and low-cost pre-treatment step for removal of toxic metals from wastewaters.

Zinc abatement from simulated and industrial wastewaters using sugarcane biomass

The use of heavy metals and their compounds in industrial applications has resulted in their occurrence in various environmental media including water bodies. Conventional methods of heavy metal removal from wastewaters are very expensive, when available, especially in developing countries. This study therefore assessed the potential of sugarcane biomass to remove zinc from standard solutions and industrial (paint and textile) wastewaters. Parameters studied include contact time, biomass weight, metal concentration, pH, agitation, temperature and particle size. Physico-chemical characteristics of biomass were also studied. Adsorption of zinc increased with increases in contact time, biomass weight, pH and agitation speed, while adsorption decreased with increasing particle size and for temperatures above 50ÂºC. Sugarcane biomass was responsible for over 90% adsorption of Zn2+ in both effluents. Under conditions of agitation, 100% adsorption was achieved. Percentage ash, particle density, cation exchange capacity (CEC) and porosity are important physico-chemical properties which influenced Zn2+ adsorption. Percentage ash and CEC are positively correlated to percentage adsorption while particle density and porosity are negatively correlated. Percentage desorption was over 90 for both effluents. Sugarcane biomass is therefore a potential alternative to expensive synthetic resins. Its biodegradability makes disposal environmentally friendly. However, there is the need to further study the biomass in flow-through systems for industrial applicability.

Dimethylglyoxime based ion-imprinted polymer for the determination of Ni(II) ions from aqueous samples

A Ni(II)-dimethylglyoxime ion-imprinted polymer {Ni(II)-DMG IIP} was synthesised by the bulk polymerisation method. The morphology of the Ni(II)-DMG IIP and non-imprinted polymer were observed by scanning electron microscopy and the chemical structures were evaluated by infrared spectroscopy. Selectivity of the Ni(II)-DMG IIP was studied by analysing, using an inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometer, for Ni(II) ions that were spiked with varying concentrations of Co(II), Cu(II), Zn(II), Pd(II), Fe(II), Ca(II), Mg(II), Na(I) and K(I) in aqueous samples. The studies revealed Ni(II) recoveries ranging from 93 to 100% in aqueous solutions with minimal interference from competing ions. Enrichment factors ranged from 2 to 18 with a binding capacity of 120 µg·g-1. Co(II) was the only ion found to slightly interfere with the determination of Ni(II). Selectivity studies confirmed that the Ni(II)-DMG IIP had very good selectivity, characterised by %RSD of less than 5%. The limits of detection and quantification were 3x10-4 µg·mℓ-1 and 9x10-4 µg·mℓ-1, respectively. The accuracy of the method was validated by analysing a custom solution of certified reference material (SEP-3) and the concentration of Ni(II) obtained was in close agreement with the certified one. The Ni(II)-DMG IIP was successfully employed to trap Ni(II) ions from a matrix of sea, river and sewage water. It is believed that the Ni(II)-DMG IIP has potential to be used as sorbent material for pre-concentration of Ni(II) ions from aqueous solutions by solid-phase extraction.

Development of analytical procedures for the simultaneous determination of tri- to heptabrominated diphenyl ethers and hexabrominated biphenyl (BB 153) in sediment samples

A simple analytical procedure was developed for simultaneous determination of trace levels of tri- to hepta-BDEs as well as 2,2′,4,4′,5,5′-hexabromobiphenyl (BB 153). The mechanical shaking extraction technique for the isolation of target analytes was optimised. Different extraction solvent combinations were tested under different extraction time periods of 3, 6, 12 and 16 h. The n-hexane:acetone (2:1, v/v) combination gave the best recovery at the optimum extraction of 12 h. Target analytes were quantified using a high capillary gas chromatograph (GC) equipped with an electron capture detector. Under the optimum GC conditions, the resolution of the co-eluting BDE 154 and BB 153 was achieved. The overall recoveries of target analytes in the matrix spike experiment conducted ranged between 84.4 and 110% for BDE 183 and BDE 28, respectively. The method was applied to 19 field sediment samples collected from a control site and from 3 sampling locations (upstream, point of discharge and downstream) of the Black River, which receives effluent from a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP). The sum of the mean concentrations of all of the 7 PBDE congeners was 4.63, 0.35, 'not detectable' and 4.43 ng/g, for the control site, upstream, point of discharge and downstream samples, respectively. The concentrations of BB 153 were generally low in these samples and ranged between ND and 0.89 ng/g. The developed method allows for the simultaneous determination of PBDE congeners and BB 153. It is efficient, moderately rapid and cost-effective.

Access to adequate water in post-apartheid South African provinces: an overview of numerical trends

This paper presents an insight into water service access and demand, with a numerical review of official data from the national household survey from 1995 to 2006, and the 1996 and 2001 census data. The findings show that in provinces (Eastern Cape, Limpopo and Mpumalanga) where the existing service base is low, with a relatively high level of outmigration leading to a decrease in household numbers, the annual rate of delivery is lower than in other areas and percentage access has risen marginally (from about 68% to 70%). In provinces (North West, Northern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal) where the existing service base is higher, with relatively lower levels of out-migration, there is a marginal change in household numbers and the annual rate of delivery is higher and percentage access has risen remarkably (from about 72% to 88%). In the provinces (Gauteng, Western Cape and Free State) with the most favourable initial conditions, that is, where the existing service base is the highest, there is a remarkable change in household numbers, possibly as a result of in-migration and the annual rate of delivery is quite sustainable. Percentage access rises at an early stage and remains stable at the limiting value of about 98%.

Do water cuts affect productivity? case study of African manufacturing firms

This study sought to examine the impact of water disruptions on productivity in African manufacturing firms, using cross-sectional data from the World Bank enterprise surveys. We measured water infrastructure quality or water disruptions using the number of hours per day without water and found this indicator to be a negative and significant determinant of productivity. At country level, this variable seems to be a significant determinant in Uganda and Zambia, whilst firms in the food and agriculture, chemical and pharmacy as well as construction and metals sectors are also similarly affected. To improve economic growth through firm productivity and hence encourage employment creation and better standards of living, governments in Africa need to come up with measures to strengthen the effectiveness of both technical and institutional water infrastructure services.

Options for improving water use efficiency under worsening scarcity: evidence from the middle olifants sub-basin in South Africa

Following the political changes in the early 1990s, the South African government introduced a comprehensive reform process for the water sector with the goal of achieving an enhanced and more equitable water management system. This paper analyses the existing water allocation situations and applies a non-linear optimisation model to investigate the optimal intra- and inter-regional allocation regimes in the Middle Olifants sub-basin of South Africa. Economic issues such as efficiency gains related to water transfers are discussed and calculated water price elasticities and estimated water demand functions provide necessary fundamentals for further modelling work. Social and environmental aspects are accounted for by including constant water demands in the model. Results show higher benefits from inter-regional water allocation. Reducing water supply levels to conform to the sustainable water supply policy, it can be shown that although water supply is reduced by approximately 50%, total benefits from water use are only reduced by 5% and 11% for inter- and intra-regional allocation regimes, respectively. These results indicate that alternative water allocation mechanisms can serve as policy instruments to offset the effects of water scarcity.

Pet stores, aquarists and the internet trade as modes of introduction and spread of invasive macrophytes in South Africa

Submerged aquatic invasive plant species are increasingly being recognised as a major threat to South African water ways. Pet stores, aquarists and the internet-mediated trade were investigated as pathways for submerged invasive macrophyte introductions into South Africa. Online and manually distributed surveys were used to determine the extent of movement of invasive as well as indigenous submerged plant species in South Africa. Sixty-four stores and twenty-three aquarists were surveyed. Four areas of risk were identified in this study. Firstly, and most importantly, a variety of invasive and/or prohibited plants are sold by pet stores. Secondly, there is a lack of knowledge regarding identification as well as regulation of submerged species, which may then result in the unintentional trade of potentially invasive species. It seems that, in many cases, the pet stores are ignorant or misinformed of the potential dangers, rather than intentionally attempting to breach the legislation. Thirdly, aquarists own, trade and move plants in and around the country, which makes it very difficult to monitor which species are being moved around South Africa and to what extent. Finally, the internet is a pathway of potential concern, but it is difficult to quantify its contribution to the trade of invasive species in South Africa.

Insights into the bacterial diversity in a freshwater-deprived permanently open Eastern Cape estuary, using 16S rRNA pyrosequencing analysis

The aim of this study was to conduct an investigation into the bacterial diversity in the freshwater-deprived Kariega Estuary, situated along the Eastern Cape coastline, using ribosomal RNA gene sequences obtained by pyrosequencing. Shifts in the microbial diversity were correlated to selected physico-chemical variables along the length of the estuary. More than 27 000 sequences were obtained and rarefaction analyses confirmed a comprehensive appraisal of the microbial diversity present in the Kariega Estuary. Distinct patterns in phylotype distribution from the hypersaline upper reaches to the mouth of the estuary were observed; notably, the importance of the detrital food web within the Kariega Estuary was highlighted by the high occurrence of Bacteroidetes and Actinomycetes. Moreover, while the observed chlorophyll-a concentrations were low (< 0.1 µg·ℓ-1), the presence of Pelagibacter and Flavobacteria amongst the microbial community suggests a potentially important contribution of these microbes towards the total primary productivity of the ecosystem. No human pathogenic microbes were detected within waters of the system. We conclude that pyrosequencing provides a versatile and efficient tool for assessing the microbial diversity in the Kariega Estuary and propose that this technology may provide valuable information on the ecosystem functioning and health of aquatic ecosystems.

Environmental variables, pesticide pollution and meiofaunal community structure in two contrasting temporarily open/closed False Bay estuaries

Environmental variables (including natural and anthropogenic stressors) and meiobenthic communities were sampled in a 'natural' (Rooiels) and a 'disturbed' (Lourens) estuary in the Western Cape, South Africa, bimonthly for 20 months. A primary aim of the study was to assess if the meiobenthic community structure is driven by different variables when comparing 'natural' versus 'disturbed' system. Due to the much smaller catchment of the Rooiels Estuary, many environmental variables were significantly different (p< 0.001) from the variables in the Lourens Estuary, e.g. salinity, temperature, pH, total suspended solids, nitrate and depth. No pesticide concentrations were expected in the Rooiels Estuary due to the absence of agricultural development in the catchment. However, chlorpyrifos (8.9 µg/kg), prothiofos (22.0 µg/kg) and cypermethrin concentrations (0.42 µg/kg) were detected frequently, with the highest concentrations recorded during the summer months. Principal response curve analysis showed that temporal variability between sampling dates explained 42% of the variance in environmental variables and pesticide concentrations and spatial variability between the 2 estuaries explained 58%. Variables contributing most to the differences were higher concentrations of endosulfan, p, p-DDE and nitrate concentrations in the Lourens Estuary and larger grain size and higher salinity at the bottom in the Rooiels Estuary. In general the meiofaunal community in the Rooiels Estuary showed a significantly higher number of taxa (p< 0.001), a significantly higher Shannon Wiener Diversity Index (p<0.001) and a generally lower meiofaunal abundance with less variability than in the Lourens Estuary. The differences were mostly explained by a higher abundance of Cypretta and Darcythompsonia in the Rooiels Estuary and a higher abundance of Thermocyclops and Canthocamptus in the Lourens Estuary. The variables explaining a significant part (14%) of the variance in meiofaunal abundance in the Rooiels Estuary were salinity and temperature, with the Redundancy Analysis indicating that the abundance of most of the taxa increased with higher salinity and temperature, e.g. Upogebia, Nereis, Uroma and nematodes were clearly positively correlated to salinity and temperature. The variables explaining a significant part of the variance in the dataset (43%) within the Lourens Estuary were also salinity and temperature but included chlorpyrifos, nitrate and flow (including river and tidal flow).

Characterisation of the inorganic chemistry of surface waters in South Africa

The main purpose of this study was to determine a simple inorganic chemistry index that can be used for all surface waters in South Africa, in order to characterise the inorganic chemistry of surface waters. Water quality data collected up until 1999 from all sample monitoring stations (2 068 monitoring stations, 364 659 samples) in South Africa were transformed into an Excel dataset and subsequently quality screened using the stoichiometric charge balance, after which 196 570 (41%) of the water analyses could be used. Using an inorganic chemistry index (ICI) a more detailed analysis can be performed. The ICI shows that the surface water chemistry in South Africa is dominated by chemical weathering, chloride salinisation and sulphate contamination. Based on the importance of these factors, primary catchment areas in South Africa can be subdivided into 3 groups, each with their own characteristic water chemistry. The results of this study allowed the development of a ternary diagram in which the 3 factors are represented. This diagram can be used to investigate the variation of the inorganic water chemistry of South African surface waters in time and space.

Water quality in the Okavango Delta

The Okavango Delta ecosystem sustains a large number of plant and animal species as well as providing resources for the livelihood of the riparian human population. Despite changes in flow patterns, rainfall and other climatic conditions over the past decades, the system has responded well to maintain low salt-water balances through evapotranspiration and chemical precipitation processes. The electrical conductivity and total dissolved solids are generally low, with values less than 200 µS·cm-1 and averaging 40 mg·ℓ-1, respectively. The dissolved oxygen and dissolved organic carbon range from 1.8 to 8.8 and 5 to 15 mg·ℓ-1, respectively, while pH ranges from 6.7 to 10.3. Total nitrogen and phosphorus are generally low with maximum concentrations of 1.7 and 1.6 mg·ℓ-1, respectively, recorded downstream of the Delta. Even though most of these quality parameters are within limits for potable water, the Delta's ecosystem needs to be protected from anthropogenic activities. Past use of persistent organic pollutants requires monitoring of impacts of their residues on the plants and animal species within the ecosystem, in order to maintain its rich biodiversity. This review focuses on chemical quality data for water and sediments in the Okavango Delta published between 2000 and 2010. Despite the shortage of published data, it is hoped that this review will provide an overall picture of the status quo of the Delta's water and will set the direction for future monitoring efforts.

Aqueous contaminant removal by metallic iron: is the paradigm shifting?

Chemical reduction has long dominated thinking about the mechanism of aqueous contaminant removal in the presence of metallic iron (e.g. Feº/H2O systems). However, a large body of experimental evidence indicates that chemical reduction is not adequate to satisfactorily explain the efficiency of Feº/H2O systems for several substances or classes of substances. By contrast, the alternative approach, that contaminants are fundamentally adsorbed and co-precipitated by iron corrosion products seems to provide a better explanation of observed efficiency. The new approach appears to not be fully understood. The present communication aims at clarifying this key issue. It seems that a paradigm shift is necessary for the further development of the technology using Feº for water treatment.