YHWH’s “Greatness,” “Mighty hand,” “Deeds” and “Mighty Acts” in Deuteronomy 3:24

 ABSTRACT This article investigates the four words or phrases used in Deut 3:24 to describe the uniqueness of YHWH, namely “greatness” (ל ֶדֹּג) , “mighty hand” (הָקָזֲחַה דָי) , “deeds” (ה ֶשֲע ַמ) and “mighty acts” (ה ָרוּב ְּג) . Commentary on these four words or phrases is usually limited to a brief discussion of their possible referential background. Virtually no attempt is made to distinguish between the meanings of these words. Secondly, little conclusive proof is provided for the assumed referential background of the words, and thirdly, scholars are silent on the distinctive contribution of Deut 3:24 to Deuteronomy’s overall theme of the uniqueness of YHWH. This article aims to address these three

commentary provided on these words. Consequently, three lacunae can be identified. First, virtually no attempt is made to distinguish between the meanings of these words. Secondly, little conclusive proof is provided for the assumed referential background of these words. 4 Thirdly, scholars are silent on the distinctive contribution of Deut 3:24 to Deuteronomy's overall theme of the uniqueness of YHWH. This article aims to address all three lacunae.
The discussion to follow starts by giving an overview of the literary and historical context of Deut 3:24, briefly commenting on the content of the passage. Next, the four words or phrases used in Deut 3:24 to describe the uniqueness of YHWH are investigated in detail in order to distinguish them from one another, and as part of a preliminary deduction of various possibilities concerning the referential background of each. This is followed by a synthesis of the findings in order to confirm the referential background of the words. Finally, the article concludes by reflecting on the distinctive contribution of Deut 3:24 to Deuteronomy's overall theme of the uniqueness of YHWH.

B CONTEXT AND CONTENT OF DEUT 3:24
In Deut 1:1-3:29, which is part of the first speech of Moses (Deut 1:1-4:43), "Moses gives a historical overview of the events of the past forty years" to the people "standing on the brink of entering the Promised Land." 5 Deuteronomy 3:23-29, which can easily be identified as a pericope from its content and the markers in the Hebrew text, 6 is the final passage within this overview. Structurally, this passage forms the conclusion to Moses' historical overview before the climax of his first speech is reached in Deut 4:1-40, in which Moses exhorts the present generation to obey YHWH wholeheartedly.
Deuteronomy 3:23-29 contains Moses' passionate plea to YHWH to allow him to enter and see the Promised Land (3:24-25), and YHWH's answer (3:26-28). The passage is framed by indications of time (3:23) and space (3:29). 7 Goldingay, Old Testament Theology (3 vols.; Downers Grove, IL: Intervarsity Press, 2003-2009. However, these fall outside the scope of the current study. 4 In this article, "referential background" is used to refer to the historical events the words employed (in Deut 3) point to. 5 Albert Coetsee, "YHWH and Israel in Terms of the Concept of Life in Deuteronomy," OTE 32/1 (2019):105. This is the case if the text is taken in its present form, namely as prior to the conquest of the Promised Land. For discussion of the possible redactional layers and the dating of Deut 3:23-29, see Otto,Deuteronomium,[500][501][502][503][504][505] See the setumah at the end of Deut 3:22, and the petuhah at the end of Deut 3:29. 7 Cf. Otto, Deuteronomium, 499 who views 3:23 and 3:29 as "Rahmen." The background of this prayer is the events at the waters of Meribah, recorded in Num 20:1-13. The people quarrelled with Moses because of the lack of water and other resources. In answer to this, Moses was commanded by YHWH to tell a rock to yield its water. Instead, Moses asked the assembled people if he and Aaron should bring water out of the rock, and then (presumably in frustration) struck the rock twice with his staff. Though water came out abundantly, YHWH reprimanded Moses and Aaron for their conduct: "Because you did not trust in me, to show my holiness before the eyes of the Israelites, therefore you shall not bring this assembly into the land that I have given them." (Num 20:12) Moses' sin seems to be that he struck the rock instead of speaking to it, 8 although the exact nature of his sin is a matter of debate among scholars. 9 In Deut 3:23-29, some time has passed since the tragic events of Meribah. Deut 3:23 refers to Moses pleading with YHWH "at that time" ( ‫בָ‬ ‫ע‬ ‫ת‬ ‫וא‬ ִ֖ ‫ה‬ ‫,)הַ‬ which, viewed in the immediate context, refers to a moment in time after the defeat of Sihon the king of Heshbon and Og the king of Bashan (cf. Deut 2: 26-3:22). This triumph over the enemy seems to have renewed Moses' desire to enter the Promised Land. 10 Moreover, from experience, Moses has learned that "through the effectual fervent prayer of a righteous person, God's disposition may be changed" . 11 This is what he hopes for in Deut 3 by pleading with YHWH.
Moses' plea starts with a vocative followed by a declaration of YHWH's uniqueness or incomparability (Deut 3:24). By means of a rhetorical question, 8 Thomas W. Mann, "Theological Reflections on the Denial of Moses," JBL 98/4 (1979):483. 9 The problem lies on two fronts. The first is the nature of Moses' sin in Num 20:11-12, which various scholars argue is not clear. Wright, Deuteronomy, 41-42, could be taken as an example, arguing that Moses "failed in some unspecified way to uphold God's holiness among" the people [my emphasis, A.J.C.]. The second difficulty has to do with some differences between texts referring to Moses' denial of entering the Promised Land (cf. Num 27:12-14; Deut 1:37; 4:21; 32:48-52). Among others, Num 20:12 seems to indicate that Moses' exclusion is his own fault, while Moses states in Deut 1:37 and 3:26 that it is the people's fault. There are various ways of approaching these differences: (1) attempts can be made to harmonise the differences; (2) the differences can be explained as a reflection of different traditions (e.g. deuteronomic vs priestly source); (3) Moses can be blame shifting in Deuteronomy. For some explanations for Moses' denial of entering the Promised Land, see Tigay,Deuteronomy,425 and especially Mann,"Theological Reflections,[481][482][483][484][485][486][487][488][489][490][491][492][493][494]Deuteronomy,38. Cf. Block,Deuteronomy,104. 11 Block,Deuteronomy,111. Moses insists that no god in heaven or on earth (a merism) can do what YHWH has done. Blended with these descriptions of YHWH's uniqueness Moses subtly and tactfully tries to convince YHWH to change his mind about his nonentry of the Promised Land. This Moses does masterfully by expressing his conviction that YHWH has only "begun" ‫ַל(‬ ‫ל‬ ‫חָ‬ in the hip'il, derived from the idea of "opening") 12 to show his "servant" ( ‫ד‬ ‫בֶ‬ ֶֶ֫ ‫)ע‬ his greatness and mighty hand. This is followed by the explicit plea in verse 25 to YHWH to "please" ‫ָא(‬ ‫)נ‬ allow him to go over and see the Promised Land, which Moses, keeping to his rhetorical strategy, calls "the good land" ‫ה(‬ ָ֔ ‫ּטֹובָ‬ ‫הַ‬ ‫ץ‬ ‫רֶ‬ ָ֣ ‫אָ‬ ‫ת-הָ‬ ‫)אֶ‬ and "that good hill country" ‫ִ֖ה(‬ ‫זֶ‬ ‫הַ‬ ‫ֹוב‬ ‫ּטּ֛‬ ‫הַ‬ ‫ר‬ ‫הָ‬ ‫.)הָ‬ 13 YHWH, however, refuses. Moses states that YHWH became furious with him "because of you" ‫ם(‬ ֶָ֔ ‫כ‬ ‫ַנְּ‬ ‫ע‬ ָ֣ ‫מַ‬ ‫,)לְּ‬ indicating that he blames Israel for his predicament (cf. Deut 1:37). YHWH forbids Moses to speak on the matter again, 14 but does grant the second part of his plea by allowing him to go up to the top of Pisgah to "see" ‫ה(‬ ‫אָ‬ ‫)רָ‬ the Promised Land. In addition to this, Moses had to charge, encourage and strengthen Joshua, who would lead the people into the Promised Land, indicating that the conquest would continue despite the absence of Moses. The passage ends somewhat abruptly in verse 29 with a geographical reference providing some historical background. 15 The key concepts of the passage are the verbs ‫ה‬ ‫אָ‬ ‫רָ‬ ("to see") and ‫ר‬ ‫ָבַ‬ ‫ע‬ ("to pass over," or with the secondary and rare use of the verb [in the hitpa'el], 16 "to become furious"). 17 Both verbs are found four times in this short passage-12 F. H. Wilhelm Samuel P. Tregelles, Gesenius' Hebrew andChaldee Lexicon to the Old Testament Scriptures (Bellingham: Logos Bible Software, 2003), 281 andFrancis Brown, Samuel R. Driver andCharles A. Briggs, Enhanced Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew andEnglish Lexicon (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1977), 320. 13 Block, Deuteronomy, 105, however, is correct when he states that these words reflect Moses' great respect for YHWH, and are not mere flattery. Nonetheless, Moses' plea does seem to be purposefully structured to venture for a favourable answer. 14 The adverb ‫ֹוד‬ ‫עִ֖‬ seems to imply that Moses pleaded continually. See Craigie,Deuteronomy,127 and Christensen,Deuteronomy,69. 15 For the importance of taking this and other geographical references in the passage into account for interpreting the prayer, see Daniël F. O'Kennedy, "Prayer in Moab (Dt 3:23-29): The Relationship between the Recorded Prayer and Its Historical Geographical Setting," OTE 11/2 (1998): 288-305. Cf. Tigay,Deuteronomy,40. 16 G.B. Struthers, ‫ר"‬ ‫ָבַ‬ ‫",ע‬ NIDOTTE 3:317 indicates that the etymology of this secondary use of the verb is uncertain. In Deut 3:23-29, the difference of meaning forms a nice little word play. Moses begs to go over to the Promised Land ‫ר(‬ ‫ָבַ‬ ‫,)ע‬ but YHWH gets furious ‫ר(‬ ‫ָבַ‬ ‫.)ע‬ Christensen, Deuteronomy, 67 views this word play as portraying "a whimsical sense of humor." 17 These key concepts are also noted by Christensen,Deuteronomy,[66][67]Deuteronomy,38 indicates that the root ‫עב‬ ‫ר‬ is a leitmotif in Deut 2-3. To the verb ‫ה‬ ‫אָ‬ ‫רָ‬ Moses states that YHWH has only begun to show him his uniqueness (3:24) and therefore prays to go over and see the Promised Land (3:25). In reaction, YHWH becomes furious (3:26) with Moses, and commands him to go up to the top of Pisgah to see the Promised Land, knowing that he will not go over to it (3:27). Joshua, on the other hand, will go over and lead the people to take possession of the land that Moses will see (3:28).
For the purposes of this study, it should be noted that Moses' declaration in Deut 3:24 that YHWH has only begun to show him his uniqueness forms part of the main argument of the passage.

C WORDS DESCRIBING YHWH IN DEUT 3:24
As indicated above, four words or phrases are used in Moses' prayer to describe the uniqueness of YHWH, namely ‫ל‬ ‫דֶ‬ ‫גֹּ‬ ("greatness"), ‫ה‬ ‫ָקָ‬ ‫ֲז‬ ‫ח‬ ‫הַ‬ ‫ָד‬ ‫י‬ ("mighty hand"), ‫ה‬ ‫ֲשֶ‬ ‫ע‬ ‫מַ‬ ("deeds") and ‫ה‬ ‫בּורָ‬ ‫גְּ‬ ("mighty acts"). 18 The aim of this section is to distinguish between the meanings of these words and to deduce various possibilities concerning the referential background of each. Since this is the primary aim of the study, the bulk of the article is devoted to this endeavour.
The meaning of each word or phrase is determined by, • providing an overview of the occurrence and use of the root and/or word or phrase in the Hebrew Bible according to Hebrew dictionaries; • doing an independent analysis and categorisation of how the root and/or word or phrase is employed in Deuteronomy; • comparing similar usages of the word or phrase in the Hebrew Bible; and • concluding (in the light of all the data) what the specific nuance of the word or phrase is in Deut 3:24.

‫ל‬ ‫דֶ‬ ‫גֹּ‬ ("greatness") 1a
Overview of the occurrence and use of ‫גדל‬ in the Hebrew Bible With roughly 670 occurrences in the MT, 19 the Hebrew root ‫גדל‬ is one of the most common roots found in the Hebrew Bible. The root forms the basis of the verb ‫ל‬ ‫ָדַ‬ ‫ג‬ ("to be great"), the nouns ‫ָה‬ ‫דּול‬ ‫גְּ‬ ("greatness") and ‫ל‬ ‫דֶ‬ ‫גֹּ‬ ("greatness" or "great deeds"), the adjectives ‫ָדֹול‬ ‫ג‬ ("great") and ‫ל‬ ‫ָד‬ ‫ג‬ ("great"), and a number of personal names. By far the most frequent occurrences of the root are found in the form of the verb ‫ל‬ ‫ָדַ‬ ‫ג‬ (±117x) 20 and the adjective ‫ָדֹול‬ ‫ג‬ (±524x). 21 The less frequent forms of the root ‫גדל‬ in the Hebrew Bible are the nouns ‫ָה‬ ‫דּול‬ ‫גְּ‬ (12x) and ‫ל‬ ‫דֶ‬ ‫גֹּ‬ (13x), and the adjective ‫ל‬ ‫ָד‬ ‫ג‬ (4x).
For the purposes of this study, closer investigation of the adjective ‫ָדֹול‬ ‫ג‬ and the noun ‫ל‬ ‫דֶ‬ ‫גֹּ‬ is necessary: • The adjective ‫ָדֹול‬ ‫ג‬ is usually rendered as "great," and in reference to persons or things, it largely corresponds to the use of the English equivalent. 22 It "can be connected with very different concepts." 23 Most often, it "describes the size or magnitude of the word it modifies." 24 Among others, the adjective is used with abstract terms (like "great things" or "great signs"), as a description of prominence or importance of men or God, as a description of an emotion or phenomenon and as reference to loudness, the devastation of war, and age or status (e.g. "older," "younger"). 25 • The noun ‫ל‬ ‫דֶ‬ ‫גֹּ‬ is used to refer to "greatness" as attribute in a positive or negative sense. 26 When referring to God, it refers to his "greatness" or "magnificence," 27 especially as "manifested in his historical acts." 28 19 This total is reached by adding the number of occurrences of the verb, nouns and adjectives derived from the root ‫גדל‬ given by E. Jenni, ‫ול"‬ ‫ָדֹּ‬ ‫ג‬ gādôl great," TLOT 302-303. This excludes occurrences of ‫מ‬ ‫גְּ‬ ‫ל‬ ‫דָ‬ ("tower"), ‫ים‬ ‫ל‬ ‫ד‬ ‫גְּ‬ ("twisted threads"), and various proper names (e.g. ‫דֹול‬ ‫גְּ‬ ‫.)מ‬ 20 M.G. Abegg Jr., ‫ל"‬ ‫ָדַ‬ ‫ג‬ (gādal I)," NIDOTTE  Cf. Ibid., Although the concept "attribute" can be an anachronistic misnomer in Old Testament studies, it is used in this article for the sake of discussion. 27 Jenni, TLOT 304. Cf. Abegg, NIDOTTE 1:826.
When applied to man, it is used in a negative sense (in combination with ‫ב‬ ‫בָ‬ ‫)ל‬ to refer to "pride," "arrogance" or "insolence" (Isa 9:8; 10:12). 29 1b Analysis and categorisation of ‫גדל‬ in Deuteronomy Two of the five forms of the root ‫גדל‬ are found in Deuteronomy, namely the adjective ‫ָדֹול‬ ‫ג‬ and the noun ‫ל‬ ‫דֶ‬ ‫.גֹּ‬ Strikingly, there are no occurrences of the verb ‫ל‬ ‫ָדַ‬ ‫ג‬ in Deuteronomy. The adjective ‫ָדֹול‬ ‫,ג‬ however, is found an astounding 44 times in the book (±8% of the total occurrences in the MT). This is the second largest concentration of the adjective in a single biblical book. 30 Moreover, five of the thirteen occurrences of the noun ‫ל‬ ‫דֶ‬ ‫גֹּ‬ in the Hebrew Bible are found in Deuteronomy (±38%), by far the most of any biblical book. An overview of the occurrence of these words in Deuteronomy can be seen in Table 1. A closer investigation reveals that the adjective ‫ָדֹול‬ ‫ג‬ and the noun ‫ל‬ ‫דֶ‬ ‫גֹּ‬ are used in eleven different ways in Deuteronomy, of which a summary can be seen in Table 2  For the purpose of this study, four of these eleven different employments of ‫ָדֹול‬ ‫ג‬ and ‫ל‬ ‫דֶ‬ ‫גֹּ‬ in Deuteronomy need further elaboration: • An attribute of God: "Greatness" is depicted as an attribute of God, shown to both Moses (3:24) and the people of Israel (5:24), and made especially visible in the redemption from Egypt (9:26; 11:2). Consequently, God is called a "great God" (7:21; 10:17), and "greatness" is ascribed to him (32:3).
• God's activity at the exodus: While God's activity at the exodus is described in a variety of ways in the book of Deuteronomy, the coupling of the exodus and the word-group "great" is striking. It is said that the exodus was accompanied by "terrifying (lit. great) displays of power" (4:34; 26:8; specifically done through Moses as agent [34:12]), "great signs and wonders" (6:22; 29:2 b ) and "great trials" (7:19; 29:2 a ). God brought them out of Egypt with his "great power" (4:37; 9:29). Together with the wilderness period, the exodus is called God's "great deed" (11:7) -a period in which they saw the "great [and awesome] things" God did (10:21). What God has achieved with the exodus is called "great" (4:32).
• God's judgment: Four references to God's judgment as "great" are found in Deuteronomy. On the one hand, Moses explains to the people that God will throw the inhabitants of the Promised Land into "great panic" with the conquest (7:23). On the other hand, Moses warns the people of Israel in the elaboration of the curses associated with covenant disobedience that they can expect "lasting (lit. great) afflictions" (28:59), YHWH's "fierce (lit. great) anger" (29:23) and being uprooted from their land in his "great wrath" (29:27).
The following deductions can be made concerning the use of ‫ָדֹול‬ ‫ג‬ and ‫ל‬ ‫דֶ‬ ‫גֹּ‬ in Deuteronomy: • The majority of references to ‫ָדֹול‬ ‫ג‬ or ‫ל‬ ‫דֶ‬ ‫גֹּ‬ (27 of the 49 occurrences [±55%]) are used to refer to the attribute of God's greatness or activities that reveal his greatness. In other words, the majority of references to "great" in Deuteronomy are used to refer to who God is and what he does.
• The noun ‫ל‬ ‫דֶ‬ ‫גֹּ‬ is solely used in Deuteronomy to describe the attribute of God's greatness. Four of the five occurrences of ‫ל‬ ‫דֶ‬ ‫גֹּ‬ are used to refer to his "greatness" (3:24; 5:24; 9:26; 11:2) while in the Song of Moses, the people "ascribe" ‫ב(‬ ‫ָהַ‬ ‫)י‬ greatness to their God (32:3). Where the adjective ‫ָדֹול‬ ‫ג‬ is used to describe the attribute of God's greatness, it describes God's greatness attributively, either stating that he is "a great and awesome God" (7:21) or "the great God, mighty and awesome" (10:17).
• Almost two-thirds of all references to ‫ָדֹול‬ ‫ג‬ and ‫ל‬ ‫דֶ‬ ‫גֹּ‬ in Deuteronomy occur in passages that refer to the exodus (16x; ±33%) 32 and the conquest of the Promised Land (15x; ±31%). 33 This is striking, although unsurprising if two of the major themes of Deuteronomy are taken into account, namely historical reflection and the imminent conquest. Closely linked to this are the number of references to ‫ָדֹול‬ ‫ג‬ or ‫ל‬ ‫דֶ‬ ‫גֹּ‬ in passages that refer to the Sinai theophany (5x), 34 and the wilderness-wanderings (6x). 35 Taking all of the above into account, it seems that the noun ‫ל‬ ‫דֶ‬ ‫גֹּ‬ in Deut 3:24 is most probably used to refer to "greatness" as an attribute of YHWH, witnessed primarily by Moses (and the people of Israel) in the exodus events, and secondly in the Sinai theophany. 1c Comparison of similar usages of ‫ל‬ ‫דֶ‬ ‫גֹּ‬ in the Hebrew Bible As indicated above, the noun ‫ל‬ ‫דֶ‬ ‫גֹּ‬ is found 13 times in the Hebrew Bible. In this section, the eight occurrences of the noun outside the book of Deuteronomy are briefly investigated in order to determine whether these occurrences shed some light on the use of the noun in Deut 3:24.
Closer investigation reveals that these eight occurrences of ‫ל‬ ‫דֶ‬ ‫גֹּ‬ are used to refer to either God, man or nations. When used to refer to man, it refers to his arrogance (Isa 9:8; 10:12). When used to refer to nations, it refers to the splendour of Egypt and Assyria (Ezek 31:2, 7, 18). When used to refer to God, it is used in the following manners: • As an attribute of God: In Ps 150:2, the psalmist calls on everything to praise YHWH "according to his surpassing greatness" ‫ו(‬ ‫לֹֽ‬ ‫ֻדְּ‬ ‫ג‬ ‫ב‬ ‫רָֹּ֣‬ ‫.)כְּ‬ The noun ‫ל‬ ‫דֶ‬ ‫גֹּ‬ is used to refer to the attribute of God's greatness in general, without any specific background like the exodus events.
1d Conclusion: ‫ל‬ ‫דֶ‬ ‫גֹּ‬ in Deut 3:24 In conclusion, the noun ‫ל‬ ‫דֶ‬ ‫גֹּ‬ in Deut 3:24 most probably refers to "greatness" as an attribute of YHWH. The nuance of the noun here is not so much on what YHWH does (like some occurrences of the adjective ‫ָדֹול‬ ‫ג‬ in Deuteronomy), but rather on who YHWH is. He is "great." ‫ה‬ ‫ָד‬ ‫י‬ ‫ה‬ ‫ָקָ‬ ‫ֲז‬ ‫ח‬ ("mighty hand") 2a Overview of the occurrence and use of ‫ָד‬ ‫י‬ and ‫חזק‬ in the Hebrew Bible Occurring more than 1 600 times, the noun ‫ָד‬ ‫י‬ is one of the most common words used in the Hebrew Bible. 36 In the book of Deuteronomy alone, it is found 82 times. 37 In the majority of cases, ‫ָד‬ ‫י‬ refers to the human hand. 38 Although a number of secondary or expanded usages of ‫ָד‬ ‫י‬ are quite common in the Hebrew Bible, 39 the second most general usage of ‫ָד‬ ‫י‬ is where the noun is used figuratively to refer to "power" or "strength." In this regard, ‫ָד‬ ‫י‬ "often stands for a person's power or capacity to rule over others" or "to exercise force." 40 Strikingly, the noun ‫ָד‬ ‫י‬ is found more than 200 times in the Hebrew Bible in reference to God. Used anthropomorphically, the "hand" of God is used mainly to refer to his "power" and "might." 41 References to God's "power" or "might" are found in contexts that refer to his acts in creation, his maintenance of the world, his salvation and his judgment. 42 The greatest concentration of references to God's power, however, are found in texts that refer to his redemption of his people from Egypt. 43 In fact, Dreytza argues that the "theological metaphor of God's hand… seems to have its roots in Israel's experience of God redeeming them from slavery in Egypt" [my emphasis, A.J.C.], 44 although Van der Woude rightly questions this. 45 Nonetheless, references to God's hand is closely linked to the exodus events. 36 P.R. Ackroyd, ‫ָד"‬ ‫י‬ yād; ַ ‫רֹוע‬ ְּ ‫ז‬ z e rôa'; ‫ין‬ ‫ָמ‬ ‫י‬ yāmîn; ‫ַף‬ ‫כ‬ kap; ‫ע‬ ‫בַ‬ ‫צְּ‬ ֶ‫'א‬eṣba',"TDOT 5:397 refers to a relative number by stating the ‫ָד‬ ‫י‬ "occurs more than 1600 times" in the Hebrew Bible. A.S. van der Woude, ‫ָד"‬ ‫י‬ yād hand," TLOT 497-498 starts off by doing the same (he states that ‫ָד‬ ‫י‬ has "over 1,600 occurrences" in the Hebrew Bible), but later ventures to give an exact count of 1 618. M. Dreytza, ‫ָד"‬ ‫י‬ (yād), hand, power, side," NIDOTTE 2:402 is somewhat more specific, referring to "some 1,617 occurrences of ‫ָד‬ ‫"י‬ in Hebrew and 17 in Aramaic in the Old Testament. 37 Van der Woude, TLOT 498 indicates that ‫ָד‬ ‫י‬ appears 71x in the singular in Deuteronomy and 12x as dual, which makes a total of 83 occurrences. According to my count, the noun appears 82x in Deuteronomy. 38  The adjective ‫ָק‬ ‫ז‬ ‫חָ‬ is found 56 times in the Hebrew Bible. 47 Although it "has a variety of meanings, depending on the context," 48 the basic nuance is being or becoming "strong" or "mighty." 49 It is mostly used in reference to men (individually or collectively) or anthropomorphically to God, and in reference to bodily strength. 50 2b Analysis and categorisation of ‫ָד‬ ‫י‬ and ‫חזק‬ in Deuteronomy A closer look at the 82 occurrences of the noun ‫ָד‬ ‫י‬ in Deuteronomy reveals that while the majority of references to ‫ָד‬ ‫י‬ in Deuteronomy refers to various concepts linked to or derived from the hand of man (±79%), a sizeable amount of references refers to the hand of God (±18%). The results of this investigation can be seen in Table 3.
To the 15 references to God's hand referring to his power can be added eight references to YHWH giving someone over into the "hand" of someone else (1:27; 2:24, 30; 3:2, 3; 7:24; 20:13; 21:10). The phrase, which consists of the noun ‫ָד‬ ‫י‬ in combination with the verb ‫ן‬ ‫ָתַ‬ ‫,נ‬ expresses the concept of delivering someone into someone else's power.
The verb ‫ַק‬ ‫ז‬ ‫חָ‬ is found nine times in Deut (1:38; 3:28; 11:8; 12:23; 22:25; 25:11; 31:6, 7, 23), but never with God as subject. The adjective ָ ‫ז‬ ‫חָ‬ ‫ק‬ is found ten times in Deuteronomy, and strikingly, always within the phrase ‫ה‬ ‫ָקָ‬ ‫ֲז‬ ‫ח‬ ‫הַ‬ ‫ָד‬ ‫י‬ ("mighty hand"). Nine of the ten occurrences of ‫ָק‬ ‫ז‬ ‫חָ‬ in Deuteronomy refer to God's "mighty hand," all of which have the exodus event as background (3:24; 4:34; 5:15; 6:21; 7:8, 19; 9:26; 11:2; 26:8). The only exception in this regard is Deut 34:12, which, upon closer inspection, is no exception at all. Although it explicitly mentions Moses' "mighty hand," it refers to Moses' agency in the exodus events as enabled by YHWH. By implication, Moses' "mighty hand" can indirectly be interpreted as God's "mighty hand." 2c Comparison of similar usages of ‫ה‬ ‫ָקָ‬ ‫ֲז‬ ‫ח‬ ‫הַ‬ ‫ָד‬ ‫י‬ in the Hebrew Bible References to the "strong" or "mighty" hand of man or God are quite common in the Hebrew Bible. In fact, 28 of the 56 occurrences of ‫ָק‬ ‫ז‬ ‫חָ‬ in the Hebrew Bible are found in combination with "hand," as can be seen in Table 4.  Although ambiguity in some contexts makes an exact number difficult, it seems that of the 28 occurrences of ‫ָק‬ ‫ז‬ ‫חָ‬ in combination with ‫ָד‬ ‫,י‬ at least 22 refer to the mighty hand of God. A breakdown of this can be seen in Table 5 below.  To this count should be added other derivatives of ‫חזק‬ in combination with ‫ָד‬ ‫,י‬ namely ‫ֶק‬ ‫ז‬ ‫חֶֹּ֫‬ (Exod 13:3, 14, 16) and ‫ה‬ ‫ְּקָ‬ ‫ז‬ ‫חֶ‬ (Isa 8:11). Consequently, it seems that there are 26 references to God's "mighty hand" in the Hebrew Bible. Viewing these references together, the following becomes clear:

‫ָק‬ ‫ז‬ ‫חָ‬
• The "mighty hand" of God emphasises YHWH's superiority. 52 • About three quarters of the references to God's "mighty hand" have the exodus from Egypt as backdrop. This is the case with probably 19 of the 26 references (±73%). 53 The assumption that the phrase "the mighty hand" of God refers primarily to YHWH's deliverance of Israel from Egypt 54 is therefore proven. To this can be added the intriguing hypothesis of Hoffmeier, who argues that the phrase "mighty hand" may consciously be used polemically in the exodus narratives against the 51 In my view, the presumably ambiguous "mighty hand" references in  13:3,9,14,16;32:11;Deut 3:24;4:34;5:15;6:21;7:8,19;9:26;11:2;26:8;34:12 Egyptian concept of the "mighty" or "conquering hand" (arm) of Pharaoh. 55 It is not Pharaoh who is god and king; YHWH is.
• All the references to God's "mighty hand" in the Pentateuch refer to the exodus from Egypt. Those outside the Pentateuch may refer to this as well, but it is not always the case. Strikingly, a number of references are used to refer to the return from exile (Neh 1:10; Ezek 20:34), which can be viewed as modelled on the original salvific act, namely the exodus.
As could be expected of such a common verb, "[t]he semantic field of" ‫ה‬ ‫ָשָ‬ ‫ע‬ "is very large, the range of nuances extraordinarily broad." 60 Nonetheless, in the qal the verb "conforms pretty much to the meanings to make or to do, with many nuances of each of these meanings employed." 61 When used in a theological sense, the verb ‫ה‬ ‫ָשָ‬ ‫ע‬ refers to YHWH's action in all realms. The verb is used to refer to his activity and control over history, nature and people, 62 or put differently, to his activity "at a national, universal, or personal level." 63 The verb ‫ה‬ ‫ָשָ‬ ‫ע‬ is also "the most general word used to describe" God's "creative acts." 64 The use of the verb in reference to God's activity in history includes all major national events, including the exodus from Egypt and the exile, 65 as well as specific events in the lives of individuals.
The noun ‫ה‬ ‫ֲשֶ‬ ‫ע‬ ‫,מַ‬ which is found about 221 times in the Hebrew Bible, 66 is a "noun of action of the verb ‫ה‬ ‫ָשָ‬ ‫",ע‬ namely "that which any one makes or does." 67 Consequently, it mostly refers to a "work", "deed," "action," "act" or a variety of handiworks or products, of both man and God. 68 When used to refer to man's deeds or work, it often has an ethical connotation. 69 When used for the works of God, it can refer to his governance in history and divine providence in creation. 70 3b Analysis and categorisation of ‫ה‬ ‫ֲשֶ‬ ‫ע‬ ‫מַ‬ in Deuteronomy The verb ‫ה‬ ‫שָ‬ ָ ‫ע‬ is found 160 times in Deuteronomy. 71 Since the meaning and use of the verb is extremely broad and context-specific, it does not seem fruitful to classify and categorise the occurrences of the verb in Deuteronomy. Since the aim of this study is to investigate the meaning of ‫ה‬ ‫ֲשֶ‬ ‫ע‬ ‫מַ‬ in Deut 3:24, the investigation that follows will focus on the meaning and occurrence of the noun in Deuteronomy. It should be noted, however, that the verb ‫ה‬ ‫ָשָ‬ ‫ע‬ is used in combination with the noun ‫ה‬ ‫ֲשֶ‬ ‫ע‬ ‫מַ‬ in Deut 3:24.
The noun ‫ה‬ ‫ֲשֶ‬ ‫ע‬ ‫מַ‬ is found 13 times in Deuteronomy. A closer look at these 13 occurrences reveal that the noun is mainly used in three ways, of which a summary can be seen in Table 6.
3c Comparison of similar usages of ‫ה‬ ‫ֲשֶ‬ ‫ע‬ ‫מַ‬ in the Hebrew Bible Based on the 221 occurrences of the noun in the Hebrew Bible identified by Lisowsky, 72 a survey reveals that the noun is mostly used to refer to the "works" or "deeds" of man, or derivatives associated with man (±70% of all occurrences). In almost a quarter of the occurrences (53 of the 221 [±24%]), however, the noun is used in reference to God. An overview of the different usages of the noun in reference to God can be seen in Table 7  From the above it becomes clear that the noun ‫ה‬ ‫ֲשֶ‬ ‫ע‬ ‫מַ‬ is often used to refer to the deeds of God in general (including references to his providence and nonspecific references to his deeds in history) and God's creation. Of importance for this study are the occurrences where the noun refers to specific deeds of God within Israel's history, as seems to be the case in Deut 3:24. An overview of the specific events referred to in these cases is found in Table 8   Taking all of the above into consideration, ‫ה‬ ‫ֲשֶ‬ ‫ע‬ ‫מַ‬ in Deut 3:24 seems to refer to YHWH's deeds in history, especially, as witnessed in the exodus events (and possibly subsequent events up to the time just prior to the conquest of the Promised Land). This is strengthened by the fact that the verb ‫ה‬ ‫ָשָ‬ ‫ע‬ is used in combination with the noun ‫ה‬ ‫ֲשֶ‬ ‫ע‬ ‫מַ‬ in Deut 3:24. Here ‫מַ‬ ‫ה‬ ‫ֲשֶ‬ ‫ע‬ refers to concrete, visible and perceptible deeds that YHWH has done.

4
‫ה‬ ‫בּורָ‬ ‫גְּ‬ ("mighty acts") 4a Overview of the occurrence and use of ‫גבר‬ in the Hebrew Bible The verb ‫ר‬ ‫ָבַ‬ ‫,ג‬ the nouns ‫ר‬ ‫ֶבֶ‬ ‫ג‬ ("man," "male"), ‫ה‬ ‫בּורָ‬ ‫גְּ‬ ("strength," "powerful deed"), ‫יר‬ ‫ב‬ ‫גְּ‬ ("lord," "master") and ‫ה‬ ‫ירָ‬ ‫ב‬ ‫גְּ‬ ("lady," "mistress"), and the adjective ‫בֹור‬ ‫ג‬ ("manly," "vigorous," "powerful") are all derived from the root ‫,גבר‬ 73 which has the basic meaning of "to be superior" or "to be strong." 74 The noun ‫ה‬ ‫בּורָ‬ ‫גְּ‬ is found about 61 times in the Hebrew Bible, 75 of which 11 are in the plural form. 76 The basic meaning of the noun is closely related to the verb, and can be rendered as "superiority," "strength," "might" or "power." 77 It is used to refer to the physical strength of animals and man, 78 and often refers to military might. 79 The noun can also refer to "ability" in the more general sense, 80 or to man's spiritual strength, which is linked to his power, wisdom and understanding. 81 The word is also employed to refer to God's power and ethical strength, especially in connection with his justice, righteousness, grace, faithfulness, wisdom and understanding. 82 In the Rabbinic age (as reflected in Rabbinic literature), when the name YHWH was no longer uttered, the noun was used "as a substitute for the proper name of God." 83 4b Analysis and categorisation of ‫גבר‬ in Deuteronomy Analysing and categorising the root ‫גבר‬ in Deuteronomy does not produce notable results. The verb ‫ר‬ ‫ָבַ‬ ‫ג‬ does not occur in Deuteronomy, and the noun ‫ה‬ ‫בּורָ‬ ‫גְּ‬ (Deut 3:24), the adjective ‫בֹור‬ ‫ג‬ (Deut 10:17) and the noun ‫ר‬ ‫ֶבֶ‬ ‫ג‬ (Deut 22:5) occur once each. Excluding the occurrence in Deut 3:24, the only real significant occurrence of the root ‫גבר‬ is the use of ‫בֹור‬ ‫ג‬ in Deuteronomy 10:17. Just like Deut 3:24, Deut 10:17 emphasises YHWH's uniqueness and describes a number of his attributes. He is called the "great" ‫ָדֹול(‬ ‫,)ג‬ "mighty" ‫בֹור(‬ ‫)ג‬ and "awesome" ‫א(‬ ‫ָר‬ ‫)י‬ God.
In the light of the scarcity of data in Deuteronomy, an analysis and categorisation of all occurrences of ‫ה‬ ‫בּורָ‬ ‫גְּ‬ in the Hebrew Bible will be subsequently done. 4c Analysis and categorisation of ‫ה‬ ‫בּורָ‬ ‫גְּ‬ in the Hebrew Bible As indicated above, the noun ‫ה‬ ‫בּורָ‬ ‫גְּ‬ is found 61 times in the Hebrew Bible. A closer look reveals that it is mainly used in four ways, as can be seen in Table 9 below.
4d Conclusion: ‫ה‬ ‫בּורָ‬ ‫גְּ‬ in Deut 3:24 In sum, it seems best to interpret the noun ‫ה‬ ‫בּורָ‬ ‫גְּ‬ in Deut 3:24 as referring to perceptible expressions of YHWH's awesome and surpassing might. This is suggested by the link between the noun and the verb ‫ה‬ ‫ָשָ‬ ‫.ע‬ Translating ‫ה‬ ‫בּורָ‬ ‫גְּ‬ in Deut 3:24 as "mighty acts" is therefore fitting. From the above and the context of the passage, these expressions of YHWH's might in Deut 3:24 most probably include (but are not necessarily limited to) the exodus events.

Summary
In this section, the four words and phrases used in Deut 3:24 to describe the uniqueness of YHWH were investigated in detail in order to distinguish between their meanings and to deduce primarily various possibilities of the referential background of each.
Given the conclusions of the previous sections, it seems that a distinction can be made between the first two and last two concepts found in Deut 3:24. While the verb ‫ה‬ ‫אָ‬ ‫רָ‬ ("see") in Deut 3:24 suggests that all four words or phrases refer to concepts that were physically perceptible to Moses, from the above, it seems that the first two refer to attributes of God, namely his "greatness" and "might," while the last two refer to concrete expressions of these attributes, namely his "deeds" and "mighty acts." Put differently, ‫ל‬ ‫דֶ‬ ‫גֹּ‬ and ‫ָד‬ ‫י‬ ‫ה‬ ‫ָקָ‬ ‫ֲז‬ ‫ח‬ ‫הַ‬ refer to who YHWH is; ‫ה‬ ‫ֲשֶ‬ ‫ע‬ ‫מַ‬ and ‫ה‬ ‫בּורָ‬ ‫גְּ‬ refer to what he does. A summary of this can be seen in Table 10.

‫ל‬ ‫דֶ‬ ‫גֹּ‬
"greatness" as attribute of YHWH ‫ה‬ ‫ָקָ‬ ‫ֲז‬ ‫ח‬ ‫הַ‬ ‫ָד‬ ‫י‬ (superior) "might" as attribute of YHWH ‫ה‬ ‫ֲשֶ‬ ‫ע‬ ‫מַ‬ "deeds" as expression of YHWH's attributes ‫ה‬ ‫בּורָ‬ ‫גְּ‬ "mighty acts" as expression of YHWH's attributes One may be inclined argue that the four items form a chiasm (A greatness; B might; B′ deeds; A′ mighty acts) or an ABAB pattern (at least in English: A greatness; B might; A deeds; B mighty acts), but no convincing evidence for this was found. The conclusion above (arguing that the first two and the last two concepts go together) is supported by the word order in the Hebrew text.
The investigation above found that the exodus events form the most likely referential background of all of these words. Moses witnessed YHWH's "greatness" and "mighty hand" as attributes and his "deeds" and "mighty acts" as concrete expressions of these attributes in everything YHWH did pertaining to Israel's salvation from Egypt. The exodus served as the primary and most dramatic school in which Moses learned who YHWH is and what he does.
While the primacy of the exodus events is undeniable, the investigation above found that the background of these words are not necessarily limited to the exodus events. The referential background of these words may include subsequent events up to the time just prior to the conquest of the Promised Land.
These conclusions can be strengthened by tracing the occurrence and use of the root ‫,גדל‬ the phrase ‫ָד‬ ‫י‬ ‫ה‬ ‫ָקָ‬ ‫ֲז‬ ‫ח‬ ‫הַ‬ , the noun ‫ה‬ ‫ֲשֶ‬ ‫ע‬ ‫מַ‬ and the root ‫גבר‬ in the books of Exodus to Deuteronomy for specific events linked to them. 85 The results of this investigation can be seen in Table 11.

Burning bush
Exod 3:3 The table, however, also indicates that subsequent events may also be in view.
Consequently, it may be that Moses' perception of who YHWH is and what he has done as expressed in Deut 3:24 should not be limited to the exodus events only. The fact that Deut 3:24 does not explicitly refer to a specific referential context may be deliberate to include various (if not all) of Moses' experiences of YHWH's attributes and expressions of these attributes, which would include all the events in his life since his calling up to the point in time where he prays these specific words.

E CONCLUSION
The preceding discussion will now conclude by reflecting on the distinctive contribution of Deut 3:24 to Deuteronomy's overall theme of the uniqueness of YHWH.