An exploration of women’s workplace experiences in the South African mining industry

Historically, the mining industry, on a global level, was male-dominated, as many governments had prohibited women from working at mines, particularly underground. In South Africa, the government introduced the Mineral and Petroleum Resources Development Act (No. 28 of 2002) (MPRDA) and the Broad-based Socio-economic Empowerment Charter to address the imbalances and rectify previous inequalities in the mining industry. Since the inception of MPRDA, women’s representation in the South African mining industry has increased, from 3% in 2002 to 15% in 2018. Although government has good intentions, gender equality in the mining industry remains a challenge. Research on women employed in South African mines revealed that women still face barriers to some extent. This research explores women’s current workplace experiences in the South African mining industry. A literature review and an empirical study were conducted. The study followed a positivistic research approach, and a quantitative research design was used. Self-administered questionnaires were distributed at the 8th Annual Women in Mining Conference in February 2017. Based on the data obtained, it became evident that several aspects must still be addressed to successfully accommodate women in the mining workplace. The study offers practical recommendations that can be implemented by mining organizations to improve women’s workplace experiences in order to encourage and foster transformation in the mining industry.


Introduction
Historically, the mining industry, on a global level, was male-dominated, as many governments had prohibited women from working at mines, particularly underground. The International Labour Organization (ILO) adopted Convention 45 of 1935 on 21 June 1935 in Geneva, which prohibited the employment of women for underground work in mines of all kinds (ILO, n.d.).
In South Africa, the South African Minerals Act (No. 50 of 1991) also forbade women from underground work (ILO, n.d.;South Africa, 1991). In 2002, the Mineral and Petroleum Resources Development Act (No. 28 of 2002) (MPRDA) and the Broad-based Socio-economic Empowerment Charter (signed in 2002 and published in 2004) were introduced to address the imbalances in the industry, calling for 10% of the workforce to be women by 2009 (South Africa, 2002, 2004a. From 2002, women's representation in the South African mining industry increased from 3% to 15% in 2018 (Minerals Council South Africa, 2018, p. 41). Although considerable progress has been made in terms of women's representation in the South African mining industry, men still dominate this industry. Furthermore, research conducted on women employed in South African mines since the inception of the MPRDA in 2002 has revealed that the employment of women remains a challenge and that women still face barriers to some extent (Botha, 2016(Botha, , 2017Botha and Cronjé, 2015;Chamber of Mines of South Africa, 2017;Hancock, 2014;Kolisi and Rithaa, 2016;Mavuso, 2015;Ntombela, 2014).

Overview of mining legislation pertaining to female workers: A global and national perspective
The mining industry world-wide has been considered a masculine industry for many years. As a result, mining jobs have neither been desired as an occupation by women, nor easily awarded to women. However, significant developments in mining legislation have taken place over the past few years in many countries, including South Africa, in an attempt to address the inequalities in the industry and to bring women into the industry.

Mining legislation: A global perspective
There is no global legislation specifically pertaining to women in the mining industry, because each country has its own legislation. However, according to the International Labour Organization (ILO, 2011, p: ix), there are continual legislative efforts, repeated institutional initiatives, and a growing awareness of the need to overcome discrimination in the workplace. Race and sex continue to be the grounds of discrimination included in most equality legislation in an attempt to remove discrimination in the workplace (ILO, 2011;SAHRC, 2017;United Nations, 2019). Worldwide, new laws were introduced and existing legislation amended to abolish discrimination based on maternity, marital status, lifestyle, and genetic predisposition, and new policies introduced for training and improving employment quotas for women in managerial positions (ILO, 2011;SAHRC, 2016;United Nations, 2003). However, the benefits for women are not enough. Although these policies have been implemented they are not functioning effectively, because many institutions suffer a shortage of financial and human resources as well as insufficient policy coherence at local and national levels. Labour authorities, such as inspectors and public officials, lack knowledge and institutional capacity when addressing discrimination cases, which deters victims of discrimination from submitting claims (ILO, 2011, p. x;SAHRC, 2016, p. 7, 69;United Nations, 2003, p. 633, 2011. The ILO's Convention 45 of 1935 prohibited the employment of women in underground mining work (ILO, n.d.), but many countries that initially ratified it have since denounced it (Chamber of Mines of South Africa, 2017, p. 1). These countries include Australia (1988), Canada (1978), Chile (1997, and South Africa (1996), among others (Chamber of Mines of South Africa, 2017, p. 1).

Mining legislation: A national perspective
In 1898 the South African Republic, which ruled the Transvaal, in its Act No. 12 (XVIII:146), explicitly banned the employment of women in any mine. The relevant clause, which was written in Dutch, was transferred almost word for word into the Union of South Africa's Mines and Works Act (No. 12 of 1911) (par. 8.1). The clause read: 'No person shall employ underground on any mine a boy apparently under the age of sixteen years or any female' (Alexander, 2007, p. 214).
The Mines and Works Act (No. 27 of 1956) also forbade women to work underground. Section 11 (1) read: 'No male person under the age of sixteen years and no female shall work, and no person shall cause or permit any male person apparently under the age of sixteen years or any female to work, underground in any mine' (South Africa, 1956, p. 61).
However, Section 32 (2) of the Mines and Works Act (No. 27 of 1956) allowed women to work underground if they held management positions, if they were employed in health and welfare services, for training purposes, and if they had to go underground in a mine for the purposes of non-manual occupations (South Africa, 1956, p. 55). The Mines and Works Act (No. 27 of 1956) was repealed by the Minerals Act (No. 50 of 1991).
The MPRDA replaced the Minerals Act (No. 50 of 1991) and came into effect on 1 May 2004. Among others, the objectives of the Act are to 'promote equitable access to the nation's mineral and petroleum resources to all the people of South Africa' and to 'substantially and meaningfully expand opportunities for historically disadvantaged persons, including women, to enter the mineral and petroleum industries and to benefit from the exploitation of the nation's mineral and petroleum resources' (South Africa, 2002, p. 18). The term 'historically disadvantaged South Africans' (HDSAs) refers to 'any person, category of persons or community, disadvantaged by unfair discrimination before the introduction of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa (Act 200 of 1993) came into operation' (South Africa, 2004a, p. 8). To give rise to Section 100 (2) (a) of the MPRDA, the Department of Minerals and Energy introduced the Mining Charter (Fauconnier and Mathur-Helm, 2008;South Africa, 2004a). This legislation was then followed by the Scorecard (Notice 1639 of 2004), which set the framework, targets, and timetable against which mining companies needed to report and were measured (South Africa, 2004b). In terms of Section 4 of the Scorecard (Notice 1639 of 2004), mining houses were required to 'implement career paths to provide opportunities to their HDSA employees to progress in their chosen careers' and to 'ensure a higher level of inclusiveness and advancement of women' (South Africa, 2004b, p. 11). A minimum requirement of 10% female participation in the mining industry within five years (which was due in 2009) was set (South Africa, 2004b, p. 12).
In 2009 and 2015, the Department of Mineral Resources conducted impact assessments to establish the progress in the South African mining industry regarding the objectives of the Mining Charter (DMR, 2009(DMR, , 2015. The findings of the reports showed that, in as much as the Mining Charter was a valuable tool for improving transformation in South Africa's mining industry, there were challenges in terms of effective implementation in order to meet its objectives. It was then recommended that the Mining Charter be reviewed and strengthened. This resulted in amendments of the Broad-based Socio-economic Empowerment Charter for the South African Mining and Minerals Industry in 2010 (South Africa, 2010(MHSC, 2015. New employment equity targets were set in each charter. Although the percentage of women participating in mining improved from 3% in 2002 (Minerals Council South Africa, 2018, p. 41) to 6% in 2009(DMR, 2009) and to 10.5% in 2014 (DMR, 2015, p. 28 years after the publication of the first draft (Bulbulia, 2019). Mining Charter 3 requires a minimum of 50% HDSAs at board level with exercisable voting rights (20% should be women), a minimum of 50% at executive management level (20% women), 60% at senior management level (25% women), 60% at middle management level (25% women), and 70% at junior management level (30% women) (South Africa, 2018, pp. 22-23).

Gender barriers in the South African mining industry since the inception of the MPRDA
Although great efforts have been made to accommodate women in the South African mining industry since the inception of the MPRDA in 2002, the literature reviewed indicates the following main barriers that women continue to face. ➤ Women working in core mining areas, specifically underground, are often seen as sexual objects and experience physical, verbal, and non-verbal sexual conduct as well as quid pro quo harassment on a regular basis (Botha, 2016;Botha and Cronjé, 2015;Creamer Media, 2019;Jones and Moalusi, 2019;Minerals Council South Africa, 2019;Nene, 2016;Ntombela, 2014). ➤ Although mining companies made considerable progress in accommodating women by providing personal protective equipment (e.g. overalls, dust masks, and safety boots) designed for women, improvements are still needed in this regard. Furthermore, a need for protective clothing for pregnant women is identified (Botha, 2017;James, 2018;MHSC, 2015). ➤ Frequently, the physical strength required for many mining tasks precludes women from performing these tasks effectively (Jones andMoalusi, 2019, p. 3 MHSC, 2015, p. 5;Minerals Council South Africa, 2019 p. 3). Difficult jobs such as operating rock drills, locomotives, and dozers may hold physiological risks for women (Botha and Cronjé, 2015, p. 10;Matshingane, 2017, p. 3;Minerals Council South Africa, 2019, p. 3; Chamber of Mines of South Africa, 2017, p. 2). ➤ A lack of separate, decent, and hygienic toilet facilities underground is often reported (Botha, 2017, p. 22;Matshingane, 2017, p. 5;MHSC, 2015, p. 64;Minerals Council South Africa, 2019, p.3). ➤ The mining industry often constitutes an unattractive work environment because of issues such as discrimination against women, sexual harassment, and prejudice due to marital status and/or maternity (Botha, 2016;Creamer Media, 2019;Jones and Moalusi, 2019;Mavuso, 2015;MHSC, 2015). A negative work environment contributes towards the number of women leaving their jobs, resulting in slower transformation of the mining industry (Breytenbach, 2017;Mputing, 2017). ➤ Female workers' negative perceptions with regard to safety and the nature of equipment contribute to turnover once employees consider the accidents or consequnces that are likely to occur, thereby causing them to fear injury or fatality (Matshingane, 2017;Mavuso, 2015;Minerals Council South Africa, 2019). ➤ Women often find it difficult to balance their work and personal lives and/or activities (e.g. family, domestic activities, and health). Unfriendly working hours (shift work and working off-hours) and the physicality of mine work complicate this issue (James, 2018;Jones and Moalusi, 2019;Matshingane, 2017;Mavuso, 2015).

Research methodology
The study followed a positivistic research approach. It was informed by the ontological approach of objectivism and the epistemology of empiricism. A quantitative research design was used. This study encompassed a literature review and an empirical study.

Target population and sampling
The target population consisted of women employed at mines in South Africa who attended the 8th Annual Women in Mining Conference held on 22 February 2017. This study was based on a non-probability convenience sample, because it was 'available to the researcher by virtue of its accessibility' (Bryman et al., 2015, p. 178). The sample consisted of 129 women who attended the Conference.

Instrumentation and data collection
Data was collected by means of self-administered questionnaires. The questionnaires were aimed at obtaining biographical information as well as information on the perceptions of women's workplace experiences in the mining industry, based on a fivepoint Likert-type scale rating, ranging from 'strongly disagree' to 'strongly agree'.

Data analysis and reporting
The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS Version 24) was used to process the data. A factor analysis was conducted to explore the underlying structure of women's workplace experiences in the mining industry. Cronbach's alpha coefficients were used to determine internal reliability. In addition, descriptive statistics, t-tests, analyses of variance (ANOVAs), and correlations were used to analyse the data. To determine whether differences in means were important in practice, Cohen's d-values were used as effect size, where d = 0.2 was considered as small, d = 0.5 as medium, and d = 0.8 as large effects (Cohen, 1988). According to Cohen (1988), correlations of 0.1, 0.3, and 0.5 can be interpreted as small, medium and large correlations, respectively.

Ethical considerations
Permission to conduct the research was obtained from the Intelligence Transfer Centre, which hosts the Annual Women in Mining Conference. The succeeding ethical practices were factored in the study: voluntary participation, anonymity, and informed consent (see Babbie and Mouton, 2011, p. 12).

Biographical Information
Table I presents the biographical information of the respondents.

Perceptions of women's workplace experiences in the South African mining industry Validity and reliability
A factor analysis was conducted on the 35 Likert-type scale items measuring perceptions of women's workplace experiences in the South African mining industry. Principal component analysis and  (Field, 2005, p. 640). The p-value of Bartlett's test of sphericity returned a value smaller than 0.05, suggesting that the correlation between statements was sufficient for factor analysis (see Field, 2005). Five factors (Transformation, Female abuse, Personal care, Career choice, and Development and training) were extracted through Kaiser's criteria (see Field, 2005) that explained 51.84% of the total variance. The results of the factor analysis are reported in Table II. The Cronbach's alpha coefficient for the Transformation, Female abuse, Personal care, and Development and training factors calculated well above the required 0.7, and showed high reliability and internal consistency. The Career choice factor showed a Cronbach's alpha coefficient of 0.629, which could be regarded as an acceptable reliability. This might have been caused by the low number of statements, namely two in the factor. The mean inter-item correlation was 0.459, which is sufficient according to Clark and Watson (1995). The interitem correlations should be in the range of 0.15 to 0.55 to be considered as an indicator for an acceptable level of consistency (Clark and Watson, 1995, p. 8).
For the descriptive statistics, the following response categories were used: 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neutral, 4 = agree, and 5 = strongly agree. Mean scores below 2.5 indicate that most respondents disagreed with the statements contained in the factors, while mean scores above 2.5 indicate that most respondents agreed with the statements.

Correlation between age, highest qualification, level of employment, years working at the mine, income, and workplace experiences
The Spearman rank correlation test was used to measure the linear association between age, highest qualification, level of employment, years working at the mine, income, and women's workplace experiences in the South African mining industry. The results are reflected in Table III. Small positive correlations were found between income and Transformation (p = 0.018, r = 0.214) and income and

Effect of working in an open pit or deep underground mine) on women's workplace experiences
From the results of the t-test, it is evident that the p-values for all the factors of women's workplace experiences in the mining industry were higher than 0.05, indicating that there were no statistically significant differences between the means of

Effect of affiliation to a union y
The results of the t-test indicated no statistically significant differences between the means of respondents that were affiliated to a union and those that were not, as the p-values for all the factors of women's workplace experiences in the mining industry calculated higher than 0.05. The effect sizes for Transformation

Effect of race
The t-test yielded p-values higher than 0.05 for all the factors of women's workplace experiences in the mining industry, indicating no statistically significant differences between the means of 'black' respondents and respondents of 'all other racial groups'. The effect sizes indicated a small effect for Transformation (d = 0.32), Female abuse (d = 0.29), and Career An exploration of women's workplace experiences in the South African mining industry ▶ 480 AUGUST 2020 VOLUME 120 The

Effect of place of work
The results of the ANOVA indicated p-values higher than 0.05 for Female abuse, Career choice, and Development and training, indicating no statistically significant differences between the means of the workplace categories. However, the ANOVA indicated that the means of the workplace categories for Transformation (p = 0.005) and Personal care (p = 0.027) differed statistically significantly. The effect sizes for Transformation showed a medium to large effect, where respondents who worked underground as well as both underground and on the surface (M = 2.68) were less positive about Transformation than those who worked on the surface (M = 3.21, d = 0.61) and in other work areas (M = 3.42, d = 0.85). The effect size for the Personal care factor showed a small to medium effect, where respondents who worked on the surface (M = 3.33) were more positive about Personal care than respondents who worked underground as well as both underground and on the surface (M = 2.83, d = 0.57) and in other areas (M = 3.03, d = 0.35).

Effect of age
The results of the ANOVA indicated no statistically significant differences between the means for the different age groups; the p-values were higher than 0.05 for all the factors. The effect sizes showed a small effect for Development and training (d = 0.27), where the age category 31-40 (M = 3.32) was more positive about the statements contained in these factors than the 41-60 (M = 3.07) age category.

Effect of highest qualification
The results of the ANOVA indicated p-values higher than 0.05 for Transformation, Personal care, Career choice, and Development and training, indicating no statistically significant differences between the means of the qualification categories. However, the p-value for Female abuse was 0.008, indicating that the means of the qualification categories differed statistically significantly.
Female abuse showed a medium to large effect, where respondents with a matric or lower qualification (M = 2.79) agreed less with the Female abuse factor than respondents with a diploma (M = 3.20, d = 0.68), degree (M = 3.37, d = 0.96), or master's and doctoral qualification (M = 3.13, d = 0.44).

Effect of level of employment
The results of the ANOVA returned p-values higher than 0.05 for Transformation, Female abuse, Personal care, and Development and training, indicating no statistically significant differences between the means of the level of employment categories. However, the p-value for Career choice measured 0.035, indicating that the means of the level of employment categories differed statistically significantly. From the homogeneous subsets it was evident that the mean of respondents who were

Effect of years working in the mining industry
The results of the ANOVA indicated p-values higher than 0.05 for all the factors, indicating no statistically significant differences between the means of the different categories. The effect sizes showed a small effect for Personal care, where respondents with more than 11 years' (M = 3.38) working experience were more positive about Personal care than those with fewer years' (fewer than 5 years: M = 3.16, d = 0.21; 6-10 years: M = 3.02, d = 0.21) experience. Development and training showed a small effect, where respondents with fewer than five years' working experience (M = 3.35) were more positive about Development and training than those with 6 to 10 years' experience (M = 3.11, d = 0.25).

Effect of income
The results of the ANOVA indicated p-values higher than 0.05 for Female abuse, Personal care, and Career choice, indicating no statistically significant differences between the means of the different categories. However, the p-values for Transformation (0.011) and Development and training (0.023) measured below 0.05, indicating that the means of the different categories differed statistically significantly.

Discussion
A factor analysis was conducted on the scale items measuring women's workplace experiences in the South African mining industry; five factors (Transformation, Female abuse, Personal care, Career choice, and Development and training) were extracted. Cronbach's alpha coefficients were used to determine the internal reliability of the scale. Almost all values were above the required 0.70, indicating high reliability and internal consistency. The Cronbach's alpha coefficient of Career choice measured 0.629 and the inter-item correlation 0.459, showing an acceptable reliability.
The descriptive statistics showed that, on average, 60% of the respondents agreed with the statements contained in the Transformation (M = 3.11), Personal care (M = 3.18), and Development and training factors (M = 3.24), indicating that the majority of the respondents were satisfied with the way women were valued and embraced in the mining organizations, with the female protective equipment, clothing, and toilet facilities provided as well as with the Development and training opportunities offered for women. However, there is still much room for improvement in these areas to enhance women's workplace experiences. The literature reviewed pointed out that women require adequate training and career development support (e.g. bursaries, study leave, and mentoring systems) (Jones and Moalusi, 2019;Matshingane, 2017;Mavuso, 2015;Slater, 2018) as well as provision for their personal needs (e.g. proper, hygienic ablution facilities and correctly fitting personal protective equipment) (Botha, 2017;James, 2018). Regarding Career choice (M = 2.52), only half of the respondents indicated that they worked at the mining organizations due to income advantages and not by free choice. The Female abuse factor (M = 3.07) showed an alarming response, as more than 60% of the respondents indicated that women are still subjected to harassment and abuse in the workplace. The literature reviewed confirmed that women who work at and in the mines, specifically underground, are often seen as sexual objects and are exposed to sexual harassment on a regular basis (Botha, 2016;Creamer Media, 2019;Jones and Moalusi, 2019;Minerals Council South Africa, 2019;Nene, 2016).
A number of socio-demographic variables were used to measure their effect on the factors of women's workplace experiences in the industry. These were tested using t-tests, ANOVAs, correlations, and effect sizes.
A correlation test measured the linear association between age, highest qualification, level of employment, years working at the mine, income, and women's workplace experiences in the South African mining industry. Small positive relationships were found between income and Transformation (p = 0.018, r = 0.214) as well as between income and Development and training (p = 0.028, r = 0.202), indicating that the higher the respondents' income, the more positive they were about Transformation practices in the workplace as well as the Development and training opportunities offered. Small to moderate negative relationships were found between Transformation and Career choice (p = 0.030, r = -0.194) and Transformation and Female abuse (p = 0.000, r = -0.358) as well as Personal care and Career choice (p = 0.034, r = -0.189) and Personal care and Female abuse (p = 0.039, r = -0.183), indicating that the more positive respondents were about Transformation and Personal care in the workplace, the less they indicated that they are forced to work at the mines due to income advantages and the less they ▶ 482 AUGUST 2020 VOLUME 120 The Journal of the Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy felt that women are subjected to female abuse in the workplace. Medium to large positive relationships were found between Transformation and Personal care (p = 0.000, r = 0.486) as well as Transformation and Development and training (p = 0.000, r = 0.554), indicating that the more positive respondents were about Transformation in organizations, the more positive they felt about organizations addressing their personal, development and training needs. A moderate positive relationship was found between Personal care and Development and training (p = 0.001, r = 0.300), showing that the more positive respondents were about personal needs addressed, the more positive they felt about development and training needs met.
The results of the t-tests indicated no effect between working in an open pit or deep mining (underground), affiliation to a union, race, and the five factors of women's workplace experiences in the South African mining industry. The results showed a small effect for some of the factors. Not surprisingly, the data suggests that women working in an open pit are slightly more satisfied with Transformation and Personal care than those working in deep mining. The literature review confirmed limitations and deficiencies in terms of decent and hygienic toilet facilities underground (Botha, 2017, pp. 22, 24;Matshingane, 2017, p. 5;MHSC, 2015, p. 64;Minerals Council South Africa, 2019, p. 3). The data also showed that women affiliated to a union were less satisfied with Transformation, Personal care, and Development and training than those not affiliated. In general, employees belong to trade unions to represent their interests and to negotiate working conditions and rewards with employers (Watson, 2017, p. 354). It can therefore be deduced that the respondents who joined a trade union did so based on their dissatisfaction with their working conditions. The data also showed that black respondents agreed more than 'other racial groups' that Female abuse is a problem in the workplace. From the biographical information it is evident that 83.9% of the respondents were black, and this could explain this result.
The results of the ANOVA indicated no statistically significant differences between the means of the demographic groups' mining sector, age, and years working in the mining industry and the five factors of women's workplace experiences. The results of the effect sizes showed a small effect for some of the factors, as indicated in the 'Empirical results' section. Furthermore, the ANOVA indicated few significant differences between the means of the demographic groups' place of work, highest qualification, level of employment, income, and some of the factors of women's workplace experiences; the effects ranging from small to large. Statistically significant differences were found between the means of the workplace categories for Transformation and Personal care, the highest qualification categories for Female abuse, the level of employment categories for Career choice, and income categories for Transformation and Development and training. Respondents who worked underground as well as both underground and on the surface were less positive about Transformation and Personal care than those who worked on the surface and in other work areas. Respondents with a matric or lower qualification agreed less than all the other qualification categories that women are subjected to Female abuse in the workplace. Respondents employed at senior management level disagreed the most with the statements contained in the Career choice factor, indicating that they worked at the mine due to free choice, and not because the income was good. Respondents who earned more than R40 000 per year were more positive about Transformation and Development and training than all the other income categories.

Conclusion and recommendations
The primary purpose of this study was to explore women's current workplace experiences in the South African mining industry. From the results it is evident that progress has been made in some instances, but in other areas deficiencies are still present. It is imperative that mining organizations attend to the challenges confronting women to enhance their workplace experiences, to ensure successful integration of women in the South African mining industry, and to consequently contribute to effective transformation of the industry. The following recommendations are informed by the literature review and the empirical results.
➤ Female abuse should not be tolerated and should be eradicated. Improved implementation and operationalization of sexual harassment policies are required to counter sexual harassment practices. ➤ Adequate and hygienic toilet facilities underground should be provided to improve women's working conditions. ➤ Ongoing research should be conducted by mining houses, mining organizations, academic bodies, and other interested parties to determine barriers to, and progress in, women's working conditions and workplace experiences.